electronics

Article
LLC Resonant Converter for LEV (Light Electric
Vehicle) Fast Chargers
Do-Hyun Kim 1 , Min-Soo Kim 1 , Sarvar Hussain Nengroo 1 , Chang-Hee Kim 2 and
Hee-Je Kim 1, *
1 School of Electrical Engineering, Pusan National University, Busandaehak-ro 63 beon-gil 2, Busan 46241,
Korea; kdh8486@naver.com (D.-H.K.); rlaalstn5122@naver.com (M.-S.K.);
ssarvarhussain@gmail.com (S.H.N.)
2 Technical Research Center, Taeyang Mechatronics Corporation,
40 Gwahaksandan 2-ro 3beon-gil Gangseo-Gu, Busan 46742, Korea; rnd@worldtmc.com
* Correspondence: heeje@pusan.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-51-510-2364




Received: 22 February 2019; Accepted: 22 March 2019; Published: 25 March 2019


Abstract: This paper presents a Light Electric Vehicle (LEV) fast charger with a Lithium-Ion Battery
(LIB) and Super-Capacitor (SC). The LEV fast charger consists of an AC/DC rectifier and LLC
(Inductor-Inductor-Capacitor) resonant Full bridge converter. The LLC resonant converter has
high-efficiency and low switching loss because of Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS). So, it is used widely
in the industry. In general, the fast charger algorithm uses the Constant Current (CC) mode and
Constant Voltage (CV). The CC mode starts at first and then the CV mode finishes. However, there is a
big control value gap between the CC mode and CV mode. Therefore, when changing from CC to CV,
the transient state occurs. To compensate for the transient state, we propose a new control algorithm.
By means of this algorithm, we can achieve a higher level of safety and stability. The fast charger
with LIB of 800 Wh and SC of 50 Wh is analyzed and verified, and we obtain a maximum efficiency
of 96.4%. The discussions are validated using the LLC resonant full bridge converter prototype at the
laboratory level.

Keywords: LEV; fast charger; LLC resonant converter; ZVS; LIB; SC

1. Introduction
Nowadays, environmental pollution and air pollution are key global issues. Especially
automobiles using gasoline and diesel fuel as they are the main cause of air and environmental
pollution due to their exhaust gas. As a result, the demand for environmentally-friendly Electric
Vehicles (EVs) and LEV is increasing and its market share is getting bigger day by day. LEVs are
electric vehicles with 2 or 4 wheels driven by a fuel cell, battery, or are hybrid-powered, and normally
weighing less than 100 kg, for example, electric bicycles, kickboards and wheelchairs. EVs and LEVs
cause the air to be clean as they do not exhaust gas. In addition, EVs and LEVs have the advantage of
requiring less maintenance and creating less noise compared to diesel or gasoline vehicles. However,
they need very high periods of charging time. Therefore, it is necessary to develop EVs and LEVs
with a short charging time. Recently, the technology for fast charging has been to increase the power
(W). In other words, to increase the power (W) is to increase the voltage (V) or current (A). If the
voltage is increased, a potential difference occurs between the battery and converter output voltages.
Because of this, the charging current increases. In the case of the EV charging system, lots of research
on high-efficiency converters and fast charging topologies are being conducted now. On the other
hand, LEV charging system research is still rare compared to EV research [1–5].

Electronics 2019, 8, 362; doi:10.3390/electronics8030362 www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2019, 8, 362 2 of 14

