Mathematics in the Modern World

Set
Is a collection of well-defined distinct objects. Well- defined set means that the criteria of membership in a set
are adequate to describe whether or not any given object belongs to the set.
Example: A= {a,b,c,d}
“The set of all students in EVSU enrolled in College Algebra this SY 2009-2010”

Two Methods of Sets

1. Roster Method or Tabular Method

Where the elements are actually listed, separated by commas.
Example: A= {a,b,c,d}
2. Rule Method or Set Builder Form
Where the elements are defined by a particular property, which elements satisfies.
Example: A= { xlx is an even numeral }

Finite Set
It is consists of a specific number elements; that is counting the different members of a set come to an end and
unique, otherwise the set is infinite.
Example: A= {0,1,2,3,4 }
B= { 2,4,6…}
Empty Set
A set with no element denoted by { } and ф

Note: The empty set is an improper subset of itself (since it is equal to itself) but it is a proper subset of any other
set.

Singleton Set
A set with only one element.
Example: A= {0}
B= (ф)
C= {y}

Subset elements that are present in the set.

 subset is denoted by the symbol ⊆ and read as ‘is a subset of’. Using this symbol we can express subsets
as follows: A ⊆ B; which means Set A is a subset of Set B. Note: A subset can be equal to the set. That is,
a subset can contain all the elements that are present in the set

 In a symbol A B in every element of A is an element of B. if A B and A ≠ B, then there is at least one

element of B which is not in A, A is called a proper subset of B, otherwise an improper subset.
  A proper subset is denoted by ⊂ and is read as ‘is a proper subset of’. Using this symbol, we can
express a proper subset for set A and set B as; A ⊂ B

Example: A = {1,2,3}
The subsets are
A1 = {1,2,3} A5 = { 1 }
A2 = { 1,2} A6 = {2}
A3 = { 1,3} A7 ={ 3 }
A4 = {2,3} A8 ={}

 A proper subset is one that contains a few elements of the original set whereas an improper subset, contains
every element of the original set along with the null set.
For example, if set A = {2, 4, 6}, then,
Number of subsets: {2}, {4}, {6}, {2,4}, {4,6}, {2,6}, {2,4,6} and Φ or {}.
Proper Subsets: {}, {2}, {4}, {6}, {2,4}, {4,6}, {2,6}
Improper Subset: {2,4,6}
A Improper subset A which contains all the elements of the original set is called an improper subset. It is denoted by ⊆.

For example: Set P ={2,4,6} Then, the subsets of P are;

{}, {2}, {4}, {6}, {2,4}, {4,6}, {2,6} and {2,4,6}.
Where, {}, {2}, {4}, {6}, {2,4}, {4,6}, {2,6} are the proper subsets and {2,4,6} is the improper subsets.
Therefore, we can write {2,4,6} ⊆ P.

Note: The empty set is an improper subset of itself (since it is equal to itself) but it is a proper subset of any other set.

Proper Subset Formula

If we have to pick n number of elements from a set containing N number of elements, it can be done
in NCn number of ways. Therefore, the number of possible subsets containing n number of elements from a set
containing N number of elements is equal to NCn.

If a set has “n” elements, then the number of subset of the given set is 2 n and the number of proper subsets of the given
subset is given by 2n-1. 
Consider an example, If set A has the elements, A = {a, b}, then the proper subset of the given subset are { }, {a}, and {b}.
Here, the number of elements in the set is 2. 
We know that the formula to calculate the number of proper subsets is 2 n – 1. 
Solution: = 22 – 1
=4–1
 =3
Thus, the number of proper subset for the given set is 3 ({ }, {a}, {b}).

Operation of Sets

Union
The union of two sets A and B is the best of all elements that are in A or in B or both sets. In set builder notation
A ᴜ B= {xlx Є A and x Є B}
Example: If A= {1,2,3} and B= {3,4,5} then A ᴜ B= {1,2,3,4,5}

Properties of the Operation Union

AᴜB=BᴜA
A ᴜ (B ᴜ C) = (A ᴜ B) ᴜ C
For any set A, A ᴜ, then the following are true. A ᴜ A=A, A ᴜ U=U,
A ᴜ ф= A, where U is the universal set, the set of all elements under consideration.

