Unit III- Social Work with Individuals and Groups-

Basic Social Case Work Concepts : Social Roles, Social Functioning, Need
Assessment, Adaptation, Social environment, Person-in-Environment Fit,
Principles and Components-

Social Roles-

An individual in the society has to play different social roles. Social roles are
determined by the social statuses of an individual in social institutions. Social
roles and social statuses are associated with one another. If your status change
in the society so do your roles. One may hold the status of brother or sister, son
or daughter, father or mother in the family. However, he/she might be manager
or public servant or may be genitor or president of the country at work. Each
social status requires a set of duties and responsibilities to be fulfilled by an
individual who hold a particular status, which can be categorized as social roles.
For example; there are some societies who expect from a mother to stay home,
take care of children and perform other household duties. Father is supposed to
be the bread winner. However, social roles can change over time, not long ago
developed western countries had similar culture but now the role of the mother
is not different than a father.

Types-

Role Strain-

When a status requires a lot of responsibilities, which stresses the individual out
is known as role strain. Suppose a teacher is require to submit progress report to
the board, training colleagues on effective ways of teaching students, preparing
notes for the students and teaching students, meeting their expectations etc. The
load of responsibilities attach with teacher status may cause anxiety and stress
which can be categorized as role strain.

Role Exit-
When individual thinks of a social role he wish to perform in the future, it might
be to become a lawyer, doctor or engineer. He starts preparing for it via
anticipatory socialization. However, after achieving that status he may realize
that he is not happy with his current social roles and want to do something else.
Abandoning old roles and entering in to new ones is known as role exit. For
example a married man may miss his bachelor life. He decides to take a divorce
and change his status and roles associated with it.

Social Functioning-

Social functioning defines an individual's interactions with their environment

and the ability to fulfill their role within such environments as
work, social activities, and relationships with partners and family.

Social functioning is what results from the interaction between the two forces --
the individual's coping capacities and the demands of his situation/environment.
The social worker's "job assignment" involves "mediating" (Schwartz), or
"matching" (Gordon), or striking a balance between people's coping ability and
situational/environmental demands (Barlett).

Need Assessment-

A needs assessment is a part of planning processes, often used for

improvement in individuals, education/training, organizations, or communities.
It can refine and improve a product such as a training or service a client
receives.

A needs assessment is a part of planning processes, often used for improvement

in individuals, education/training, organizations, or communities. It can refine
and improve a product such as training or service a client receives. It can be an
effective tool to clarify problems and identify appropriate interventions or
solutions. By clearly identifying the problem, finite resources can be directed
towards developing and implementing a feasible and applicable solution.
Gathering appropriate and sufficient data informs the process of developing an
effective product that will address the group’s needs and wants. Needs
assessments are only effective when they are ends-focused and provide concrete
evidence that can be used to determine which of the possible means-to-the-ends
are most effective and efficient for achieving the desired results.

Adaptation-

An adaptation is a mutation, or genetic change, that helps an organism, such as

a plant or animal, survive in its environment. Due to the helpful nature of the
mutation, it is passed down from one generation to the next. As more and more
organisms inherit the mutation, the mutation becomes a typical part of
the species. The mutation has become an adaptation.

Social environment-

The social environment, social context, sociocultural context or milieu refers

to the immediate physical and social setting in which people live or in which
something happens or develops. It includes the culture that the individual was
educated or lives in, and the people and institutions with whom they interact.

Person-in-Environment Fit-

Person-environment fit is the degree of fit, or match, between you and your
work environment. The theory behind person-environment fit is that everyone
has a work environment with which they are most compatible. The idea of PE is
grounded in Kurt Lewin's maxim, the behavior is a function of person and
environment. Characteristics on the person side of the equation include
interests, preferences, KSAs (knowledge, skills and abilities), personality traits,
values, and goals. The environmental factors may include such things as
vocational norms, demands of the job, job characteristics, and organizational
culture and values. The basic rationale of the theory is simple: if you work in an
optimally compatible environment, all sorts of good things happen, such as
improved work attitude, performance, and less stress.

Four Models of Fit-

Person–organization fit-

Person–organization fit (P–O fit) is the most widely studied area of person–
environment fit, and is defined by Kristof (1996) as, "the compatibility between
people and organizations that occurs when (a) at least one entity provides what
the other needs, (b) they share similar fundamental characteristics, or (c) both"
(Kristof, 1996). High value congruence is a large facet of person–organization
fit, which implies a strong culture and shared values among coworkers.

Person–job fit-

Person–job fit, or P–J fit, refers to the compatibility between a person’s

characteristics and those of a specific job (Kristof-Brown & Guay, 2011). The
complementary perspective has been the foundation for person–job fit. This
includes the traditional view of selection that emphasizes the matching of
employee KSAs and other qualities to job demands (Ployhart, Schneider, &
Schmitt, 2006). The discrepancy models of job satisfaction and stress that focus
on employees’ needs and desires being met by the supplies provided by their
job (Locke, 1969, 1976).

Person–group fit-

Person–group fit, or P–G fit, is a relatively new topic with regard to person–
environment fit. Since person–group fit is so new, limited research has been
conducted to demonstrate how the psychological compatibility between
coworkers influences individual outcomes in group situations. However, a study
by Boone & Hartog (2011) revealed that person–group fit is most strongly
related to group-oriented outcomes like co-worker satisfaction and feelings of
cohesion.

Person–person fit-
Person–person fit is conceptualized as the fit between an individual's culture
preferences and those preferences of others. It corresponds to the similarity-
attraction hypothesis which states people are drawn to similar others based on
their values, attitudes, and opinions (Van Vianen, 2000). The most studied types
are mentors and protégés, supervisors and subordinates, or even applicants and
recruiters.

Principles and Components-

Components of Social Case work-

The nucleus of the case work event is this- a person with a problem comes to a
place where a professional representative helps him by a given process. The
person is a man, woman, or child, anyone who finds himself, or is found to be in
need of help in some respect of his social emotional living, whether the need be
for tangible provisions or counsel. As begins to receive such help, he is called a
“client”.

The problem arises from some heed or obstacle or accumulation of frustrations

or maladjustments, and sometimes all of these together which threatens or has
already attacked the adequacy of the person’s living situation or the
effectiveness of his efforts to deal with it.

The person-
The client of a social agency is like all the other persons we have ever known,
but he is different too. But we find that; with all his general likeness to other, he
is unique as his thumb print.

The problem-

The problem within the purview of social case work are those which vitally
affect or are affected by a person’s social functioning, e.g. some unmeant need
of economic, medical, educational and recreational nature. In the process of
development human being develops certain attitude, beliefs, ideas and ways of
reacting and expressing in different situations. Sometimes he fails to cope up
with his situation and find himself in problem and need the help of an outsider.

The problem is two kinds, Intra personal and Inter personal-

Intrapersonal-

The dictionary meaning of intrapersonal is in mind or relating to internal

aspects of a person, especially the emotions. It is the problem which does not
affect other people but the concerned person himself alone. For example, if a
client has one kidney, she is blind from single eye etc, or if she is depressed and
this depression is disturbing her, she is having an intra personal problem.

Interpersonal-

The dictionary meaning of interpersonal is between persons or something

concerned or involving the relationship between people.

Interpersonal is that problem which affects more than one person. It affects
others as well. For example, if a person is addicted to drugs, it not only affects
him but other people around him as well. Crime, theft, burglary, delinquency
are few examples of interpersonal problems. Jealousy is an intrapersonal
problem but it is responded it becomes interpersonal problems.

Types of problem-

Physiological problem-

This problem is related to physique of the person. All the physical disabilities of
the body are this type of problems. Blindness, hearing impairment, speech
impairment, organically handicapped, both internal and external are such kinds
of problem.

Economic Problem-

All individual in this earth is facing economic problem. Economically the

society is divided into three class. Lower, Middle and upper. But we divide as
“Haves and Have not” . Have means those people who have chances for
development or getting to be developed. Have not means those people who are
deprived from having the chances to develop themselves. Economic problem
related to the management of needs and resources a person have. If a person has
managed his needs to his resources then he will be facing no economic problem.
Psychological Problem-

Psychology is the study of mind and behavior. It is the study of what we think
and what we do. Psychological problem occurs when a person is disturbed by
some external circumstances. Anxiety, Schizophrenia, depression, anger is some
of the examples of psychological problem.

Relationship problem-

Human being is a bio psycho social entity. Man lives in the society. He is
engaged in different interpersonal relationship like family, neighbors,
colleagues etc. sometimes there comes some problem in maintaining these
relations. Divorce, family disturbances are the outcomes of all these problems.
When a person is unable to solve this problem by his own he comes to the social
worker in an agency and get helped by the [professionals.

The place-

The place to which the person comes for help with his problems is known as a
social agency. When it gives social work help it is known as a social work
agency. The social agency is an organization fashioned to express the will of a
society or of a group in the society as to social welfare.

Each social agency develops a program by which to meet the particular areas of
need with which it sets to put to deal with the person’s problems. The social
agency has a structure by which it organizes and delegates its responsibilities
and tasks, and governing policies and procedures by which it stabilizes and
systematizes its operations. Every staff members in the agency speaks and act
for some part of the agency’s function, and the case worker represents the
agency in its individualized problem solving help. The case worker while
representing the agency is first and foremost representative of his profession.

The process-

The case work process is essentially one of problem solving. When persons
encounter a problem that defies their copying efforts or that requires for its
solution, some means that cannot command that they turn to persons whose
perspectives, expertise or resources may be of help.
In order to understand what the case work process must include in the problem-
solving help it is necessary to take stock first of the kinds of blockings which
occur in peoples normal problem solving efforts. These would be:

i) lack of material provision for it.

ii) Ignorance or misapprehension.
iii) When the person with problem is depleted or drained of emotional or
physical energy.
iv) Some problems arouse high feelings in a person- emotions are so
strong that they overpower his reason and defy his conscious controls.
Sometimes these feelings are realistically called for as in the case of
death of a dear one.
v) The problem may lie within the person, i.e, he may have become
subject to, or victim of, emotions that chronically over a long time,
have governed his thinking and action. (vi) Some people find
problems difficult of solution because they have never developed
systematic habits or orderly methods of thinking and planning.

Principles of Social case work-

Principle of Acceptance-

Social caseworker accepts the client as he is and with all his/her limitations.
He/she believes that acceptance is the crux of all help. It embraces two basic
ideas --- one negative and one positive. He/she does not condemn or feel hostile
towards a client because his/her behaviour differs from the approved one.

Principle of Confidentiality-

Confidentiality is based upon the basic right of the client; it is an ethical

obligation of case worker and is necessary for effective case work service.
Everyone prefers to keep his things to himself and saves it from leaking out
unless It’s divulge is more beneficial to the person. Once the worker imbibes the
value of worth and dignity of an individual, he will refrain from encroaching
upon the client’s privacy and maintain the confidence repose in him. Once the
client loses confidence in him, he will not believe the worker and the while
process of communication will break down, and impossible will be the task to
assist the helped in his problems or in fulfillment of his needs.

Principle of relationship-

Relationship is the basis of all help. The relationship should develop around the
act of helping the client. Helping the client is the purpose for which interaction
takes place between the worker and client which is affected by their experiences
of relating with people in the past, their expectations from each other and
anxieties about the situation, values that governing their lives, norms of
behavior , knowledge and experience about the subject matter of interaction.
Necessary to develop relationship is the worker’s training in and mastery of
inter personal skills like active awareness, building trust, communicating,
listening and expression of feelings etc. relationship is an emotional bond which
works as a transmitting belt between client and the case worker.

Principle of Resource utilization-

Principle of Resource utilization Services are provided to the individual in

recognition of his contributions to the society. It is only because of this that the
government takes care of those who are not cared by any one. Example:
orphans, destitute, handicapped etc. Therefore all the personal resources and
resources available within the community or agency and with relatives of the
client should be utilized to help the client. Resources may be in terms of money,
material, power and influence, capabilities etc.