Generally, LEV systems often use inexpensive lead-acid batteries. However, lead-acid batteries
are environmentally harmful and have a low Current rate (C-rate). In addition, most fast chargers for
LEV in public usage are designed and fabricated for lead-acid batteries. In the case of a fast charging
system, high-frequency switching is required to reduce the system size with the ZVS and ZCS (Zero
Current Switching) techniques which have switching loss reduction [6–10].
The LLC resonant full-bridge converter is used widely in different industries and applications due
to some important features such as high-power density, high efficiency, and cost-effectiveness [11,12].
ZVS at the turn-on and low turn-off currents of the MOSFETs in this converter makes the switching
loss negligible, so, the switching frequency can be increased to produce a lightweight power supply
for a LEV fast-charging system.
A fast-charging system usually consists of CV, CC, and CC-CV mode algorithms. The CV is
a method of controlling the constant voltage applied to the battery. If the voltage difference of the
initial battery is large, a large current may flow, so a limiter that limits the current is needed. The
CC is a method for controlling the constant current to be applied to the battery differently from the
CV mode. The battery is charged with a constant current from the beginning of the charging cycle to
the end of it. If the charging current and time are not controlled correctly, the battery is damaged by
overcharging [13,14].
CC-CV starts at CC at the beginning of the charging cycle and changes into the CV state when it
reaches a certain State of Charge (SOC). In the initial state, the charging starts the CC mode. The CC
mode operates with a high control current. Therefore, it can rapidly reach a SOC of 80~90%. If the
SOC approaches 80~90%, the CC mode is stopped and the CV mode is started. The SOC can reach
100% in the CV mode [15–19].
In conventional studies of the CC and CV methods, various solutions to solve the problem have
been presented. However, many studies have attempted to adjust the hardware to meet the wide
output current and voltage or optimal circuit parameters [19,20]. In other previous research, they
tried to remove the transient state during the mode transfer with an additional circuit. However, this
method is not good because of the complexes caused by surplus hardware [21,22].
We propose a fast charger prototype of a LEV with a LIB of 800 Wh and SC of 50 Wh. This fast
charger prototype consists of an AC/DC rectifier and DC/DC stage. The DC/DC stage has a full bridge
LLC resonant converter for soft switching and reducing the switching stress. In addition, it is controlled
by a Pulse Frequency Modulation (PFM) and PI controller with an algorithm of CC-CV transformation.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: an LLC resonant converter including the ZVS
condition is demonstrated in Section 2. The proposed fast-charging system is tested in Section 3. The
control algorithm of the proposed method is described in Section 4. Additionally, the experimental
results are illustrated in Section 5. Finally, the conclusions are given in Section 6.

2. LLC Resonant Converter

The LLC resonant converter consists of two series-parallel inductors. Referring to Figure 1, it
shows two inductors and one capacitor. It has the same shape as the series resonant converter using
a transformer, but uses the magnetization inductance of the transformer as the resonant element.
In addition, the problem of no-load control occurring in the series resonant converter due to the
magnetizing current can be cleared.
As with other resonant converters, a square wave voltage Vab is formed due to the switching
action, and acts as a filter for IL due to the series resonant inductor Lr and the resonant capacitor
Cr. Additionally, the magnetizing current circulated through the magnetizing inductance Lm is also
affected by the resonance capacitor Cr. Therefore, the LLC resonant converter has two resonant
frequencies. The Lr and Cr elements form the high resonance frequency, and the Lm, Lr and Cr
elements form a low resonance frequency.
2. LLC Resonant Converter
action, and acts as a filter for IL due to the series resonant inductor Lr and the resonant capacitor Cr.
The LLC resonant
Additionally, convertercurrent
the magnetizing consistscirculated
of two series-parallel
through the inductors.
magnetizingReferring to Figure
inductance Lm is1,also
it
shows two inductors and one capacitor. It has the same shape as the series resonant
affected by the resonance capacitor Cr. Therefore, the LLC resonant converter has two resonant converter using
a frequencies.
transformer, The but uses the Cr
Lr and magnetization
elements form inductance
the highofresonance
the transformer as theand
frequency, resonant
the Lm,element.
Lr andInCr
addition,
Electronics the
2019, problem
8, 362 of no-load
elements form a low resonance frequency. control occurring in the series resonant converter due to 3the
of 14
magnetizing current can be cleared.
The resonant tank gain can be derived by analyzing the equivalent resonant circuits shown in
Figure 2. The resonantDCtank gain is the
Chopper
magnitude of its transfer function as in Equation
LLC Resonant Tank Transformer Rectifier Load (1).
IDC-bus ( ) ( − 1)
_
S1 =
_ (S3) (1)
( ∙ − 1) + ∙( − 1) ∙ ( − 1) ∙
Lr Cr N1:N2
c

capacitor
capacitor
a
+VDC-bus

where, Q (Quality factor)

Vabis expressed byILEquation
Lm (2). Vcd d
b

R
S2 S4 /
Q= (2)

Equation (3) can be expressed by the ratio of total primary inductance to resonant inductance,
Rac is the reflected load resistance, so, it can be expressed by Equation (4).
Figure 1. The full bridge LLC resonant converter.
Figure 1. The full bridge LLC +
resonant converter.
m= (3)
The resonant tank gain can be derived by analyzing the equivalent resonant circuits shown in
Figure 2. The resonant tank gain is the magnitude of its transfer function as in Equation (1).
8
= ∙ ∙ (4)
  2
 Vo_ac (s) 
= r F x ( m − 1 )
 (1)
Fx is the normalized V in_ac ( s ) frequency.2It can2be expressed
switching by2Equation (5) and Equation (6) can
    
m· Fx − 1 + Fx 2 · Fx 2 − 1 ·(m − 1)2 · Q2
be expressed by resonant frequency [19].

where, Q (Quality factor) is expressed by Equation (2).

