[Among the most spectacular works of Indian sculpture art are the temple bronze placed in the

Tamil speaking region of South India . During the rule of chola dynasty between the 9th and
13th centuries of common Era.The numerous ancient copper alloy images that are still used in
worship in the temple in Tamil Nadu as well as those recovered from buried hoards testify to
the ancient artist skill infashioning bronze sculptures. Though the production of bronze images
for temple use first began in the days of latter pallava ruler of 8th century. Bronze sculpture as a
specialised art rose in prominence only with patronage direct or indirect of chola monarchs.

Intriguing coroboration of this Ancient skill in metal casting in South India comes from an
unexpected source in the form of letters written in Arabic during the 11th and 12th centuries by
Jewish traders in Aden to their counter parts in coromandal ports of Tamil Nadu. The
coromandal( chola) emporia provided them with pearls, arica nuts, spices, silk, aromatic
,cotton products and also metal work. Coromandal bronze work was sufficiently priced for
traders to send used copper items as well as raw copper all the way from Aden to South India
for refashioning into new items to be send back for sale in western markets.
Understandibly the letters refer to only to products like bowls and lamps marketable in the west
and to metals images that were clearly irrevelant to merchants.but these letters clearly highlights
the importance of metal work during the cholas.

Thus the chola period is well known for aesthetic and technical fineness of its metal
sculpture.Thanjavur was a major centres of production of such images.The metal images of
North India tend to be hollow while those of South India were solid . Both were however made
through lost wax method. The lost wax method involves first making a wax model and then
covering it with clay coating, leaving some holes as passage ways.when the clay covered
moulds are heated in ovens, the wax melts out .molten bronze is then poured in and takes the
place of wax.when the mould has cooled, The outer clay envelope is chipped off and then the
craft person then can put finishing touches to solid bronze Statues.
This technique is still used in certain parts of India.
Traditionally the northern images are supposed to be made out Of and alloy of 8 metals ( gold
silver tin mercury zinc copper iron lead) while the south ones are supposed to be made of alloy
of 5 metals( copper silver gold tin and lead). The analysis of actual images indicates that these
formulas were not always followed.
The antiquity of lost wax process in south india as well as the familiarity with the technique is
reflected in a casual reference in a poem by women saint Andal. (1800ce) in which she
addresses the rain clouds asking them to carry her love to lord Vishnu.
"Oh rain clouds, seeming like dark clay moulds outside , liquid wax within , rain down upon
Venkattam, where the handsome lord dwells"
From the days when the first Indians temples were built. The image of diety was enshrined
within the sanctum centrorum where he / she received the homage of devotees . The main
exchange between diety and worshipper is best typfied by the word darshan. By presenting
himself for darshan the diety bestowes blessings upon the worshipers. These images were
usually large heavy and immovable .
From around a 6th century, perhaps even earlier there was a unique development in south india
in which the diety began to be visualised as assuming a public persona not unlike that of a
human ruling monarch. In this context it is noteworthy that word kOya is used in Tamil for both
temple and palace. In such a role the diety was required to appear in person and in public and
to preside over number of festivites that became a part of temple ritual cycle. Some of these
rituals like morning round of the sacred enclosure or the nightly retreat to the sacred bedroom
were enacted daily . Other like swing ceremony were weekly ceremonies, while yet others like
marriage of God and goddess were annual celebrations.clearly the large heavy stone image in
the sanctum could not be carried to and fro each time to fulfill such functions. The production of
smaller and lighter processional images of dieties began thus as a need to satisfy a ritual
requirement.
When the god goes in procession , he becomes accessible to the most lowly of worshipper who
in the past were prohibited entry into a sacred premises of the temple.Nandnar, one among 63
saints of Shiva was once such worshipper he came from an untouchable community that
provided leather for drums and animal gut for musical instruments used in the temples.he made
his way to chidambaram where he stood outside the high temples walls dancing enjoy because
he had reached the holy site but weeping in despair because he was denied entry.Shiva is said
to be appeared to the temple priest and commanded them to light a fire through which nandram
walked unharmed . He entered the sanctum walked up to the images of dancing Shiva and
disappeared under the raised foot of lord. For the many devotees banned entry into temple
premises the portable image carried in procession through the streets of town provided the
outlet for joyous darshan.
The earliest reference to portable processional images appear in the verses of 2 7 century
Shiva saints - apaar and sabandar . These verses contain details of different festivals which
were organised by temples and the procession during the festivals.these verses give evidence
of festival rites and ceremonies.
The portable images to which reference in verses is must have be en made of perishable
material most likely wood, a material used in India for sacred imagery since early times.
Imagery since early times
It is only since the towards 8 century to the end of pallava period that processiona l images first
image crafted from bronze. However pallava bronze images tend to 10 to 12 feet high and it
was chola craftsman who produced.for many stone temple being built in the Tamil country the
superb bronze that ranged from 2 to 5 feet in height
The practice of lavishly decorating bronze images with jewellery of gold and precious stone and
fresh flower garlands.and leaving barely any bronze visible to the eyes of devotees
Might have arisen from the need to give added richness to the wooden images. Which were
prevanlant earlier.
By the 10th century , when inscription speak routinely of this embellishment of magnificant of
chola bronze icon, this custom of adonement was well established.
The iconography and style of chola bronze images were similar to those of their stone
counterparts.the images were clothed and ornamented and formed part of temples rituals and
ceremonies.the images of Shiva as nataraj i.e the lord of dance appeared frequently among
chola metal sculpture.other themes include Krishna and Alvar and nayanar saints.vishnu was
also depicted in various forms . There are few images as well. Many Shiva temples have a
seperate Natan sabha where the images of natraja is placed.shiva cosmic dance symbolises
the cyclical creation and destruction of universe.
 The dancing Shiva was of two types - angry and pacific. In his dance of bliss ( anandtandava)
shiva usually have 4 arms. He wears snake as an ornament
His front left arm is in a pose reffered to as Dandhast ( staff hand or gajhast) . In his real left
hand he holds a flame. In his rear right hand a drum and front hand is in a release granting
abhyapose. The drum symbolises creation.fire symbolises destruction. The hand of gaj hast
points to his lifted foot which is the refuge of the world. His left leg is thrust out across his
body.He usually dances on a dwarf muliyaka who signifies ignorance or evil. The god's locks of
hair which cradle the goddess ganga radiate out in the surrounding Rim of flame. Other images
of Shiva depicts him in various forms accompanied by his consort parvathi and other god and
goddess of his family.
Though confirming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition , the
sculptur could also use his imagination within the boundaries of the canonical hindu
iconography and work in greater freedom during the 11and 12 th centuries.As a result the
sculptures in bronze show classic Greece grandiour and taste .
The kalyana Sundar murti ( depicted the wedding of Shiva and Parvati),Ardnareshwar are other
representation Shiva in bronze.
Shiva is also depicted as vrishabhanmurti
Royal patron such as rajendra chola and sembiyan mahadevi are also represented in bronze.