Intersection
Sets A and B is the set of all elements that are common to both sets. In set builder notation
A∩B= {xlx Є A and x Є B}
Example: A= {1,2,3 } and B= {3,4,5}, then A∩B= {3 }

Difference
Sets A and B is the set of all elements which belong to A but which do not belong to B. In set builder notation,
A-B= {xlx Є A and x Є B}
Example: if A= {3,4,5} and B= {5,6,7}
A-B= {3,4} and B-A= {6,7}

Compliment
Set A is the set of all elements in the universal set which are not in the given set A.
A’= {xlx Є A and x Є U} ; A is read as “ A’ prime”
Example: U= {xlx is counting number} and A= {2,4,6,8…} then A’= {1,3,5,7}

Set Product or Cartesian Product

Two sets A of and B denoted by A x B defined as the set all ordered pairs (x,y)
such that x Є A and y Є B
A x B= {(x,y)l x Є A and y Є B}
Example: if A= {1,2} and B= {3,4}, then
AxB= { (1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4)} and
 BxA= { (3,1), (4,1), (3,2), (4,2)}

Venn Diagrams

Fig.1 Fig. 2

U U

A
B

B A A∩ B

Fig.3 Fig.4

U U
B
A
B
A

A ∩ B= ф AᴜB

Fig.5 Fig.6

U U
U

A ∩B ∩ C A’
Functions, and Relations and its Graphs
A relation is a set of ordered pairs. The domain of a relation is the set of first coordinates. The range is the
set of second coordinates.
Example #1: the list and the set of ordered pairs below show the same relation. Each letter is paired with a
number.

Letter Number
I 4
L 5
O 6
V 8
E 3
M 6
A 2
T 8
H 4
The domain is (I, L, O, V, E, M, A, T, H) and the range is (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8). Note that for each letter there corresponds
exactly one number. This is a special kind of relation called function.
Example #2: let G be a relation defined by the following set of ordered pairs. Write the domain and range of
G= (1, 3), (2, 1), (-1, 5), (0, 8)
Sol. Domain of G = (1. 2, -1, 0)
Range of G= (3, 1, 5,8)
Example #3. Write the number pairs of the relation
T= (x, y)|y = x2, x = 0, 1, 2, 3
Sol. If x= 0, y= x2 = (0)2= 0
If x= 1, y= x2 = (1)2= 1
If x= 2, y= x2= (2)2=4
If x= 3, y= x2= (3)2= 9
And so, T = (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9)

A function is a relation in which each element of the domain corresponds to exactly one element of the range.
The members of the domain can be called inputs and the members of the range can be called the outputs. A
arrows can be use to describe correspondence in the function.

Domain Range
I 2
L
0 3
V
E 4
M
A 5
T 6
H 8
 This relation is a function, since each element in the domain (I, L, O, V, E, M, A, T, H) is assigned one element in
the range. Even though the range element 4 is assigned two elements of the domain, I, and H. it is still a function since
each element of the domain is assigned to only one range.

Example #1. Let us consider the equation y= x + 3

If x= 1, then y= 4
If x= -1, then y= 2
If x= -3, then y= 0
If x= 10, then y= 13

We can also express functions in terms of table.

x 1 -1 -3 10
Y 4 2 0 13

We can also express functions in terms of graphs.

This simply indicates that the value of y can never be obtained unless we give first a value of x. in other words,
the value of y depends entirely on the value of x. for this reason, we call x the independent variable, and y the
dependent variable.
Example #2. Find the domain and range of the function y=
Sol. We see that every real value of x, except x= 4 produces a corresponding real value of y, hence,
the domain of y consists of all real numbers except x= 4. To determine the range, we will solve the equation for
x in terms of y.
y= = y(x – 4)= 3 = (xy – 4y)= 3 = xy= 4y + 3= x=
Seatwork#2:
1. Determine which of the following is a function and which is not. Why?
a. (1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4), (4, 4), (5, 4)
Ans.
b. (2, 3), (3, 5), (4, 6), 2, 7)
Ans.
2. If S is a relation determined by S= (x, y)| y= 2x, x = 2, 4 , 6, 8