Principle of individualization-

No two persons are alike in all qualities and traits. Their problems may be the
same but the cause of the problem, the perception towards the problem and ego
strength differs in every individual. Therefore, each individual client should be
treated as a separate entity and complete information is required to establish
close relations in order to solve his/her problem from root. Individualization is
the recognition and understanding of each client’s unique qualities and the
differential use of principles and methods in assisting each toward a better
adjustment. Individualization is based upon the right of human beings to be
individuals and to be treated not just as a human being but as this human being
with his own personal differences.

Purposeful expression of feelings-

Purposeful expression of feelings is the recognition of the client’s need to

express his/her feelings freely, especially his/her negative feelings. The
caseworker listens purposefully, neither discouraging nor condemning the
expression of those feelings. Sometimes he/she even stimulates and encourages
them when the expression is of therapeutic nature. It is to recognize the client’s
feeling and express it freely before the case worker, especially his negative
feelings.

Principle of controlled emotional involvement-

The case worker must not be emotionally involved with the client during the
case work process, when the client communicates his/ her feelings or problems
with the case worker. The case worker has to respond to all feelings of the client
with his knowledge and understanding. The social caseworker tries to
understand the client’s feelings and emotions but he/she himself/herself does
not involve emotionally in his/her problems.

Principle of communication-

Communication is a two-way process. There must be proper communication

between caseworker and the client, which helps, in proper understanding of
each other. It is the road to the identification of the client’s problem. The
function of social caseworker is primarily to create an environment in which the
client will feel comfortable in giving expression to his/her feelings. It depends
on a proper communication.

Principle of self determination-

It is the practical recognition of the rights and need of the client to have
freedom in making his own choice and decision in the case work process. Social
responsibility, emotional adjustment and personality development are possible
only when the person exercise his freedom and choice and decision. Case
workers have to give this right to the client so that he can decide and take best
possible action in his self interest.
Approaches to Social Case Work Practice : Diagnostic and Functional
Approach, Problem Solving, Task Centered and Radical Approach-

Diagnostic Approach/ diagnostic school -

The diagnostic school is basically founded on the Freudian theory of

psychoanalysis. Mary Richmond gave shape to these thoughts in the form of a
school. She wrote first book on social casework i.e. Social Diagnosis in 1917.
The other contributors of this school were Marion Kenworthy (New York
School of Social Work), Betsey Libbey (Family Society of Philadelphia),
Gordon Hamilton, Bertha Reynolds, Charlotte Towle, Florence Day and
Annette Garrett. The Diagnostic school is based on the following main
foundations.

Principles of Diagnosis-

Social casework help is based on the understanding of each client individually

and his/her problems. It is essential because it gives a realistic basis for
differentiation, and a base for the improvement of the client’s social situation
and personal satisfaction and adjustment. The diagnosis is based on the
following principles:

1) The diagnostic process consists of a critical study of a client and his/her

situation and the trouble concerning which help is sought or needed for the
purpose of understanding the nature of the difficulty with increasing details and
accuracy.

2) Diagnosis is based on the knowledge of the worker about the interplay of

social and psychological factors affecting the client.

3)The knowledge of interaction between inner and outer forces influencing the
client makes the process of diagnosis helpful and therapeutic.

4) Every problem of the individual should be understood in the light of multiple

factors theory.

5) In the initial stage also, relieving of pressure of stresses and strains on the
client, helps the caseworker to arrive at a proper diagnosis.

6) The initial appraisal of personality and motivations and their significance in

the development of client’s problem provides the basis for planning the
treatment of the client’s problems.
 7) For the solution of the problem of the client, it is of utmost importance to
gain some knowledge of his/ her current capacity to work and to recognize the
motivating forces in his/her behaviour.

8) The understanding of the psycho-dynamics and the pathological symptoms of

the personality of the client provides the basis of determining the kind of help
that can be appropriately offered.

Functional Approach /Functional School-

The functional approach to social casework practice was developed by the

Faculty Members of the School of the University of Pennsylvania. This
approach is based on the personality theory of Otto Rank. According to
Functional School social casework is a method of helping people through
special services given by social agencies in such way that the experience of
using such services may be psychologically constructive. Thus the functional
school of social casework has two inseparable aspects:

1) Potentials for help to a person is inherent in the existence of service. Inspite

of the differences in the clients and ways of using of agencies services, the kind
of service an agency gives and their purposes remain the same.

2) The use of agency service gives psychological experience that differs from
the form of another kind of service regardless of the similarity of problem in the
people using the two services.

Problem Solving Approach-

Problem solving assists people with the problem solving process. Rather than
tell clients what to do, social workers teach clients how to apply a problem
solving method so they can develop their own solutions.

PROBLEM SOLVING MODEL –

The problem solving diagnosis has two major focuses-

 i. One is the beginning and continues appraisal and reappraisal of the person‟s
motivation, capacity and opportunity to put him into working on the problem at
hand.
ii. The second one is the finding and assessment of what factors and forces
deter or thwart his motivation or his capacity or his opportunity.

In short, the diagnosis in the problem solving model focus:

(1) What the person wants and how much he wants it (motivation) in relation to
the problem to be worked out.

(2) Upon what capacities the person had (or has not) or can develop (or can‟t)
by which to cope with the problem – to – be worked;

(3) Upon what means there are (or are not) in the aids and services, the
caseworker has on top – by which the problem to be worked or can be affected.
Simultaneously it seeks to discern why, for what reason, the persons motivation
and capacity opportunity is inadequate to enable him to cope.

Task Centered Approach-

Task-centred practice, also known as brief therapy, short-term or contract

work has had a significant impact on both social work practice and the
organisation of services. As the various names suggest, it is focused work which
is time-limited and offers approaches to problem-solving which take into
account the needs of individuals to bring about change in their situations, and
the requirements of agencies that work is targeted and effective. As we will see
in the account of the development of the method, its introduction challenged
some of the principles of casework. In doing this it recognised that the person
with the problems also had the means to resolve them, and that social work
intervention should become more of a partnership. In this way task-centred
casework can be seen to be at the beginning of attempts to empower users of
social work services. It offers an optimistic approach which moves the focus
away from the person as the problem, to practical and positive ways of dealing
with difficult situations.

Radical Approach-
 Radical Casework represents a major innovation in the social work field. It
bridges the seemingly unbridgeable gap between the rhetoric of social analysis
and the day-to-day practice of the social worker. Written in a clear, direct style,
Radical Casework illustrates, step by step, how broad theoretical analysis and
specific skills can be linked in each phase of the casework process. Drawing on
socialist feminist analysis, this radical theory for practice encourages practising
social caseworkers and students alike to develop their own practice in a radical
way across a variety of settings. Radical Casework also provides extensive
descriptions of practice strategies and case illustrations.

Process and Techniques of Social Case Work: Phases of Case Work

Intervention, Techniques of Case Work Intervention, Principles of
Interviewing and Case Work Recording-

Phases of Case Work Intervention-

Intake-

Intake is an administrative procedure, and not a process of social case work, to

take in the person with problem, i.e. admit him or enroll him as a client of the
agency. This starts with first encounter and ends with usually the second
interview with the social worker. This phase requires a very skillful probing into
the client’s problem, mopping up all the relevant areas of the person in his
situation.

Study-

According to Richmond (1917), the case worker must secure all and every fact
that taken together, through logical and inferential reasoning, would reveal the
clients personality and his situation for appropriate intervention (treatment). An
exhaustive collection of facts about the cliebt and his situation is called study-
the first step (process) in the continuum. I will prefer to use the word study
because it communicates the real and complete nature of activities undertaken
during this phase.

In the course of studying the client in his situation the case worker is able to
make initial assessment for diagnosis of the client’s current, relevant past and
possible future modes of adaptation to stressful situations and to related normal
living situations. It requires the analysis of social, psychological and biological
determinants of the client’s current stressful situation. Obtaining data on these
determinants the case worker develops hypothesis for understanding the client
in his situation. It may seek to include historical data on related past life
experiences and facts responsible. These are some methods of data collection
for study; they are questionnaire observation, interview and recording.

Diagnosis-

The dictionary meaning of dignosis is the identifying nature of cause of

something. After a complete and through study of the client and his problem.,
the worker then diagnose and assess the problem. Diagnosis is an attempt to
arrive at an exact definition as possible of the social situation and personality of
a client. It is a search for the causes of the problems which brings the client to
the worker for help. Diagnosis is;

I. An explanation formulated in the light of known facts

ii. An explanation made in the knowledge of other possible explanations

iii. Subject to change or revision whenever subsequent material warrants a

different explanation.

Process of diagnosis-

The diagnosis process has been broken up into number of stages known as
gathering data, diagnostic study, evaluation and the diagnostic product.

Gathering data-

Data are gathered of the interview of the client, agency’s record reports, from
other members of the team, other agencies, schools, relatives. Home visit is an
important source of data collection. The accuracy of data depends on the skills
of interviewing, individualization, acceptance, communication and involvement.

Diagnostic study-
The study attempt to identify the problem areas which are important for social
case work involvement.

Evaluation-

This means finding the nature of the problem, its organization and extent and
who is going to be affected. Factors responsible for the problem may be one or
more than one of the following;

 Physical illness or disability, how the sufferer feels, how his family and
others feel. Effect of physical illness—dependent, tired, irritable,
depressed, self image lowering, distort relationship, disrupt
communication.
 Psychological – the assessment is made of the quality of libidinal
relationship, dependency, narcissistic tendencies, sexual identification
quality of aggressiveness, channelization of aggressiveness, nature of
super ego, consistency of ego and super ego, reality perception, slef-
analysis, self critism, judgement, defence used, degree of discomfort the
problem causes him, the nature of desire to change it, the effect that
change may have upon other members.
 Social – the following facets of social environment generally come
within the diagnosis.

Types of Diagnosis-

Perlman has described three types of diagnosis that is carried on in social case
work process. These are : dynamic diagnosis, clinical diagnosis and etiological
diagnosis.

1. Dynamic Diagnosis-

Dynamic diagnosis gives an understanding of the current problem of the client

and the forces currently operating within the client, within social environment
and between his/her environment. It gives the answers to the questions. What is
the trouble? What psychological, physical and social factors are contributing to
it? What solution is sought? What are the means available within the client, his
environment? What are organized service and resources by which the problem
may be affected? The nature of such diagnosis changeable because it is the
beginning phase of social case work practice.
2. Clinical Diagnosis-

Under clinical diagnosis, the case worker attempts to classify the client by the
nature of his sickness/problem. He identifies certain forms and client’s
personality maladptation and malfunction in his behavior. The clinical diagnosis
describes both the nature of the problem and its relation to the client and the
helping means goals. Such type of diagnosis is useful only when it becomes
apparent that a disorder of personality accompanies the social disorder, creating
and complicating it.

3. Etiological Diagnosis-

Etiological diagnosis is concerned with the explanation of the beginnings and

life-history of problem of the client, basically that problem that lies in the
client’s personality make up or functioning. The history of his development as a
problem encountering problem-solving human being may provide the case
worker with an understanding of what his client suffers from and what the
extent of his coping ability is likely to be.

Treatment-

According to Hamilton, treatment is the sum total of all activities and services
directed towards helping an individual with a problem. The focus is the
relieving of the immediate problem and, if feasible, modify any basic
difficulties which precipitated it.

The objective of the social case work treatment are as follows:

1. To prevent social breakdown.

2. To conserve client’s strength.

3. To restore social functioning.

4. To provide happy experiences to the client.

5. To create opportunities for growth and development.

6. To compensate psychological damage.

7. To increase capacity for self-direction.

8. to increase his social contribution.

Thus the objective of social case work treatment is to alleviate the client’s
distress and decrease the malfunctioning in the person-situation system. It is to
enhance the client’s comfort, satisfaction, and self-realization. This may require
enhancing the adaptive skills of his ego and the functioning of the person-
situation system.

