Design features of an instrument
• Cutting (leading) edge: surface
with the greatest diameter
• Rake angle: angle between cutting
edge and a perpendicular line from
the root surface
• Positive: cut dentine very effectively
by creating dentine chips, but risk
screw-in effect (e.g. H-files)
• Neutral
• Negative: better controlled inside
root canal, increased strength and
wear resistance of the cutting edges
(nearly all files with rotary reaming
working motion have –ve rake angle)
(Ingle’s Endodontics 7th ed, Cohen’s Pathways of the Pulp 12th ed)
• Cutting angle: indicates file’s
cutting ability
• Wedge angle: determines strength
of the cutting blades
• Clearance angle: controls amount
of friction during cutting. Larger
angle (less friction) means more
efficient cutting.
• Chip space: remaining space
between canal lumen and cross
section of the file. Larger means
more efficient in transporting
dentine and debris out of the canal.
Stainless-steel (SS) instruments
• The main advantage of reamers and K-files is that they can easily be pre-bent.
• Best suited for initial scouting of the root canal.
• When used in curved canals, SS instruments tend to result in marked canal
transportation (Al-Omari et al. 1992, Schäfer et al. 1995, Machian et al. 1982), ledge
formation and procedural errors (Cimis 1988, Sonntag et al., 2003).
• Flexible SS files were developed (e.g. Flexoreamer, K-Flexofile).
• Triangular cross-section à lower core diameter à greater flexibility
• Superior to conventional SS reamers and K-files in maintaining the original canal curvature (Al-Omari et
al. 1992)

• Even flexible SS instruments with non-cutting tips failed to adequately maintain the
original curvature of severely curved canals (Schäfer et al. 1995)

(Ingle’s Endodontics 7th ed)

Nickel-titanium (NiTi) instruments
• NiTi used in endodontics contains approx. 56% nickel and 44% titanium
(by weight) in a 1:1 atomic ratio (equiatomic)
• First used to fabricate endodontic instruments by Walia et al. in 1988
• Desirable properties include its low modulus of elasticity, shape-memory
effect and superelasticity (a.k.a. superflexibility/pesudoelasticity)
• Most metal alloys (e.g. SS) can be elastically deformed by up to 0.1-0.2% beyond their
elastic limit (yield strength)
• NiTi can be deformed up to 8% beyond their yield strength without showing any
residual deformation (under both bending and torsion) (Otsuka & Wayman 1998)

• Special properties of NiTi alloys are associated with stress- and

temperature-induced solid state phase transformation

(Thompson 2000, Gavini et al. 2018)