= (5)
√
Lr /Cr
Q= (2)
= R ac1
(6)
2 ∙

Cr Lr

Vin_ac Lm Rac Vo_ac

Figure 2. The equivalent resonant circuit.

circuit.

Equation (3) canthe

Figure 3 shows be expressed by the
resonant tank ratio of
voltage gaintotal primary
curve; theseinductance to resonant
graphs express inductance,
Equation (1). It is
Rac is the reflected load resistance, so, it can be expressed by Equation (4).
decided by the Q and m. Additionally, the graph is drawn by MATLAB, version 2017 (MathWorks,
Boston, MA, USA). Firstly, the Q factor is selected by the load condition because the Q factor affects
Lr + L m
the voltage regulation. In the case of a high m =
operating Q, this means a heavy load. A low operating(3) Q
Lr
refers to a light load. A fast charger needs a high current for rapid charging. Therefore, it needs a high
Q and operates in the resonant tank gain of 0.8~1.3. 2
8 NBy p considering these two factors, Q should be
picked as 0.4. If the Q is higher or lower thanR ac =0.4,2it· has · Ro (4)
π Ns a different resonant tank gain and can use a
2
high current control or low current control. The next step is to select the m. If the m has a low value,
Fx is the normalized switching frequency. It can be expressed by Equation (5) and Equation (6) can be
it has a higher boost gain, a narrower frequency range and a flexible regulation. On the other hand,
expressed by resonant frequency [19].
fs
Fx = (5)
fr
1
fr = √ (6)
2π Lr ·Cr
Electronics 2019, 8, 362 4 of 14

Figure 3 shows the resonant tank voltage gain curve; these graphs express Equation (1). It is
decided by the Q and m. Additionally, the graph is drawn by MATLAB, version 2017 (MathWorks,
Boston, MA, USA). Firstly, the Q factor is selected by the load condition because the Q factor affects
the voltage regulation. In the case of a high operating Q, this means a heavy load. A low operating Q
refers to 2019,
Electronics a light
8, xload. A fast
FOR PEER charger needs a high current for rapid charging. Therefore, it needs 4a high
REVIEW of 15
Q and operates in the resonant tank gain of 0.8~1.3. By considering these two factors, Q should be
apicked
high m asneeds
0.4. If athe
higher magnetizing
Q is higher inductance,
or lower lower
than 0.4, it has amagnetizing circulating
different resonant tank current
gain and andcanhigher
use a
efficiency. Therefore, to get a high efficiency, the m should be between 6 to 10. However,
high current control or low current control. The next step is to select the m. If the m has a low value, if the select
is overa8,higher
it has the gain
boostis low.
gain,So, the m is selected
a narrower as 7.7
frequency andand
range thatamflexible
is reflected in Figure
regulation. On3.theIn other
conclusion,
hand,
the fastm
a high charger
needs aishigher
designed with Q = 0.4
magnetizing and m = 7.7.
inductance, lower magnetizing circulating current and higher
Referring
efficiency. to Figure
Therefore, to get3,a we
highcan define the
efficiency, the minductive
should beand capacitive
between operation
6 to 10. However,regions as the
if the select is
direction
over 8, theofgain
the isarrow
low. in
So,the
theplot.
m is The capacitive
selected andthat
as 7.7 and inductive regionsin
m is reflected are operated
Figure 3. In in the ZCS and
conclusion, the
ZVS regions.isOur
fast charger systemwith
designed gainQcurve is thempink
= 0.4 and = 7.7.color line of Figure 3c. So, in order to operate in the
ZVS region, our system should be controlled from 30 to 100 kHz [23–25].

Light load
ZCS Capacitive Region

ZVS inductive Region

m=7.7
Dc Gain

fs>fr
fs=fr

Heavy load

Fx = fs/fr

Figure 3.
Figure The resonant
3. The resonant tank
tank voltage
voltage gain
gain curve.
curve.