Social Case Work Treatment Process-

Social case work treatment process begins with the initial contact with the
client. The process of treatment passes through many phases, i.e, (i) initial
phase, (ii) motivation and role induction, (iii) primary contact, (iv) diagnosis
and assessment, (v) establishing treatment goods, (vi) developing treatment
plan, (vii) preparation for actual treatment, (viii) treatment in practice, (ix)
monitoring and evaluating the effects of treatment, and (x) planning of follow-
up termination of therapeutic relationship.

I. Initial Phase-

The main task of social case worker in the initial phase is to examine how the
problem was brought to his attention. He would attempt to focus on various
aspects of the problem that seem fit to case work treatment. Here the decisions
of the worker are tentative. The initial phase of social case work treatment will
be though to be completed when the case worker meets the following
conditions.

1. The issues have been sufficiently identified so as to substantiate that they are
appropriate to the purposes and goals of the service.

2. The participants understand the nature and meaning of the problem enough
with explicitness to permit engagement and participation.

3. The problem is appropriate to program, resources and serviced of the setting.

4. The problem fits the practitioner’s skill and capabilities

II. Motivation-

One of the most important tasks of social case worker at the beginning of the
treatment process is to build and develop the therapeutic relationship between
himself and the client. Workers empathy, warmth and genuine feelings are
highly motivating force for the client to take part in the treatment process. At
this phase the case worker explores clients perception of why he is involved in
the treatment and hwo he feels about being in the agency. He also encourages
the client to specify his expectations of treatment and feelings about seeking
help. He attempts to clarify the roles and responsibilities of both himself and the
client.

III. Primary Contract-

The objective of this phase is to develop a preliminary contact with the client.
By making psychological contract or relationships the case worker sets the stage
to move towards more formal assessment.

IV. Diagnosis and Assessment-

Diagnosis and Assessment process are ongoing throughout the entire treatment.
Social case worker provides detail information about the problem situation that
will help in establishing the treatment goal, strategy of treatment. The case
worker assesses the client’s ego strength, skillfulness, capabilities and capacities
in relation to his problem. He assess whether the client needs advise, counseling
behavior modification, crisis intervention or consultancies services like
teaching, consultation, interpretation, supervision or provision of material help
etc.

V. Establishing treatment goals-

After diagnosis the social case worker establishes goals for the solution of the
problem. Though the client has the major say in deciding on goals the case
worker plays and important role by clarifying a variety of alternative goals for
his consideration.

Vi. Developing Treatment Plan-

Treatment planning involves three major dimensions that is:

 Formulating of a strategy
 Selection of specific treatment procedures
 Developing a method for evaluating the impact of the treatment
program.
Techniques of Case Work Intervention-

It is the fourth stage in the process of case work

2. It is a conscious interference of once own (client’s) affairs.
3. In social work, the term Intervention is similar to the term treatment.
4. Many social workers prefer using “Intervention” because it includes
treatment and also encompasses (cover) the other activities.
5. Social workers use to solve or prevent problems or achieve goals for social
betterment.
6. Thus, intervention refers to psychotherapy, advocacy mediation, social
planning, community organizing, finding and developing resources etc.
7. According to Hamilton Gordon (1956) “Treatment as a “furnishing a
Service” or Behaviour towards some one ”.
8. Treatment is a starting point . It is a means by which change is brought out
and the ways in which diagnosis guides the worker [in his choice].
9. The treatment is directed to bring about a change.
10. In treatment process, communication plays vital role -–ie client – worker,
client – collateral, client – client and worker – collateral.
11. Treatment begins in first interview itself. (i.e. non – specific treatment is
involved even in the first interview).
12. The workers usually assess some form of sentiments and an opportunity for
ventilation, which is of potential therapeutic value.
13. The worker encourages the client to reflect up on his situation and himself
in order to understand the situation or himself or both.

Treatment Principle-

 According to crisis Intervention model Relief of symptoms.

 Restoration to the optimal level of functioning.
 Understanding the relevant precipitating events.
 Identification of remediable measures.
 Recognize the current stress and their origins in the part like experience
and conflict.
 Initiate new method of perceiving & thinking.

Techniques of Intervention/Treatment-
Supportive Techniques (Indirect Influence) Or Indirect Treatment Or
Environmental manipulation.

Reflective Techniques [Enhancing Resources or Administration of practical

help or material help]

Counselling Techniques (Direct Influence or Direct treatment.

Supportive Techniques (Indirect Treatment or Environmental

manipulation)-
• Treatment directed towards bringing changes in the human environment. i.e.
changes in family member‟s – children‟s – their parent‟s – children‟s – school
atmosphere.
• It is a strategy to bring out a change in a client social functioning.

Environmental manipulation-

All attempts to correct or improve the situation in order to reduce strain and
pressure and all modification of the living experience, to offer opportunities for
growth or change may be recorded as environmental manipulation.

Environmental manipulation sometime referred as indirect treatment. After

listening to and observing the clients, we may use our understanding of his
personality structure, his pattern, his needs and conflicts and his differences, in
order to manipulate those configurations (composition).

Reflective Techniques (Administration of practical help or material helps):

 This is the oldest and best known of the case work types of treatment.
 In the simplest form, the worker assist the client to choose and to use of
social resources afforded by the community.

Counselling Techniques (Direct Treatment):

  It mean “influence of mind up on mind”
 It means worker – client interaction or counselling therapy It means ‘
use of common sense in an un common situation’
 According to social work dictionary Counselling means:
 A group of intervention procedures used in social case work in which the
worker seeks to implement specific changes or improvement through
personal contact with the client.
 The term was first used by MARY RICHMOND to designate a social
workers’ face to face inter actions with individual/ clients as
distinguished from indirect treatment in the environment.
 Counselling is a process of helping the individual to know himself; and
the world.

Principles of Interviewing -

Meaning-

1. Interview is a two way process to get information from the client and also
to provide information to the client.
2. In case work, interview refer to meeting of the case worker and the client
in a face to face conversation. It is a professional activity on the part of
caseworker.
3. Interview is a channel of direct help even at a first contact between the
caseworker and the client. E.g. Information about the agency, about the
client, etc.
4. In case work interviewing means meeting of the caseworker and the
client for talk.
5. Interview in case work means conversation between the worker, clients
and client’s family and collateral.

After reviewing the previous interview of other clients or interview with the
same client, the worker should make note of:

i the gaps in information,

ii the ambiguity, that needs clarification and

iii one’s own lapse and shortcomings, that need to be replaced with the skills of
handling, etc

The next interview should be planned for collecting fresh data, clearing doubts,
testing assumption, assessing facts and for using techniques appropriately.

Skills of Interviewing-

1. Listening

2. Observing

3. Communicating (Verbal Communication is possible among the adults only.

When children are not co-operate with us at that time , we should give them
play materials like drawing, paintings etc. 4.Counselling

Techniques of Interviewing-

1. Acceptance: Acceptance of client‟s feelings- Sympathy, empathy.

2. Assurance: Regarding the authenticity of his feelings.

3. Facilitation‟s of expression of feelings

4. Allaying feelings that are over powering (Stressful feeling can affect the
clients thinking and acting, when a clients mind is filled with stress and strains
emotions the case worker must try to reduce his stress and strains and
emotions).

5. Accrediting & building of self-confidence: (i.e. giving credit to the clients

performance, develop self confidence, finical support i.e. children‟s education,
family budget preparation etc.
6. Encouragement: While using encouragement the caseworker has to ensure
that the situations are suitable for the exercise of those techniques.

7. Improvement of communication pattern and Communication gap must be

filled up.

8. Interruptions should be avoided while interviewing.

Principles of Interviewing-

1.Privacy

2. Local language

3. Simple sentences complex sentences should be avoided

4. Emotional questions should not be used.

5. Avoid lengthy questions

Case Work Recording-

A record literally means ‘a formal writing of any fact or proceeding’ and when
used as a verb means ‘to setdown in writing or other permanent form’. Taking
cue from this we can define case record as a written account of thecasework
proceedings. However, from the above statement one should not conclude that
case recording is an easy, routineand simple task, far from it; it’s a highly
skilled and complex task.

Recording is an important and integral part of casework procedure and is an

output of the activity of the casework. The importance of recording lies both in
the processas well as the product. For, an individual who is planning to become
a caseworker, the art of record writing is worthstriving to develop and perfect,
not only because case recording is an essential part of good casework and is
becoming a more important factor with the increasing complexity of social
treatment, but also because the case record is fortunately or unfortunately often
used as one of the important indexes of the caseworkers ability.
TYPES OF RECORDING-

1. PROCESS RECORD-

Process record is one method by which you can record the content of an
interview. It involves a written record of all communication both verbal and
nonverbal (based on the worker's best recollections), and a record of the
worker's feelings and reflection throughout the interview. Audio or video
recordings can also be used, for the case worker to (a)identify client's feelings
during the interview, (b) assess client's feelings, or (c) present summary
comments.

2. PROBLEM ORIENTED RECORD-

Problem-oriented record (POR) a method of client case record keeping that

focuses on specific problems The components of the POR are:

(a)database which contains information required for each client regardless of

diagnosis or presenting problems i.e., all history, physical findings etc;

(b) problem list which contains the major problems currently needing attention;

(c) plan which specifies what is to be done with regard to each problem;

(d) progress notes which document the observations, assessments, future plans,

3. SUMMATIVE RECORD

Summative assessment is a summary of all the formative assessment carried out

over a long period and makes statements about the client's progress. Effective
assessment involves evaluation or decisions about the client's progress and their
gives us the information we need to plan for the next steps. This is called
assessment for learning: it is the formative assessment, based on observations
and other forms of evidence, which informs or guides everyday planning.

Social Group Work : Definition, Characteristics, Functions and Group

Structure, Classification of Groups and making of Social Groups, Issues of
Identity, Diversity and Marginalization-

.
Definition-
Social group work is a method of social work which develops the ability of
establishing constructive relationship in individuals through group activities.
Group experiences are the essential needs of human being. The reciprocal and
dynamic interactions and transactions between persons and environment are
inherent in social group work practice. Sometimes due to his/her own fault or
weakness and sometimes due to unfavourable environment, one fails to perform
his/ her activities of the group life. Here group work helps the individual in
removing weakness and strengthening internal power to perform his/her job
satisfactorily. The social group worker must have the theoretical knowledge of
social group work, its principles, its skills, its models, its assumption so that
he/she may be able to perform his/her jobs most satisfactorily.

Group work is one of the methods used predominantly in the context of the
face-to-face group and which uses the group also as a medium of action. It is a
unique, exciting, dynamic way to help people make changes in their lives that
they themselves desire. Groups are used effectively by social workers today to
help people of all ages and all walks of life, enhance their social functioning and
to cope more effectively with their problems. Group workers are involved in all
fields of social work practice and are to be found in mental health, family
counselling, child welfare, substance abuse, disability, correctional and many
other settings. They are critically important to members of clinical teams
attempting to respond to serious mental and emotional social problems.