3. Suppose R is a relation given by R= (x, y)| y=

4. Find the domain and range of the function. y=

Operations on Functions
In standard notations, the value of a function f at x is usually denoted by f(x) which is read as f of x. In general,
the statement “y is a function of x” is commonly written as y= f(x). This way of writing functions is equally convenient for
computing the value of f at specified values of x.
Example #1. Let f(x)= x2 +x + 1
then f(0)= (0)2 + 0 + 1 = 0 + 0 + 1= 1
f(-1)= (-1)2 + (-1) +1= 1 – 1 + 1= 1
f(2)= (2)2 + 2 + 1= 4 + 2 +1= 7
example#2 let g(x)= 3x – 5, if x= 5, 4, and 8
 then g(5)= 3(5) – 5= 15 – 5= 10
g(4)= 3(4) – 5= 12 – 5= 7
g(8)= 3(8) – 5= 24 – 5= 19
let f(x) and g(x) be functions having the same domain and range. Then we define the following operations on
functions.
a. SUM: (f + g)x= f(x) + g(x)
b. DIFFERENCE: (f – g)x= f(x) – g(x)
c. PRODUCT: (f • g)x= f(x) • g(x)

d. QUOTIENT: x=

e. COMPOSITE: f ◦ g(x)= f g(x)

g ◦ f(x)= g f(x)
example: let f(x) = x + 5 and g(x) = x2 whose domain and range are the real numbers. Then
a. (f + g)(4) = f(4) + g(4)
= (4) + 5) + (4)2
= 9 + 16
= 25
b. (f – g)(2) = f(2) – g(2)
= (2) – 5 – (2)2
= -3 – 4
= -7
c. f • g (0) = f(0) • g(0)
= (0 + 5) • (0)2
= 5•0
= 0

d. (3) =

=
e. f ◦ g(3) = f g(3)
= f (3) + 5
= f(9)
= 9+5
= 14
f. g ◦ f(3) = g f(3)
= g (3) + 5
= g(8)2
= 64
BINARY OPERATIONS

Let S be a non-empty set, and ⋆ said to be a binary operation on S, if a*b is defined for all a, b ∈ S. In other
words, * is a rule for any two elements in the set S.
In other words, an operation which combine two elements of a set to give another elements of a set to give
another elements of the same set is called a binary operation.
Properties of Binary Operations
Closure Property: Let S be a non-empty set. A binary operation * on S is said to be a closed binary operation on S,
if a*b ∈ S,∀a, b ∈ S.
example: a + b is = real number 1+2=3
a ∙ b is= real number 3(4)=12

Commutative Property: Let S be a non-empty set. A binary operation * on S is said to be commutative, if a*b=b*a, ∀a, b
∈ S.
example: a + b= b + a 12 + 17= 17 + 12
a ∙ b= a ∙ b 12 ∙ 17= 17 ∙ 12

Associative Property: Let S be a subset of Z. A binary operation c on S is said to be associative, if (a*b) *c=a* (b*c),∀a, b,
c ∈ S.
example: (a + b) + c= a + (b + c) (15 + 23) + 18= 15 + (23 + 18)
(a ∙ b) ∙ c= c ∙ (b ∙ c) (15 ∙ 23) ∙ 18= 15 ∙ (23 ∙ 18)

Identity Property: A non-empty set S with binary operation *, is said to have an identity e ∈ S, if e*a= a*e =a, ∀a ∈S.
Example: the product of any real a and 1 is the given real number, a. .( the number 1 is the multiplicative identity).

for any a Є R, there exist a real number one, such that a x 1= a and 1 x a= a.
1 ∙ a= a ∙ 1= a 1 ∙ 5= 5 ∙ 1= 5

Distributive Property: Let S be a non-empty set. Let *1 and *2 be two different binary operations on S.
Then *1 is said to be distributive over *2 on S if a* 1(b*2c) =(a*1b) *2 (a*1c), ∀a, b, c, ∈ S.
Further, we extend to (a+b)(c+d)=(ac+ad+bc+bd) (FOIL). 
F-First, O-Outer, I-Inner, L-Last
example: a(b + c)= ab + ac 5(3 + 4)= 5(3) + 5(4)
(a + b) c= ac + bc (3 + 4)2= 3(2) + 4(2)