Chola bronze can be divided into 4 distinct phases .

1. Phase ( upto 8 century ad) named after Aditya chola .
2 phase last quarter of 10th century named after sembiyan Devi
3Rd phase 11 century ad named after Raj raj I
4th phase 12century ad named later chola
It was during the 10 and 11 centuries , that the epitome of artist excellence was reached by the
chola bronze where great emphasis was placed on graceful depiction bhavs , flowing lines and
supple contours .
In the early chola bronze we can have few examples, the most important examples of chola
bronze is brooding sitting vish paharan in the Madras museum,One of the most powerful
presence in Indian sculpture.
The air of intense mental indwelling is similar to great mahadeva at elephanta .
In this image the neck links chest and head in beautiful manner.
It shows a powerful blend of vitality and repose.the Shiva tripurantaka. Which is now in the
Gautama Sarabhai collection also has a similar though less powerful vitality and repose.
According to barret , it is the almost equivalent to stone murtis of the chola temples.
To these two superb individual figures must be added the extra ordinary Kalyan sundar murti in
Shiva temple at vadakkalapur
According to Harley , Kalyan sundar is pyscologically the most penerating of all chola
bronzes.here the young Shiva is infused with unique adolescent grace even more touching is
child like parvati , herself consciousness emphasized by her over elaborate headdress which is
a beautiful and original conception.

Three details of costume and ornament appear restricted to the earlier bronze
1. A jewel in the form of a peepal leaf hanging down the back between the shoulders
 2. A small cloth emerging above the belt just above the buttocks
3. A large flat petal jewel at the base of the neck.

The golden age of the chola bronze evolved in the 2nd quarter of 10 century when masterpieces
bound including consort of Shiva and dancing boy Krishna.By 3rd quarter of century the torso
became more slender and the dress and ornament are sheer luxury. The faces are becoming
stylised with their beautiful eyes and exactly parallel eyebrows. In the 2nd and 3rd phase natraj ,
rishabvahana, Vishnu , Ganesh , Brahma , Durga , kuldevtas of cholas are important examples
of chola bronze . A lot of these bronze were donated by important people including kings ,
Queens merchants traders etc.

The important features of chola bronze continued in later phases as well and even continued
under the vijayangar empire.