Definitions of Group work-

Group Work maybe defined as an educational process emphasising the

development and social adjustment of an individual through voluntary
association and the use of this association as a means of furthering socially
desirable ends. (Newsletter -1935)

Social Group Work aims at the development of persons through the interplay of
personalities in group situations, and at the creation of such group situations to
provide for integrated, co operative group action for common (Coyle 1937)

Social Group Work will refer to working with a small group (members ranging
from 7-10) to a medium size group (members ranging from 10-20) for a variety
of purposes beginning from recreation to behaviour modification on the one
hand and accomplishing tasks including social change and development on the
other, with a variety of clients ranging from children to elderly. The worker
makes use of the expertise in human relationships to help these groups to
achieve the group goals in a participatory manner while paying adequate
attention to individual needs and social norms. (H.Y.Siddiqui -2008)

Social Group Work is a method of social work which helps individuals to

enhance their social functioning through purposeful group experiences and to
cope more effectively with their personal, group or community problems (
Konapka -1963)

Social Group work is a psychosocial process which is concerned no less than

with developing leadership ability and co operation than with building on the
interests of the group for asocial purpose (Hamilton -1949)

Group Work as a social process and a method through which group life is
affected by a worker who consciously direct the interacting process toward the
accomplishment of goals which are conceived in a democratic frame of
reference ( Wilson & Ryland -1949)

Group work is method by which the group worker enables various types of
groups to function in such a way that both group interaction and programme
activities contribute to the growth of the individual and the achievement of
desirable social goals. (Association for the Advancement of Group Work-
1948)

Characteristics-

Objectives of group work-

 To teach the individual to live & work together and participate in the
group activities for their intellectual emotion& physical growth
 To live a good life within the group and family. The individual is also
taught to work together with other people & participate in different
activities.
 To develop individual personality& behaviour by using different group
work process
 To prepare the individual to learn how to safe responsibility in a
democracy style of working.
  To give opportunity to them who have potentiality, worth and dignity of
leadership
 To make best use of leisure time To learn division of labour &
specialization of role just to indicate to play individual role in the group
 To provide suitable task to the individual according to her/his skill,
knowledge and interest
 To widen ones horizon
 To prepare people for social change
 To apply group therapy in need of physical, mental and emotional
adjustment 2.2.3.

Characteristics of Group work-

1. Group work practiced by group itself

2. It is based on humanitarian philosophy
3. It gives aspiration to help each other
4. Group work provides more information and more skill.
5. It develop human personality

Functions-

 Group works mainly sees the situation & the needs of all the individuals
& try to solve the problems of the individuals. For every individual the
group is the main source of strength & renders everybody helping hand.
 A group fulfill the social desires and need of each individual in the group
 Group work is carried on with voluntary group in the setting of social
agency
 Group workers tale care of social agencies in many fields as education,
religious &recreational field.
 It is a helping process with dual purpose of individual group growth.
 The function of the group work is always for the betterment of the
individual as well as for the growth of the entire group.
  Group worker plays role of enable & helping person, by earning an
effective group. The group worker is a main person who by her/his better
knowledge try to make the group better.

Group Structure-

Group structure is defined as the layout of a group. It is a combination of group

roles, norms, conformity, workplace behavior, status, reference groups, status,
social loafing, cohorts, group demography and cohesiveness.
 Group Roles − The different roles a person plays as a part of the group.
 Norms − The typical standard set by the group collaboratively that every
member has to follow.
 Conformity − The decisions or stand taken by majority in the group.
 Workplace behavior − The ethics that one needs to follow while
working with an organization.
 Status − The designation of members in the group.
 Social Loafing − The phenomena where group members put less effort
towards achieving a goal than they would have while working alone.
 Cohorts − Sharing common behavior in the group.
 Reference Groups − Other groups to which a group is compared to.
 Group Demography − Extent of sharing same behavior.
 Cohesiveness − Extent of belongingness towards each other in the group.
Roles
Roles are a set of expected behavior patterns associated to someone occupying
a given position in a social unit. There are three broad types of roles people
play in small groups −

 Task roles
 Building and maintenance roles
 Self-centered roles
Task Roles
Task roles are roles that focus on completing group’s goal. The different task
roles of a group are stated below −
 Coordinator − Links statements made by one group member to another.
Example − “Gita’s comment relate well to what Ram was saying.”
 Energizer − Provokes group to take action.
Example − “How many of you are willing to bring in a video on dispute
for the next session?”
 Elaborator − Extends upon another’s ideas.
Example − “I think what Niki and Anni are suggesting is that we first
explain nonverbally before we turn to verbal communication.”
 Evaluator-critic − Evaluates the group’s work against higher standards.
Example − “This is okay, but I think Shree needs to give more
feedback.”
 Information-giver − Gives helpful information.
Example − “Rohit has some books about conflict we could use.”
 Information-seeker − Questions for clarification.
Example − “Richa or Trishala, could you please tell me what you said
about disconfirming responses?”
 Recorder − Keeps notes regarding the meeting.
Example − “Last session we did not get to A-P’s presentation. Rahul and
Rohit had just finished theirs.”
 Procedural Technician − Takes accountability for tasks.
Example − “I checked out the VCR for Nigaar and Neha’s
presentations.”
Group-Building / Maintenance Roles
It focuses on building interpersonal relationships and maintaining harmony.
The various maintenance roles in a group are −
 Encourager − Gives positive feedback.
Example − “I think what Shyam was saying was totally right.”
  Follower − Obtains ideas of others in the group.
Example − “Let’s follow Adi’s plan—he had the right idea.”
 Compromiser − Attempts to reach a solution acceptable by everyone.
Example − “Pratik, Sid, and Nimmi have offered three great solutions.
Why don’t we integrate them?”
 Gatekeeper − Assists participation from everyone in the group.
Example − “I don’t think we’ve heard from Madhuri yet.”
 Harmonizer − Limits conflict and tension.
Example − “After that test, we deserve a free meal!”
 Observer − Examines group progress.
Example − “I think we’ve learned a lot so far. Monica and Mona gave us
great information.”
Self-centered Roles
These roles aim to impede or disrupt the group from reaching its goals. The
various self-centered roles in a group are as follows −
 Aggressor − Acts aggressively towards other group members and their
ideas.
Example − “Playing desert survival is the greatest idea I’ve ever heard.”
 Dominator − Dominates group speaking time.
Example − Interrupting—“I’m going to tell you seven reasons why this
is a great idea.”
 Blocker − Refuses to collaborate with other’s ideas.
Example − “I refuse to play Family Swap.”
 Help-Seeker − Acts helpless to neglect work.
Example − “I don’t think I can put together a summary. Why don’t you
do it for me?”
 Loafer − Refrains from work.
Example − “Why don’t we just go have coffee instead of finishing this
project?”
  Special Interest Advocate − Presents own viewpoint and requirements.
Example − “I can’t meet today. I need to sleep early and call my mom.”
 Self-confessor − Talks about the topics important to self and not the
group.
Example − “I really like tea. Yesterday I went to CCD. Their coffee is
better than what you get elsewhere . . .”
Norms
Norms are the acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared
by the group members. Every group develops its own customs, values, habits
and expectations for how things need to be done.
These patterns and expectations, or group norms as they're called sometimes,
direct the ways team members interact with each other.
Norms can help or block a group in achieving its goals.
Types of Norms
There are four different types of norms that exist in a group −

 Performance norms
 Appearance Norms
 Social arrangement norms
 Resource allocation norms
Performance Norms
These are centered on how hard a person should work in a given group. They
are informal clues that help a person understand how hard they should work
and what type of output they should give.
For example − Team leader puts various posters in the firm to motivate
employees to work efficiently and give their best performance.
Appearance Norms
Appearance norms updates or guides us as to how we should look or what our
physical appearance should be, like what fashion we should wear or how we
should style our hair or any number of areas related to how we should look.
For example − There is a formal dress code we need to follow while working
in a organization, we cannot wear a wedding gown to a board meeting.
Social Arrangement Norms
This norm is basically centered on how we should behave in social settings.
Again here, there are clues we need to pick up on when we are out with friends
or at social events that help us fit in and get a closer connection to the group.
For Example − We cannot take our official work to a friend’s birthday party
just for the sake of completing it.
Resource Allocation Norms
This norm focusses on the allocation of resources in a business surrounding.
This may include raw materials as well as working overtime or any other
resource found or needed within an organization.
For Example − If the client needs the project by tomorrow then anyhow it has
to be completed by using available resources or doing over time.
Conformity
Conformity can be stated as “accommodating to group pressures”. It is also
called as the majority influence or we can say the group pressure.
It is widely used to indicate an agreement to the majority position, brought
about either by a desire to fit-in or be liked or because of a desire to be correct,
or simply to conform to a social role.
Types of Social Conformity
Three types of conformity can be identified −

 Normative Conformity
 Informational Conformity
 Ingratiational Conformity
Normative Conformity
Yielding to group pressure because an individual wants to fit in with the group.
Conforming usually takes place because the individual is scared of being
rejected or neglected by the group.
This type of conformity usually includes compliance like where a person
publicly accepts the views of a group but privately rejects them.
Informational Conformity
This usually happens when a person lacks knowledge and looks to the group
for guidance. Or when a person is not clear about a situation and socially
compares one’s behavior with the group.
This type of conformity includes internalization like where a person accepts the
views of the groups and adopts them as an individual.
Ingratiational Conformity
Where a person conforms to gain a favor or acceptance from other people. It is
relative to normative influence but is encouraged by the need for social rewards
rather than the threat of being rejected.
In other words, group pressure is not always the reason to conform.
Harvard psychologist, Herbert Kelman, identified three different types of
conformity −
 Compliance − Socially changing behavior in order to fit in with the
group while disagreeing privately. In simple words, conforming to the
mass, in spite of not really agreeing with them.
 Internalization − Socially changing behavior to fit in with the group and
also agreeing with them privately.
 Identification − Agreeing to the expectations of a social role. It is
similar to compliance, but there is no change in private opinion.
Reference Groups
It is a group to which a person or another group is compared. Reference groups
are used in order to examine and determine the nature of a person or other
group's features and sociological attributes.
It is the group to which a person relates or aspires to link himself or herself
psychologically. It becomes the individual's frame of reference and source to
derive his or her experiences, perceptions, needs, and ideas of self.
These groups act as a benchmark and contrast needed for comparison and
evaluation of group and personal characteristics.
Status
Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members
by others. A group structure status includes group norms, culture, status equity.
All these factors when combined presents the status of members of the group.
Social Loafing
It is the phenomenon of people exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they
work as a group than when they work alone.
This is one of the main reasons why groups are sometimes less productive than
the combined performance of their members working as individuals, but should
be recognized from the accidental coordination problems that groups
sometimes experience.
Many of the causes of social loafing arise from an individual feeling that his or
her effort will not matter to the group.
Cohorts & Group Demography
Individuals who, as a part of a group, share a common attribute are known as
cohorts. Group demography is the level to which a member of a group can
share a common demographic attribute with his fellow team members. Group
demography is a successful ploy in increasing the efficiency of a team in the
long run.
For Example − Age, sex, religion, region, length of the service in the
organization and the impact of this attribute on turnover.
Cohesiveness
Extent to which group members are attracted towards each other, and are
encouraged to stay in the group. Group cohesion is the aggregate of all the
factors causing members of a group to stay in the group or be attracted to the
group. Group cohesion acts as the social glue that binds a group together. Some
people think that work teams illustrating strong group cohesion will function
and perform better in achieving work goals.
Group cohesion is not attributed to one single factor, but is the interaction of
more than one factor. While group cohesion may have an impact on group
performance, group performance may create or increase group cohesion. Thus,
group cohesion can actually have a negative impact on group task performance.
The most influential factor that creates a positive relationship between group
cohesion and group performance is the group members' commitment towards
the organization's performance goals and norms.

Classification of Groups and making of Social Groups-

Dwight Sanderson suggested a three fold classification of social groups. He
classified them into involuntary, voluntary and delegate groups. Tonnis
classified groups in communities and associations’ .Cooley classified groups
on the basis of kind of contact into primary and secondary groups. In a primary
group there is a face to face and intimate relationship such the family. In
Secondary group relationships are indirect, secondary or impersonal such as
political party.

F.H. Giddings classified groups into genetic and congregate. The group
genetic group is the family in which a man born involuntarily. The congregate
group is the voluntary group into which he moves or which he joins voluntarily.
George Hasen classifies groups on the basis of their relations to other groups
into unsocial, psedo-social, antisocial or pro-social. Meller divided social
groups into horizontal and vertical groups. Charles A Ellwood distinguished
among involuntary and voluntary, Institutional and non institutional,
temporary and permanent group.

