Charged particles:

The charge is developed in non metals like plastic, wool, nylon, polyester,
ebonite, etc. in insulating materials due to friction. These materials when
rubbed against each other develop the charge.
When we put off cyclic or polyester dress, we hear the clicking sound due to
the transfer of charges. The dress materials get charged due to the friction of
the body.
Electric Cells:
A cell is a device where a potential difference between two conductors is
maintained by a conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy. A cell
consists of two metal rods called electrodes dipped in a solution called
electrolyte.
When the cell is in pen circuit, the potential difference between electrodes is
called its electromotive force (e. m. f). The strength of the cumulative e.m.f.,
which a cell can produce in a given circuit, depends on the e.m.f. The e.m.f of
cells depend on
• materials of its electrodes.
• the nature of its electrolyte.
It consists of two plates, one copper and other of zinc, both are dipped in dilute
sulphuric acid taken in the glass container. When two plates are connected by, a
copper wire provided with a bulb in between, the bulb glows showing the flow of
electric current.
The copper and zinc plates are called the electrodes of the cell. Zinc is the
negative electrode as it supplies the electron and copper is the positive
electrode. Dilute sulphuric acid is the electrolyte.
The electron current flows from zinc to copper. The potential difference between
the terminals of the cell is 1.08V. Therefore, it is not suitable for use in devices
like torches, calculators, transistors, etc.
The reaction inside the cell can be shown as
Zn → Zn+ + 2e-
H2SO4 → 2H+ + SO4--
2H + +2e- → H2
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
Defects of simple cell
We cannot draw current for a long time as this cell has defects. There are two
types of defects in the voltaic cell. These are:
Polarization
Local action
Polarization
It is caused by the deposition of the hydrogen gas on the surface of the copper
plate in the form of small bubbles.
They prevent the hydrogen ions from reaching the copper plate and thus the
current given by the cell, decreases gradually. Polarization stops functioning of
the cell.
Polarization can be avoided by brushing off the hydrogen bubbles or by putting
a chemical called potassium dichromate in acid. Potassium dichromate oxide
changes hydrogen to water.
Local action
The combined zinc used in the cell contains certain impurities like carbon, iron,
etc. Because of this local current is set up between zinc and these impurities in
addition to the main current.
These local currents cannot be utilized and thus constitute wastage of energy.
Local action reduces the life of the cell.
Amalgamating is the coating of zinc plate with mercury. Mercury covers these
impurities present in the zinc plate.
Local action can be avoided by amalgamating the surface of the zinc plate.
Dry cell
A dry cell is made without using the liquid. It consists of a zinc container, which also
serves as the negative terminal. The electrolyte is a paste of ammonium chloride. A
carbon rod with a brass cap serves as the positive electrode. It is surrounded by a
mixture of powdered manganese dioxide and carbon particles.
Hydrogen is formed in the chemical reaction that takes place in the cell. The
manganese dioxide reacts with the hydrogen formed and prevents it from collecting
on the zinc electrode. In this way, the presence of manganese dioxide prevents the
polarization. A porous seal at the top prevents the chemicals from dying out. The local
action cannot be removed completely so it may decrease the life of the cell.
The electrons flow in a wire connecting the two terminals from the zinc to the carbon
electrode. The dry cell, being compact, light and portable, is very convenient to use.
Dry cells cannot be charged and reused and therefore they are called primary cells.
Cells used in vehicles for lighting purposes or as an emergency light in our home
called lead-acid cell. They can be charged and used again. Therefore, these cells are
called secondary cells.
Zn → Zn++ + 2e-
2NH4Cl → 2NH3 + 2H+ + 2Cl-
Zn++ + 2Cl- → ZnCl2
Zn + 2NH4Cl → 2NH3 + ZnCl2+ 2H+ + 2e-
Advantages of dry cell over simple cell
• The electrolyte is in the form of the paste. They do not contain liquid;
therefore, it is easier to carry from one place to another place.
• They are compact.
• They are cheaper than other cells, etc.
Household wiring:
Earthing is a system where excessive electricity is passed through it into the
ground. Earthing can be done in various ways.
Mostly in earthing a wire is attached to a plate or nail which is inserted into
the ground from the main switch box. Now the electric circuit of our home
consists of three wires; a live wire carries current and acts as a positive
terminal, a neutral wire acts as a negative terminal and Earthing wire carries
any excessive electricity from the circuit into the ground.
Some of the electrical devices are:
1. Electrical Lamp
Electrical lamp converts electrical energy into light energy. There are two types
of lamp. They are filament and fluorescent lamp.
2. Electric Bell
An electric bell is a source of sound that converts electrical energy into kinetic
energy and then sound energy. An electric bell consists of a U-shaped soft iron
core around which an insulated wire is wound to make it an electromagnet. It’s
one end is fixed, while the other end is connected to a hammer which is free to
move.
3. Heater
Heater transforms electrical energy into heat energy. The heater is used for
cooking, boiling water, iron clothes and so on.
4. Radio/Television
Radio and television are strong means of entertainment and communication.
Radio is an audio device whereas television is an audio-visual device.
5. Telephone/Mobile
Telephone or mobile is an important means of communication. Both are
duplex means of communication. Mobiles are more portable and convenient
than telephone
6. Computer
The computer is an electrical device which inputs, process, stores, and output
devices. E-mail and internet are an important medium of communication for
this generation.
Fuse
The fuse is the special wire that melts when the certain amount of electricity
flows through it. It happens due to the heating effect (link to the heating effect)
caused by electricity.
Fuse is made from a special alloy of tin and lead and the amount of lead and tin
determines the capacity of the fuse. The small wire is enclosed in a glass case
and sealed with small iron plates.
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
MCB is improved and extended version of the fuse. It automatically switches
off the electrical circuit during the abnormal condition of the network means
in overload condition as well as the faulty condition.
The fuse does not sense, but miniature circuit breaker does it in the more
reliable way. MCB is much more sensitive to the over current than the fuse.
In a fuse, melted wire needs to be replaced but in MCB wire does not need
replacing.