THE ELECTRONICS FIELD

UNITÀ 6 TESTO 1

As regard electronics, it is the field of engineering dealing with the

design and application of devices, usually electronic circuits, which the
operation depends on the flow of electrons for the generation,
transmission, reception and storage of information such as voice,
music, numbers and so on.

To process this information, electronic circuits provide different

functions:

- amplification of weak signals to a

usable level

-generation of radio waves

-extraction of information, such as the recovery of an audio signal from a

radio wave (called demodulation)

-control, such as the superimposition of an audio signal onto radio

waves (called modulation)

-logic operations, such as the electronic processes taking place in

computers.

At the beginning of the 20th century vacuum tubes were really

important for the electronics because they were able to manipulate and
amplify signals.

Later, in 1948, the transistor was invented and it completely replaced the
vacuum tube.
The transistor was a great discovery in the field of electronics, because
it is able to do the same things as the vacuum tube, but it’s cheaper,
lighter and more reliable.
Nowadays, there are integrated circuits, which can contain hundreds
of thousands of transistors on a small electronic circuit.
THE ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY
UNITÀ 6 TESTO 2

If I want to talk about the electronics industry, I must say that Integrated
circuits have revolutionized the field of communications and the
management of information.

Nowadays, there are lots of digital things like:

Digital watches, GPS, netbook and so on... That are based on
microprocessors.

A microprocessor is like a computer composed of an integrated circuit

and it works like a brain that controls many instructions.

At the same time there are also other progress like the digitalization of
audio signals, where the frequency and amplitude of an audio signal are
coded digitally by appropriate sampling techniques.
Even if Digitally recorded music is not the same of the music recorded
using direct-recording techniques.
Also the Digital storage that could change library storage systems,
because a little hard disk or just a pen drive can contain thousands of
information.

The electronics industry:

- provides the equipment for all these computer manufacture aspects.
while in the other hand...
W provides the programmed controllers for domestic appliances such
as:
washing machines, cookers and air conditioning systems.

To understand how all these electronic devices work, it’s necessary to

know the different components of an electronic circuit.
COMPONENTS OF AN ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT
UNITÀ 6 TESTO 3

Electronic circuits can be divided into three differed categories: inputs, controls and
outputs.

INPUTS

-Batteries that provide energy for small circuits.

-Switches used to "make" or "break" connections.

-Resistors that are used to oppose the flow of electricity, and they are measured in ohms.

-Capacitors that are used to store an electric charge, and they are measured in
microfarads.

-Thermistors that generate voltage changes thanks to the temperature changes.

CONTROLS

• Transistors that allow circuits to work automatically.

They can work as a switch and:
-When the input voltage is below 0.6 volts, the transistor switches off, so the output is off.
-When the input voltage is over 0.6 volts, the transistor switches on, so the output is on.

 Thyristors, which work like transistors, but they continue to stay on, even if the input
voltage is low.

OUTPUTS

• Bulbs, that are useful but they can break theirself easily.

• LEDs that are like bulbs but use much less power.

• Relays that are used to separate two circuits.

• Solenoids that convert electrical energy into mechanical energy, and they are usually
used for door locks.

• Speakers that convert electrical pulses into sound, and the pitch and volume of the
sound change according to the pulses received.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
UNITÀ 8 TESTO 1

Every material in the world can be defined for its conductibility...

We know 3 different groups of materials:

-INSULATORS, which never conduct electricity, like plastic, glass, wood

etc…

-CONDUCTORS, wich always conduct electricity, like aluminium, gold,

silver etc…

-SEMICONDUCTORS, like germanium and silicon, which don't conduct

as well as conductors, but can carry current.

The atomic structure, of all these different materials, is a nucleus with

electrons circling around it.
The difference among these materials consists in how the electrons are
arranged around the nucleus.

Nowadays, semiconductor materials are the basis of modern electronic

devices, like diodes and transistors. Also, as they became more and
more efficient and useful they shrink.

Today, transistors are inside devices such as telephones, automobiles,

kitchen appliances etc…

HOW SEMICONDUCTORS WORK

UNITÀ 8 TESTO 2

Semiconductors have had a really important impact in the world

because everything that is computerized depends on semiconductors.

Most semiconductor chips are created with Silicon witch is a very

common elements and it sits next to aluminium, below carbon and
above germanium on the periodic table.

Semiconductors such as carbon, silicon and germanium, have a unique

property in their electron structure: each has 4 electrons in its outer
orbital.

This allows them to form nice crystals.

The four electrons form perfect covalent bonds with four neighbouring
atoms, creating a lattice.

In silicon, the crystalline form is a silvery, metallic substance.

But, even if silicon crystals look metallic, they actually aren’t metals so
they can’t conduct as well as metals because they haven’t got free
electrons able to move, in fact, in silicon crystal, the electrons are
involved in perfect covalent bonds.

A pure silicon crystal is nearly an insulator but you can change the
behaviour of silicon and turn it into a conductor by doping it.

DOPING SILICON
UNITÀ 8 TESTO 3

When you need to dope a silicon crystal, you have to mix a little bit of an
impurity into the silicon crystal.
There are 2 types of impurities:

N-type: Where
phosphorus is added to the silicon crystal in small quantities.

Phosphorus has got 5 outer electrons, so when it gets into the silicon
lattice, the 5th electron has nothing to bond to so it becomes free to
move.
N-type silicon is a good conductor and electrons have a negative
charge. (hence the name "N-type")

P-type:
Where boron is added to the silicon crystal in small quantities.

Boron has got only 3 outer electrons, so when it gets into the
silicon lattice, it forms an "hole" in the lattice because a silicon
electron has nothing to bond with.
Holes can conduct current so P-type silicon is a good conductor.

An N-type or P-type doping turns a silicon crystal from a good

insulator into a viable conductor. (hence the name "semiconductor")

You can make a P-N junction, putting them together.

In the diode you find the behaviour of the P-N junction which is
able to allow current in only one direction.

Diodes can be used in many ways...

For example, a device that use batteries often contains a diode that
protects it if you put the batteries in the wrong way.