Summer made distinction between an in-group and out-group. The groups

with which the individual identifies himself are his in-groups such as family,
friend’s religion etc. An out-group consists of those persons, whether formally
organized or not, towards whom we feel the sense of indifference, avoidance,
disgust, competition or outright conflict. The distinction between in-group and
out-group is usually expressed in the contrast between "they" and "we" for
example we are democrats they are communists. Such attitude that these are my
people' and 'those are not my people' produce a sense of attachment to the other
members of in-group while a sense of indifference with the members of out
group.

Cooley’s Classification

Primary Group-
A Primary group is a small group in which a small number of persons come into
direct contact with one another. They meet face to face for mutual help,
companionship and discuss on common questions. They live in the presence and
thought about one another.
 Secondary Group-
A secondary group is one which is large in size such as a city, nation or political
party. Here, human contacts become superficial and undefined. The relationship
of the members are limited in scope and arrived at by much trial and error and
in terms of self interest calculations of the members.

Reference Groups –
Man is an imitative animal.The desire to imitate others individuals is instinctive
in him.when one finds another person progressing in life, he also desire to
progress like him. He compares himself with other and begins behaving like
them in order to reach their status and positions. Such behaviour after
comparisons with other is called reference behaviour. The concept of social
reference group behaviour was given by Hayman later, Turner, Merton and
Sheriff further elaborated this concept.

According to G.Simmel he has divided group on basis of number of people in

the group. He is a German sociology. According to him there are two groups (i)
smaller collection of people (ii) larger scale collection of people
Dwright Sanderson classifies group on the basis of structure of the group.
According to him there are three groups.
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i. involuntary group
ii. voluntary group
iii. delegate group
iv. in which people become the member involuntarily. People have no choice like
family.If we are born in the family we belong to the family.
v. people have their own choice membership of one's own choice to become or
join any group like professional group (can join or resign)
vi. Representative - If a person becomes a member he has to represent the whole
group or whole group should make him the representative of the group like
Parliament (M.P.), Legislative Assembly (M.L.A.)
 Miller Classifies group on the basis of stratification in the society 1. Vertical 2.
Horizontal

1. Differences in position, ranks, status vertically. Like class or caste. Some think
that there is higher caste. Caste is divided into sub-caste and even in that they
think they are above in the society, post and prestige.
2. All equal. Every member is equal like teachers same qualification (economic
position may differ a criciticsm).

Summer- On the basis of intimacy of relationship 1. In group 2. Out group.

1. Intimacy in your own, oneness on feeling. I am in this group i.e. we feeling.

Any person of any group should be in group (a member of), friendliness,
solidarity, loyalty among members & sympathy towards each other, pleasure on
feeling should also be there. Members do not like to hurt anyone and to be hurt
by anyone.
2. There is indifference. The group from which I maintain a distance and out group
(in which I don't like to be a member). These express themselves as 'they'. We
are democratic and they are communist. Lack of sympathy to an extent,
solidarity, avoidance, indifference, competition instead of co-operation, conflict.
All this is found in out group. Eg. Caste, color difference. – White think that
they are superior. In religion there are social distances. We are Indian and he is
Chinese. So caste, religion, nationality are its example.

F,Tonms – basis of community and society. His classification into 2 is :

1. Gemienschaft – Urban character – industrialization

2. Gesselschaft – Mental standard low – rural
3. Temporary group which is formed for some time like crowd, public mob-
4. Permanent group – Village, State – we live permanently.
5. Regional group – State, nation
6. Cultural group – groups for some cultural purpose, recreational, educational
group, religion.

Fichter – in his book "Sociology" describes about 4 types of group.

1. Common Ancestry Group (related with blood group, almost same to Gillin)
2. Common Territory Group (regional group, permanent group) same as Gillin
only leading different.
3. Similar bodily characteristic age sex , social group
4. Common interest group related with cultural group fulfill some Common
culture purpose – Recreation group, education group, religious group, economic
group, political group.

According to Mac Iver & Page – He mentions 3 groups

1. On the basis of territory and interest territorial unities (you live in a particular
territory like village, town, country or city).
2. Interest conscious unities without definite organization – people have the same
interest and are conscious about the aim but they don't have a definite organism.
Like Refugee group. People have different psychological group.
3. Interest conscious unities with definite organization (here they have
responsibility towards each other. Members are limited in this group. Everyone
one same aim like cricket club, relationship with each other good.

Murdock – into 3 groups

1. Structural or quasi – structural group. Any group has some structure, organized
and developed spontaneously developed automatically. Here he says about
tribes, state or class group.
2. Occasional or circumstantial group – Transitory group, temporary public mob
(we feeling but no definite organization) crowd.
3. Artificial group – The groups formed and we become members deliberately like
political group, educational group etc.

George Hasan – into 3 groups

1. Unsocial group - Aloof from other groups, you don't go to other group
2. Pseudo social group - People in that group go to other group but for their own
interest.
3. Antisocial group - against the interest of society. You become against the
interest of society and make your own group e.g. Terrorist, strike group etc.

Charles Cooley: On the basis of relationship (1) primary and (2) secondary. He
classified these 2 groups in his book "Social Organization". He is an American
sociologist in 1909.
C.H. Cooley: American sociologist classified group as primary and secondary
in 1909 in his book "Social organization". Primary group small in size, intimate
relationship, co-operation among members – family, play group. There should
be limited, own interest, should fulfill the need of others, mutual understanding
direct (face to face) relationship for a common decision, closeness is there, spirit
of give and take. 'Face to face' is not a characteristic of primary group – some
sociologists have said. R.C. Farris has criticized – he says physical proximity is
not primary group like Kinship. In this we do not have a face to face relation but
while taking a decision we keep everyone in mind with whom we have blood
relationship. R.C. Farris another e.g. in a court the judge lawyer, criminal – all
are face to face but not a primary group because there is no feeling.

Definition of Primary Group

Cooley – "By primary group I mean those characterized by intimate face to face
association and co-operation. They are primary in several senses, but chiefly
they are fundamental informing social nature & ideals of the individual"
Lundberg in his book "Sociology" – "Primary group means two or more person
behaving in relation to each other in a way that is intimate, cohesive and
personal.
Bierstead – in his book 'social order' says – "By primary group meant the
intimate personal face to face groups in which we find our companions and
comrades the members of our family and our daily associates.

Definition of Secondary Group

Secondary Group: Always goal oriented. There is co-operation but this co-
operation is indirect. Impersonal and indirect relationship. It is optional
membership. Eg. Trade Union, City, person, etc. Large in size. There is seldom
face to face relationship no mutual identification.
According to Cooley – There are groups wholly backing in intimacy of
association and usually most of the other primary and quasi – primary
characteristic.
According to Kinsley Davis – "Secondary group can roughly be defined as
opposite of everything said about primary group".
 Oglourn & Nimkoff – "The group which provides experience lacking in
intimacy are called secondary group.
(If difference between primary and secondary group is asked then start the
answer with K. Davis's difference.)
Characteristics of secondary group –

1. To fulfill some common goal

2. Lacking in intimacy
3. Indirect relationship
4. Optional membership.

Issues of Identity-

Role conflict-

Role conflict occurs when there are incompatible demands placed upon a
person relating to their job or position. Persons experience role conflict when
they find themselves pulled in various directions as they try to respond to the
many statuses they hold. Role conflict can be something that can be for either a
short period of time, or a long period of time, and it can also be connected to
situational experiences.

Role conflict is a stressor that occurs in the workplace when one or more of the
following situations arises:

1. Personal value conflict: For example, someone who believes in animal

rights may not be the best person to work in a slaughterhouse.

2. Poor role definition: If a person doesn't know what they're supposed to be

doing, that's going to be stressful. This could be as a result of a lack of
guidance, training, or a poor onboarding process.

3. A worker is asked or forced to perform a role that is incongruent with

their current role: An example might be an office secretary being asked to
 work loading trucks in the warehouse.

4. A worker's roles for one organization doesn't mesh with their role for
another organization: For instance, when a person working on a project
with two companies is asked to do something by one company that runs
counter to the code of ethics of the other.

Role Strain-
Role strain occurs when a person has difficulty meeting the responsibilities of a
particular role in his or her life. If you're reading this right now at a time when
you are having trouble keeping up with the expectations on you as a student,
learning all you need to learn, keeping on top of the work involved, this means
you are experiencing strain on your role as a student.
A role is the term used by sociologists, and often in society in general, to
describe a set of expected behaviors and obligations a person has based on their
particular place in the world. We all have multiple roles and responsibilities in
our lives.
At times, this may mean one role is in conflict with another. This is known
as role conflict. For example, if you are both a student and you are employed,
and your supervisor at work insists that you work late, this could interfere with
your ability to study for an exam the next day. In this case, your role as a
student and your role as an employee are in conflict with one another. You may
feel that it is challenging to meet the demands of both well.

Diversity and Marginalization-

Diversity-

Diversity has the potential to either disrupt group functioning or, conversely, be
the source of collective creativity and insight. These two divergent perspectives
pose a paradox that has held the attention of scholars for many years. In
response, researchers have marshaled evidence to specify the conditions under
which diversity leads to more positive outcomes and explain why it does so
under these conditions. After describing these foundational perspectives and
more recent work that addresses this paradox, we outline several promising
directions for research in this domain. We encourage researchers to develop
integrative theoretical explanations, use new technologies to gain insight into
group processes, study diversity in the context of virtual interaction, and take
advantage of opportunities for cross-disciplinary research.

Marginalization-

Marginalization is the process of pushing a particular group or groups of

people to the edge of society by not allowing them an active voice, identity,
or place in it. Through both direct and indirect processes, marginalized
groups may be relegated to a secondary position or made to feel as if they
are less important than those who hold more power or privilege in society.
At Syracuse University, students from marginalized groups can be the
target of negative beliefs, behaviors, or judgements from others. Individuals
and groups can be marginalized on the basis of multiple aspects of their
identity, including but not limited to: race, gender or gender identity,
ability, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, sexuality, age, and/or
religion. Some individuals identify with multiple marginalized groups, and
may experience further marginalization as a result of their intersecting
identities.

Marginalization can manifest in subtle or overt actions including:

 Use of derogatory language

 Assuming someone’s accomplishments are not based on merit
 Expecting individuals to act a certain way based on stereotypes held about
another’s identity
 Denying someone academic or professional opportunities because of their
identity (i.e. racism, sexism, ableism)
 Not providing equal access to certain resources based on membership in a
particular group
 Assuming preferred pronoun without asking
 Assuming sexual orientation without asking
 Overlooking, criticizing, or interfering with other’s cultural or religious
traditions and values
 Systemic and/or institutionalized barriers to access and support

IMPACT OF MARGINALIZATION ON STUDENTS

 Marginalization can have a negative impact on students’ psychological,
emotional and physical health. Some possible psychological and emotional
responses to marginalization include:

 Anger
 Anxiety
 Paranoia
 Fear
 Depression
 Self-blame
 Sadness
 Frustration
 Hopelessness
 Resentment
 Powerlessness
 Self-Doubt
 Isolation
 Stress
 Confusion
 Feeling invisible or not heard

Social Group Work Process and Group Dynamics : Principles,

Determinants, Indicators and Outcomes, Decision making and Problem
Solving Process, Theories of Leadership, Roles and Responsibilities of
Group Leaders.

Principles of Group work-

The group worker benefit the conscious understanding between the two. The
concepts are ideas regarding between the two. The concepts are ideas regarding
between the two. The concepts are ideas regarding individuals, groups and
communities emerged from social and biological sciences as well as from the
humanities disciplines. Such concepts are for example social distance, problem,
role, ego, etc.

Douglas has described fourteen principles of social group work-

1) Recognition and subsequent action in relation to the unique difference of
each individual.

2) Recognition and subsequent action in relation to the wide variety of groups

as groups.

3) Genuine acceptance of each individual with his unique strengths and

weaknesses.

4) Establishment of a purposeful relationship between group worker and group

members.

5) Encouragement and enabling of help and cooperative relationship between

members.

6) Appropriate modification of the group process.

7) Encouragement of each member to participate according to the stage of his

capacity and enabling him to become more capable.

8) Enabling members to involve themselves in the process of problem solving.

9) Enabling group members to experience increasingly satisfactory forms of

working through conflicts.

10) Provision of opportunities for new and differing experience in relationships

and accomplishments.

11) Judicious use of limitations related to the diagnostic assessment of each

individual and total situation.

Konopka has described certain principles to work with the groups.

Summary of these principles has been narrated here-

1) The social worker’s goal is to enable clients or group members as a whole to

move toward greater independence and capacity for help.
2) The social worker must use the scientific method to prepare for action fact-
finding analysis and diagnosis in relation to the individual, group and the social
environment.

3) The social worker must form purposeful relationship. It means a conscious

focusing on the needs of the group members and attempts to fulfill them.

4) The social worker must use himself consciously. This includes self-
knowledge and discipline in relationship but without the loss of warmth and
spontaneity.

5) The social worker must accept members as they are, without condemning
their behaviour. This involves deep understanding of group members as well as
knowledge and identification of values regulating human beings.

6) The social worker must understand the origins of his own value system and
be able to handle it in relation to the value system of others.

7) He must allow members to develop their own behaviour without much

interference and to choose their own point of departure without imposing
outside demands. But the worker has responsibility for stimulating change.

Cohen has also discussed certain principles which may be significant in

working with the groups. According to him-

1) The group members must be encouraged to help themselves by the social

worker playing as indirect or enabling role rather than a manipulative one. It
means the group members be given the right of self-direction and self-
determination.

2) The work with the group should be started at the level of group members. It
means that proper knowledge of educational, economic, social and other
characteristics are essential while working with the group. If the work or
programmes are above the mental level of members, they will loose their
interest.

3) Social worker must focus not merely on the immediate problem as seen by
the group but on relation to the total situation.

4) Social worker must keep in mind that individual differences exist while
dealing with the group members.
 5) It should be kept in mind that the welfare of individual is inextricably
interwoven with the welfare of the group. Therefore social worker must be
concerned with the development of material, human and social resources to
meet all the needs of all the members of the group.

Friedlander has mentioned the following basic principles of social group

work-

1) The function of the social group worker is a helping or enabling one. This
means that his goal is to help the members of the group and the group as a
whole to move toward greater independence and capacity for self-help.

2) In determining his/her way of life, the group worker uses the scientific
method--- factfinding, analysis and diagnosis in relation to the individual, the
group of the social environment.

3) The group work method requires the worker to form purposeful relationship
to group members and the group.

4) One of the main tools in achieving such relationship is the conscious use of
self.

5) A basic respect and love for people without considering his weakness.

6) The work should be started from where the group is.

7) There should be constructive use of limitations. The group worker will

mainly use himself, programme materials, interaction of the group and awaking
of insight in the group members.

8) Every member of the group should be understood separately. It means

individualization is essential.

9) Interaction is a process through which group members develop their strengths

and power. Therefore, social group worker should properly monitor this
process.

Trecker has explained the following principles of social group work-

1) The principle of planned group formation.

2) The principle of specific objectives.

3) The principle of purposeful worker-group relationship.

4) The principle of continuous individualization.

5) The principle of guided group interaction.

6) The principle of democratic group self- determination.

7) The principle of flexible functional organisation.

8) The principle of progressive programme experience.

9) The principle of resource utilization.

10) The principle of evaluation.

Indicators and Outcomes of Group Work-

Group cohesion-

As leaders, we always strive for cohesion in a group. Whether you are putting a
team together or trying to form a small group, the rule of thumb is to maximize
cohesion. The more cohesive a group, the more effective it can work on tasks or
deliver the required outcome.

Generally speaking, the five factors in “group dynamics” that influence

cohesion, is:

 Stability– The longer a group is together with the same members, the more
cohesive the group will be.
 Similarity– The more similar the group members are in terms of age, race,
sex, education level etc, the more cohesive the group will be.
 Size– Cohesion develops quicker in small groups than in large group.
 Support– If individual team members have mentors or supporting leaders
who provide input and encouragement to support one another, the team as a
whole will be more cohesive.
 Satisfaction– The more satisfied team members are with each others
performance, output or work ethics, the more cohesive the team will be.

Groupthink-

Groupthink is when a group value harmony above critical thinking. Consensus

becomes more important than allowing alternative viewpoints. Sure, the group
will say that they tolerate differences, but unknowingly they follow the leader(s)
unquestioningly. The unwritten group dynamic is to discourage disagreement.
Controversial issues are avoided and individuals will feel they do not have the
freedom to ask questions. They will even start to act against their better
judgement and loose their uniqueness.

Group conflict-

Group conflict can be separated into two sub-categories of conflict: inter-

group conflict (in which distinct groups of individuals are at odds with one
another), and intra-group conflict (in which select individuals that are part of
the same group clash with one another).

2 Main Types of Group Conflicts-

1. Inter-Group Conflict-
When a conflict takes place between two or more groups it is called ‘inter-group
conflict’.

2. Intra-Group Conflict-

A group often consists of persons of similar values, attitude, interests and goals.
Group interests are generally the same but individual interest and goal may
differ from person to person in a group. The result is conflict. Thus, a conflict
between two or among some members in a group may be referred to as ‘intra-
group conflict’.
Group conformity-

Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in belief or

behavior in order to fit in with a group. This change is in response to real
(involving the physical presence of others) or imagined (involving the pressure
of social norms / expectations) group pressure.

Conformity is a change in behavior or belief toward a group standard as a result

of the group's influence on an individual. As this definition indicates,
conformity is a type of social influence through which group members come to
share similar beliefs and standards of behavior. It includes the processes by
which group members converge on a given standard of belief or behavior as
well as the pressures they exert on one another to uphold such standards.

Group Compliance-

Compliance is behavioral conformity in order to achieve rewards or avoid

punishments (Kelman 1958). Since one can behaviorally adhere to a group
standard without personally believing in it, the term is often used to indicate
conformity that is merely public rather than private as well. Compliance can
also refer to behavioral conformity to the request or demand of another,
especially an authority.

Group cohesiveness-

Group cohesiveness (also called group cohesionand social cohesion) arises

when bonds link members of a social group to one another and to thegroup as a
whole. Although cohesion is a multi-faceted process, it can be broken down
into four main components: social relations, task relations, perceived unity, and
emotions.

Minority influence-

Minority influence, a form of social influence, takes place when a member of

a minority group influences the majority to accept the
minority's beliefs or behavior. This occurs when a small group or an individual
acts as an agent of social change by questioning established societal
perceptions, and proposing alternative, original ideas which oppose the existing
social norms.
Group polarization-

Group polarization occurs when discussion leads a group to adopt attitudes or

actions that are more extreme than the initial attitudes or actions of the
individual group members. Note that group polarization can happen in the
direction of either riskiness (risky shift) or conservativeness. One example is the
way in which unruly mobs (e.g., lynch mobs) often commit horrendous acts of
violence that no individual member would have been brash enough to attempt
(the kidnapping and hanging of humans by the neck until the point of death).

All of the members like to take risk (after all, that's why they are in marketing),
and the final product idea is a risky one to proceed with. The persuasive group
of marketing individuals selected a new Cricket Chocolate Bar made of actual
insects. Supposedly it is extremely popular in the South and packs a lot of
protein. This decision was disastrous.

Group facilitation-

A process where an individual who is agreed upon and acceptable to all of a

group's members intervenes to assist the group in solving problems and making
decisions to improve productivity and efficiency but who has no authority to
make decisions.

Bystander Effect-

The term bystander effect refers to the phenomenon in which the greater the
number of people present, the less likely people are to help a person in distress.
When an emergency situation occurs, observers are more likely to take action if
there are few or no other witnesses. Being part of a large crowd makes it so no
single person has to take responsibility for an action (or inaction).

Explanations for the Bystander Effect-

There are two major factors that contribute to the bystander effect.
First, the presence of other people creates a diffusion of responsibility.
Because there are other observers, individuals do not feel as much pressure to
take action, since the responsibility to take action is thought to be shared among
all of those present.

The second reason is the need to behave in correct and socially acceptable
ways. When other observers fail to react, individuals often take this as a signal
that a response is not needed or not appropriate. Other researchers have found
that onlookers are less likely to intervene if the situation is ambiguous. In the
case of Kitty Genovese, many of the 38 witnesses reported that they believed
that they were witnessing a "lover's quarrel," and did not realize that the young
woman was actually being murdered.

Group decision-making-

Group decision-making (also known as collaborative decision-making) is a

situation faced when individuals collectively make a choice from the
alternatives before them. The decision is then no longer attributable to any
single individual who is a member of the group. This is because all the
individuals and social group processes such as social influencecontribute to the
outcome. The decisions made by groups are often different from those made by
individuals. Group polarization is one clear example: groups tend to make
decisions that are more extreme than those of its individual members, in the
direction of the individual inclinations.

Problem Solving Process in Group-

DEFINE THE PROBLEM-

When problem solving, many groups observe a common practice. They “think
in reverse.” Before identifying the problem or knowing the facts about the
problem, they propose solutions. If luck is with them, a satisfactory solution
might result, but these short cuts usually do not work. The problem reappears
and continues to plague the group. A more sensible approach to problem
solving is to begin by determining what the problem is. Usually a group
undertakes problem solving because of a felt difficulty. The members perceive a
perplexing situation and realize it has to be dealt with.
ANALYZE THE PROBLEM-

After the group has agreed on what the problem is, then next step is to analyze
it, particularly its causes and effects. In doing this the group must try to avoid
letting opinions take priority over facts.

ESTABLISH CRITERIA FOR SOLUTIONS-

After your group has analyzed the problem, you must now establish criteria to
guide you in your quest for solutions. These solutions, preferably, will solve the
problem, and will not cause other problems to develop and make conditions
worse than they are already.

GENERATING POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM-

Having determined the criteria, the group can now propose solutions to the
problem. Rather than accepting the first one proposed, the members should try
to think of many ways to solve the problem. To create a list of possible
solutions, the group might use brainstorming, a technique designed to bring
forth many ideas. Three rules govern its use: (1) ideas are to be expressed
freely; as an idea comes to mind, it is to be expressed without evaluation by
anyone; (2) all ideas, wild or otherwise, are welcome; (3) as many ideas as
possible are voiced; quantity is the goal. When the group runs out of ideas, it
evaluates those resulting from the brainstorming. 5.

SELECT THE BEST SOLUTION-

In this step the group chooses the solution that seems to meet the criteria better
than any other.

IMPLEMENT THE SOLUTION-

The finale step involves deciding how to put the solution into effect. This step
has much value. First, in deciding how to execute a solution, the group may
uncover possible weaknesses. What often sounds like a good decision might
prove to be inoperable.

Theories of Leadership-

Great Man Theory (1840s)-

The Great Man theory evolved around the mid 19th century. Even though no
one was able to identify with any scientific certainty, which human
characteristic or combination of, were responsible for identifying great leaders.
Everyone recognized that just as the name suggests; only a man could have the
characteristic (s) of a great leader.

The Great Man theory assumes that the traits of leadership are intrinsic. That
simply means that great leaders are born they are not made.

Trait Theory (1930's - 1940's)-

The trait leadership theory believes that people are either born or are made with
certain qualities that will make them excel in leadership roles. That is, certain
qualities such as intelligence, sense of responsibility, creativity and other values
puts anyone in the shoes of a good leader. In fact, Gordon Allport, an American
psychologist,"...identified almost 18,000 English personality-relevant terms"
(Matthews, Deary & Whiteman, 2003, p. 3).

The trait theory of leadership focused on analyzing mental, physical and social
characteristic in order to gain more understanding of what is the characteristic
or the combination of characteristics that are common among leaders.

Behavioural Theories (1940's - 1950's)-

In reaction to the trait leadership theory, the behavioural theories are offering a
new perspective, one that focuses on the behaviours of the leaders as opposed to
their mental, physical or social characteristics. Thus, with the evolutions in
psychometrics, notably the factor analysis, researchers were able to measure the
cause an effects relationship of specific human behaviours from leaders. From
this point forward anyone with the right conditioning could have access to the
once before elite club of naturally gifted leaders. In other words, leaders are
made not born.

The behavioural theories first divided leaders in two categories. Those that were
concerned with the tasks and those concerned with the people. Throughout the
literature these are referred to as different names, but the essence are identical.

Contingency Theories (1960's)-

The Contingency Leadership theory argues that there is no single way of

leading and that every leadership style should be based on certain situations,
which signifies that there are certain people who perform at the maximum level
in certain places; but at minimal performance when taken out of their element.

To a certain extent contingency leadership theories are an extension of the trait

theory, in the sense that human traits are related to the situation in which the
leaders exercise their leadership.

Transactional leadership Theories (1970's)-

Transactional theories, also known as exchange theories of leadership, are

characterized by a transaction made between the leader and the followers. In
fact, the theory values a positive and mutually beneficial relationship.

For the transactional theories to be effective and as a result have motivational

value, the leader must find a means to align to adequately reward (or punish) his
follower, for performing leader-assigned task. In other words, transactional
leaders are most efficient when they develop a mutual reinforcing environment,
for which the individual and the organizational goals are in sync.

Transformational Leadership Theories (1970s)-

The Transformational Leadership theory states that this process is by which a

person interacts with others and is able to create a solid relationship that results
in a high percentage of trust, that will later result in an increase of motivation,
both intrinsic and extrinsic, in both leaders and followers.

The essence of transformational theories is that leaders transform their followers

through their inspirational nature and charismatic personalities. Rules and
regulations are flexible, guided by group norms. These attributes provide a
sense of belonging for the followers as they can easily identify with the leader
and its purpose.

Roles and Responsibilities of Group Leaders-

The group worker is the key player in the formation of the group. The worker
plays a number of roles. He/she plays the most widely shared roles of social
worker in general viz., enabler, mediator, advocate, educator and facilitator. The
roles specific to social work group are that of a leader and decision maker.

As enabler the worker furnishes the necessary information to members so that

member’s doubts are clarified and their participation levels improve.
Encourages the member/s who takes initiatives in performing the group tasks.

As mediator the worker resolves the conflicts in the group by liaison. Brings
conflicting members onto discussion forum and interprets each member’s points
of view so that the misunderstandings that aused the conflict are put to an end.
The worker also mediates the negotiations between the group and the other staff
of the agency and other resource agencies.

As advocate the worker presents the case of the members to the agency
authorities to secure certain additional facilities and concessions. Pleads on
behalf of the member with family and/or with the community to cooperate with
the member by way of accommodating the member’s needs. He/She presents
the case of the member/s to the referral services.

As educator the worker clarifies the misnomers the member/s have about
various aspects such as the problem/need, irrational beliefs, unfounded fears etc.
He passes on information to the members about the developments taking place
in the areas concerning their social situations.
 As facilitator the worker creates congenial environment for the group to go
ahead with its activities and tasks. He/she procures the required material for the
smooth conduct of the group sessions/tasks. The worker helps members who are
shy and withdrawn type to participate by helping them to identify their
intrapersonal and interpersonal shortcomings and assists them in overcoming
these.

Group Development : Stages of Group Work, Techniques and Skills in

Group Work, Group Climate, Communication in Groups, Use of
Programme Media and Group Work Recording, Monitoring and
Evaluation-

Stages of Group Work-

A team cannot be expected to perform well right from the time it is formed.
Forming a team is just like maintaining a relationship. It takes time, patience,
requires support, efforts and members often go through recognizable stages as
they change from being a collection of strangers to a united group with
common goals.
Bruce Tuckman presented a model of five stages Forming, Storming, Norming,
and Performing in order to develop as a group.

Orientation (Forming Stage)-

The first stage of group development is the forming stage. This stage presents a
time where the group is just starting to come together and is described with
anxiety and uncertainty.
Members are discreet with their behavior, which is driven by their desire to be
accepted by all members of the group. Conflict, controversy, misunderstanding
and personal opinions are avoided even though members are starting to form
impressions of each other and gain an understanding of what the group will do
together.

Power Struggle (Storming Stage)-

The second stage of group development is the storming stage. The storming
stage is where dispute and competition are at its greatest because now group
members have an understanding of the work and a general feel of
belongingness towards the group as well as the group members.
This is the stage where the dominating group members emerge, while the less
confrontational members stay in their comfort zone.
Cooperation and Integration (Norming Stage)-
In this stage, the group becomes fun and enjoyable. Group interaction are lot
more easier, more cooperative, and productive, with weighed give and take,
open communication, bonding, and mutual respect.
If there is a dispute or disruption, it’s comparatively easy to be resolved and the
group gets back on track.
Group leadership is very important, but the facilitator can step back a little and
let group members take the initiative and move forward together.
Synergy (Performing Stage)-
Once a group is clear about its needs, it can move forward to the third stage of
group development, the norming stage. This is the time where the group
becomes really united.
At this stage, the morale is high as group members actively acknowledge the
talents, skills and experience that each member brings to the group. A sense of
belongingness is established and the group remains focused on the group's
purpose and goal.
Members are flexible, interdependent, and trust each other. Leadership is
distributive and members are willing to adapt according to the needs of the
group.
Closure (Adjourning Stage)-
This stage of a group can be confusing and is usually reached when the task is
successfully completed. At this stage, the sproject is coming to an end and the
team members are moving off in different directions.
This stage looks at the team from the perspective of the well-being of the team
instead of the perspective of handling a team through the original four stages of
team growth.
Techniques and Skills in Group Work-

Trecker has listed the following basic skills of social group work-

1. Skill in Establishing Purposeful Relationship-

a) The group worker must be skilful in gaining the acceptance of the group and
in relating himself to the group on a positive professional basis.

b) The group worker must be skillful in helping individuals in the group to

accept one another and to join with the group in common pursuits.

2.Skill in Analysing the Group Situation-

a) The worker must be skillful in judging the developmental level of the group
to determine what the level is, what the group needs and how quickly the group
can be expected to move. This calls for skill in direct observation of groups on a
basis of analysis and judgment.

b) The group worker must be skillful in helping the group to express ideas,
work out objectives, clarify immediate goals and see both its potentialities and
limitations as a group.

3.Skill in Participation with the Group-

a) The group worker must be skillful in determining, interpreting, assuming and

modifying his own roles with the group.

b) The group worker must be skillful in helping, group members to participate,

to locate leadership among them and to take responsibility for their own
activities.

4. Skill in Dealing with Group Feeling-

 a) The group worker must be skilful in controlling his own feelings about the
group and must study each new situation with a high degree of objectivity.

b) The group worker must be skillful in helping groups to release their own
feelings, both positive and negative. He must be skillful in helping groups to
analyze situations as part of the working through group or intergroup conflicts.

5.Skill in Programme Development-

a) The group worker must be skillful in guiding group thinking so that interests
and needs will be revealed and understood.

b) The group worker must be skillful in helping groups to develop programmes,

which they want as a means through which their needs may be met.

6. Skill in Using Agency and Community Resources-

a) The group worker must be skillful in locating and then acquainting the group
with various helpful resources which can be utilized by the members for
programme purpose.

b) The group worker must be skillful in helping certain individual members to

make use of specialized services by means of referral that cannot be met within
the group.

7.Skill in Evaluation-

a) The group worker must have skill in recording the development processes
that are going on as he works with the group.

b) The group worker must be skillful in using his records and in helping the
group to review its experiences as a means of improvement.

Group Climate-

• A group climate is the emotional atmosphere, the enveloping tone that is

created by the way we communicate in groups.
• A positive climate exists when individuals perceive that they are valued,
supported, and treated will by the group.
 • A negative climate exists when group members do not feel valued,
supported, and respected, when trust is minimal, and when members
perceive that they are not treated well.

Group climate consists of the overall sentiment that is displayed within a group.
This includes the aspects of honesty, openness, consistency and respect according
to “Teamwork” by Lefasto and Larson. When evaluating the characteristics of
group climate in a team, the most prevalent component to examine is trust. Trust
yields respect, acknowledgement, cohesiveness, a bridge between cultural
differences and above all else, sensitivity to ideas being expressed so a consensus
can be reached. However, as pointed out by “Teamwork”, trust is extremely
fragile. If trust can be maintained and not breached, a team has defeated one of
the few obstacles that inhibit the team from attaining their ultimate goal.

Communication in Groups-

Group communication is both a science and an art. Behavioral scientists and

management theorists have attempted to discern patterns in group
communication and prescribe methods of increasing communication
effectiveness for years. Although the merging of diverse cultures around the
world makes this an ever-evolving topic, there are a number of elements that
have been proven to encourage effective group communication processes.

Groups, or work teams, can accomplish great things in small and large
businesses alike. A group's overall effectiveness, however, hinges to a great
extent on the effectiveness of the participants' communication abilities. Without
positive flows of communication, misunderstandings can occur between groups,
creating a fractious work environment. Without clear communication between
group leaders and workers, productivity can slow as workers struggle to
understand their specific job functions.

Function of Group Communication-

The term "group communication" refers to the messages that are exchanged by
group members. These messages, whether verbal or nonverbal, are important to
groups because it is through the exchange of messages that group members
participate, maintain the group identity, determine goals, motivate participation,
and do the many things that keep the group intact. For example, a soccer team
can be considered to be a group, but one would not expect a soccer team to exist
or compete with other soccer teams without exchanging messages.

Use of Programme Media in Group Work Process-

In Social Group Work, the knowledge is always translated among the group
members by the Worker through the judicious use of ‘programmes’.
Programmes which work as a wonderful tool to enhance group relationship also
include various other purposes like attaining improvement in members’ own
environmental conditions, promoting a sense of achievement, sublimating and
channelizing certain impulses, actualizing problems in an on-going social
situation and working through or articulating symbolically problems and
feelings which members are unable to express verbally. Programme is a concept
which, when broadly conceived, includes the entire range of activities,
relationship, interactions and experience that have been deliberately planned
and carried out with help of the worker to meet the needs of the individuals and
the group. Programme is a concept which broadly includes the entire range of
activities, relationships, interactions and experiences which have been
deliberately planned & carried out with the help of workers to meet the needs of
individuals & also groups.

In planning programmes, the Social Group Worker must take into account
a number of factors.

1. The programme must be in accord with the facilities and traditions of the
community/ the setting in which he/she is practicing

2. The programme must be tailored to fit into the needs and interests of the
group members.

3. The programme must be based upon the resources which exist in the
community.

4. The programme should provide opportunities for all members to participate.

The role of group worker in programme planning then, can be enumerated
as follows:

1. Helping the members to plan the programme after identifying the need.

2. Discovering and arousing interest among the members.

3. Enabling the group to use available environment effectively

4. Making the group to realize limitations Programme can thus become the
medium in Group Work.

In other sense, various media can be used in delivering the programme. In both
these angles Programme Media has to be dissected in detail.

Group Work Recording-

The Social Work Dictionary (1995) defines “recording” as the process of

putting in writing and keeping on file relevant information about the client
system; the problem; the prognosis; the intervention; the progress of treatment;
the social, economic, and health factors contributing to the situation and the
procedures for termination or referral.

The social work record should also emphasize the strengths client‟s system and
solutions for change. The dictionary acknowledges that there are many types of
social work recording and the type used may depend upon factors such as
agency requirements, the social worker‟s theoretical base, style and type of
intervention

Importance of Recording in Social Group Work

“Recording has value for the group, the worker, and the agency and for the field
of social work.”
 (H. B. Trecker, 1955:201)

§ Records helps the group worker to understand the group

§ Help the worker to understand the group as a whole

§ Provide evidences of growth and change in the members and in the group worker
himself

§ Recording help the worker to do more effective job with his groups

§ Through records the worker can see merging and changing of interests of
individual members

§ Through records the worker can see the development of skills and social
attitudes of members

§ Through records the worker gains knowledge of special problems in the group

§ Through records the worker can trace out the emergence of group consciousness

§ Records provide content of supervisory conferences

§ Records of the source of future planning

§ Records are the source of information for other workers

§ Records provide a permanent and continuous register of facts for the agency

Principles of social work recording – Lindsay

1. Principle of flexibility – Group worker should record as a disciplined

professional, that should be in accordance with the agency and group.

2. Principle of selection – Significant observation about individuals and their

interactions, group behavior, activities should be recorded.
3. Principle of Readability – Keep it short and simple, should be well described
and presented. Should contain outline and summaries.

4. Principle of Confidentiality – Records should be kept under lock and key.

5. Principle of worker acceptance – Worker should be accepted by the group

as a faithful and reliable and trustworthy person. Worker should take the
responsibility of being accepted.

The Purpose of Social Work Recording

§ A clear statement of social work assessment, intervention, and decision-making

§ Professional accountability and transparency to the client and organization and

in keeping with relevant legislation.

§ Opportunity for critical thought and reflection on professional practice and

service delivery

§ Relevant information to facilitate service delivery, continuity of care and

termination of services

§ Information for the purposes of supervision

§ Documentation for the purposes of research and program evaluation

§ Information for risk management and quality assurance

§ A record to facilitate inter-disciplinary communication and collaboration

Factors That Influence The Keeping of Process Records

• Function and purpose of the agency

• Level of current group work practice

• Skill of group worker

• Time

• Nature and purpose of specific group

• Availability of competent supervisory help for group workers

• Departmental organization of the agency

Different Types of Group Work Recording-

Process Recording:

It is a narrative report of all that happened during a client contact, including the
worker’s feelings and thinking about what happened. The usefulness of process
recording has depends on the willingness of a worker to honestly record the
actions and communications of both worker and client. Because of its time
consuming qualities, process recording probably should not be used with every
case or situation but with carefully selected ones particularly suited for the
worker’s won development learning. Process recording is most oft

Summary Recording:

It is an entirely different style of writing and is preferred for intake, transfer

closing and other special aspects of official agency records. Summary recording
is the preferred method for ongoing social work practice because it is much
briefer than process recording, hence much less time consuming to write and to
record. However, summary recording requires more thought and planning on
the worker’s part because he must decide what to record and what to omit.
Regular progress notes, periodic summaries (i.e. intake or transfer report) and
special reports are usually written in summary style.

Diagnostic Summary:

It is a special analytical statement that assesses what is know about a client and
sets forth a specific treatment plan. The diagnostic summary provides an
opportunity for the worker to set down his/hers professional impressions,
reactions and concerns about his/her client. Put into writing, these ideas can be
helpful to other staff who work with that individual at a later date as well as to
the person making the entry. A diagnostic summary enables a supervisor to
learn quickly about the needs of the clients his/her staff are serving. It should
include:

1. The problems and needs as seen by the Group members

2. The problems and needs as seen by the worker

3. The member’s feelings about the group situation

4. The appropriateness of the member’s feelings and behavior

5. Efforts initiated by the group members to solve the problem.

Problem Oriented Recording:

It is a specialized form of documentation used to delineate problems identified

and treatment goals in interdisciplinary settings. This system requires the
recorder to identify the problem areas, assess them and then state what he plans
to do about each problem. The ideal use of problem oriented recoding is for all
disciplines to record on the same form in the same interdisciplinary record. One
of the primary purposes of recording in the interdisciplinary settings is for
documentation, but it is also intended to provide a means of exchanging
information.

Goal Oriented Recording:

Under this type of recording basic social history and background information is
gathered and recorded. However there is considerable emphasis on including the
client in the assessment process and in setting goals and developing specific
plans for reaching the identified goals. This approach leads to uniformity in
 recording and statistical reporting practices among social workers and forces
staff to include the client as an active participant in the planning phases.

Monitoring and Evaluation-

Information to help your community group think about what you are aiming to
achieve, how to find out if you are succeeding, and how to demonstrate to the
outside world that what you are doing is useful.

Most people involved in running a group, and certainly all of those who have
applied for a grant, will have heard the phrase ‘monitoring and evaluation’. It
isn’t always clear, though, exactly what it means. Seen on an application form,
or when compiling a report on how money has been spent, it can sometimes
seem like a bureaucratic hoop that you need to go through. Used properly,
though, monitoring and evaluation can be a very useful tool and, stripped of the
jargon, it isn’t too complicated:

 Monitoring is collecting and recording information about what your group

is doing
 Evaluating is using the information you have collected, together with other
information and your overall experience, to get a good clear picture of your
group and its work.

Looked at like this almost every group does monitor and evaluate what they do,
if only informally: counting how many people turn up at a meeting is
monitoring, and chatting about how an event went for a few minutes at the end
is evaluation.

This information sheet aims to help when you need to do something more
systematic than that. It aims to help you think about your work and its effects
more clearly, and to do so in a more formal way that lets you demonstrate to the
outside world, such as funders, that what you are doing is useful.

Planning your monitoring and evaluation

 Every organisation will have a different way of monitoring and evaluating their
work. What it is useful to do depends on what that work is. However there are
two principles that are worth all groups bearing in mind when planning
monitoring and evaluation.

Two principles…..

1. Involve several people in deciding what you are going to do, and working
out how you are going to do it. The aim is to provide useful information to
your group, not to build up reams of paperwork. You will only design
something useful if you have ideas from a number of people. Also, you are
going to be reliant on people to collect the information, and this will only
happen effectively if they understand why they are doing it.
2. Keep it as simple as possible. You don’t want to take on too much,
especially if you are only just starting to monitor your work. You can always
get more detailed later, if you need to.

Practice Sites of Social Case Work and Social Group Work : Client Groups
and various settings (Children, Correctional, Health, Women, Persons with
Disabilities, Older Persons, Oppressed Groups, Religious Minorities,
Persons who are Gay & Lesbian and other Socially and Economically
Disadvantaged Groups)-

Client/ The individual-

Person and his/her interaction with social environment are influenced

significantly by a number of factors. These factors determine as to how different
clients react to a similar situation/problem/ concern differently. Their
expectations from the caseworker may also vary accordingly.

Group-

 Group work is a method of working with people in groups (two or more

people) for personal growth, the enhancement of social functioning, and
for the achievement of socially desirable goals.
  Group work is a method of reducing or eliminating roadblocks to social
interaction and for accomplishing socially desirable purposes. Almost all
social service agencies use group work.
 The social group worker uses their knowledge of group organization and
functioning to affect the performance and adjustment of the individual.
 The individual remains the focus of concern and the group the vehicle of
growth and change.
 Enhancement of social functioning through the use of the group is the
primary aim of group work.

Children-

Children who are destitute, orphans, or have run away from home and can not
be sent back home; those who are violence, risk to health (e.g., healthy children
of leprosy patients) or moral danger are generally placed in children’s homes.
Most of these Homes operate under the provisions of Juvenile Justice Act and,
therefore, provide custodial care. Children are committed for specific periods.
There is sometimes a feeling among inmates that they are under detention. Only
in a small number of cases adoption and foster care services are or can be
offered.

Correctional-

These include homes/ special schools for the delinquent, prisons,

remand/observation homes, beggar homes etc. The main task of the Social
Caseworker is to help those in conflict with law by enabling them to understand
themselves and their relationship with others. They need to understand what is
expected of them as members of society. The aim is to rehabilitate these persons
– to help them in such a manner that they can engage in socially constructive
activities once they go back to their homes. The worker helps the clients change
/modify their values (so that they are in line with the social values); change their
behaviour and response patterns. The residents of these institutions often have a
feeling of hostility towards society or they suffer from a sense of inferiority and
inadequacy. Social Casework aims at correcting these attitudes and feelings by
modifying the clients’ immediate environment, working with their families and
maintaining a supportive professional relationship with them.
Women’s

Social work with women offers a unique opportunity to specialize at the clinical
level (working with individuals and families) or on a macro (policy-focused)
basis. Social workers may desire to interact in a hands-on environment, or may
seek roles that allow them to bring about change within communities and
organizations through program implementation and work with government
policies.

Social work with women is often a component of work with children and
families, as women’s issues could relate to a need to support a family while
working. Educational roles may also allow social workers to teach health and
life skills to pregnant women and new mothers, giving women and their young
children the resources they need to thrive.

Health-

Social work in health care emerged with immigration and urbanization

associated with industrialization, and the resultant shift from physician visits to
the patient's home and workplace to hospital-centered care. This change is
alleged to have resulted in a loss of the doctor's perspective of the psychosocial
influences on physical health.

Social work in health care, that is, medical social work, has expanded into
multiple settings of health care, and the role of the social worker from being a
nurse to requiring a Master's Degree in Social Work (MSW) from a university.
However, the broad function of social work in health care remains much the
same, that is, “to remove the obstacles in the patient's surroundings or in his
mental attitude that interfere with successful treatment, thus freeing him to aid
in his own recovery”.

Persons with Disabilities-

The main task of the caseworker is to fulfill the objectives of the organizations
such as a) care; b) rehabilitation - vocational training, education (depending
upon their capacity), employment; c) offering services according to
governmental provisions and special concessions; d) advocacy to reduce or
remove social discrimination against the differently abled; and e) facilitating the
client’s acceptance and understanding of his/her situation and also recognition
of his/her potential. Giving support to the client – both emotional and action
oriented – is an important intervention offered by the caseworker. The
caseworker also works with the family to help them cope with the situation, to
understand the needs of the client, and to learn to take care of the client when he
or she is at home. The worker very often acts as a broker, linking the client and
or his/her family with the available community resources and networks of other
organisations working in this area.

Older Persons-

The number of old age homes have been increasing in cities. The stresses and
constraints of urban living have often led to adult children opting to send their
aging parents or relatives to residential institutions. The residents in these
homes need nursing care, understanding and emotional support. The
caseworkers in these institutions help the residents cope with loss of the loved
ones, illness, lack of energy, loneliness, loss of economic independence and the
thought of approaching death. The caseworker enables the client maintain
his/her self-esteem. He/she also helps the family deal with suppressed or open
feelings of guilt so as to encourage them to maintain cordial relation with the
client. The worker needs to identify and mobilize community resources like
motivating and orienting volunteers to spend time with the residents, talk to
them and attend to their simple errands.

Oppressed Groups-

Oppression is as inhumane or degrading treatment of a group or individual

based on some defining characteristic. Oppression is the act of using power to
empower and/or privilege a group at the expense of disempowering,
marginalizing, silencing, and subordinating another.
Religious Minorities-

A minority religion is a religion held by a minority of the population of a

country, state, or region. Minority religions may be subject
to stigma or discrimination. An example of a stigma is using the term cult with
its extremely negative connotations for certain new religious movements.

As professional social work practitioners, many of us have experienced

numerous encounters with clients who brought their faith, religious beliefs, and
spirituality into the work we have done together. As social work educators, we
are accountable for training our students around the significance of spirituality
as part of developing a culturally competent practitioner. We are also charged
with the role of professional models for students as a way of demonstrating
effective practice skills from a culturally competent holistic perspective.
Working and teaching from a holistic and culturally competent platform
concludes that the inclusion of spirituality in the pedagogy of the profession is
not only significant, but necessary.

Persons who are Gay & Lesbian-

People who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) are members of
every community, and include people of all races and ethnicities, all ages, all
faiths and socioeconomic statuses, and from all parts of the country. Whether
we identify as members of the LGBT community, as friends and colleagues,
and/or as service providers, social workers are key allies in the necessary efforts
to ensure wellness, safety, and equity for all LGBT persons. Social workers
have a shared commitment to promoting laws, policies and programming that
affirm, support, and value LGBT individuals, families, and communities.