3. TheReferring
Proposed to Figure 3, we canSystem
Fast-Charging define the inductive and capacitive operation regions as the direction
of the arrow in the plot. The capacitive and inductive regions are operated in the ZCS and ZVS regions.
Figure gain
Our system 4 shows
curvethe structure
is the of our
pink color linefast charger
of Figure system.
3. So, Thetosystem
in order operateconsists of the
in the ZVS AC/DC
region, our
rectifier, Full bridge
system should LLC resonant
be controlled from 30 toconverter and LEV battery. The fast charger uses the DSP
100 kHz [23–25].
(TMS320F28335) for controlling and sensing the system voltage and current. The LLC converter’s
3. The Proposed
switching Fast-Charging
component is the gateSystem
of the MOSFET. By using a soft start for decreasing the inrush
current initial start can reduce the switching stress. The system is controlled by PFM (Pulse Frequency
Figure 4 shows the structure of our fast charger system. The system consists of the AC/DC rectifier,
Modulation) and PI control. In the case of a LEV battery with LIB and SC, a different control method
Full bridge LLC resonant converter and LEV battery. The fast charger uses the DSP (TMS320F28335)
for reducing the charging time is needed. The input and output voltage of this system each are each
for controlling and sensing the system voltage and current. The LLC converter’s switching component
around 250~300 VAC (Voltage Alternating Current) and 25.6~33.6 VDC (Voltage Direct Current). In the
is the gate of the MOSFET. By using a soft start for decreasing the inrush current initial start can reduce
case of the SC,stress.
the switching the output voltage
The system is is around 0~48
controlled V. Additionally,
by PFM the system
(Pulse Frequency control
Modulation) andcurrent is 30 A.
PI control. In
AC/DC Rectifier
the case of a LEV battery with LIB andFull
SC,bridge LLC resonant
a different converter
control LEV (Light Electric
method for reducing Vehicle) time
the charging
IDC-bus of this system each are each around 250~300 VAC (Voltage
is needed. The input and output voltage Vbattery
Alternating Current) and 25.6~33.6 VDCS1 S3
(Voltage DirectTransformer
Current). In the Ibattery of the SC, the output
case
Grid Lr Cr N1:N2 c
capacitor

voltage is around 0~48 V. Additionally,atheVabsystem control

IL Lm current Vcd isd 30 A.
capacitor

b
S2 S4

V DC-bus I DC-bus
S1,4 S2,3 V battery I battery

Input Voltage and DC-DC Full Bridge Converter Ouput Voltage and
Current Sensing Gate Driver Circuit Current Sensing

DSP Controller (TMS320F28335) -Soft Start & PI control

 (TMS320F28335) for controlling and sensing the system voltage and current. The LLC converter’s
switching component is the gate of the MOSFET. By using a soft start for decreasing the inrush
current initial start can reduce the switching stress. The system is controlled by PFM (Pulse Frequency
Modulation) and PI control. In the case of a LEV battery with LIB and SC, a different control method
for reducing the charging time is needed. The input and output voltage of this system each are each
Electronics 2019, 8, 362 5 of 14
around 250~300 VAC (Voltage Alternating Current) and 25.6~33.6 VDC (Voltage Direct Current). In the
case of the SC, the output voltage is around 0~48 V. Additionally, the system control current is 30 A.
AC/DC Rectifier Full bridge LLC resonant converter LEV (Light Electric Vehicle)
IDC-bus
Vbattery
S1 S3 Transformer Ibattery
Grid Lr Cr N1:N2 c

capacitor
a

capacitor
Vab b IL Lm Vcd d
S2 S4

VDC-bus IDC-bus S1,4 S2,3 Vbattery Ibattery

Input Voltage and DC-DC Full Bridge Converter Ouput Voltage and
Current Sensing Gate Driver Circuit Current Sensing

DSP Controller (TMS320F28335) -Soft Start & PI control

(PFM Control)

Thefast
Figure4.4.The
Figure fast charger
charger forfor LEV.
LEV.

Table 1 shows the specification of the fast charger. It shows each LIB and SC charging range.

Table 1. The design specifications of the Fast Charger.

List LIB (800 Wh) SC (50 Wh)

Input Voltage 250~310 V 250~310 V
Output Voltage 25.6~33.6 V 20~48 V
Power 1 kW 1.5 kW
Switching Frequency 30~100 kHz 30~100 kHz
First resonant Frequency 37 kHz 37 kHz
Secondary resonant Frequency 13 kHz 13 kHz
Quality Factor (Q) 0.4 0.4
Resonant Capacitor 0.1 uF 0.1 uF
Resonant Inductor 0.18 mH 0.18 mH
Magnetization Inductor 1.2 mH 1.2 mH
Turn Ratio 18:2 18:2
Line regulation (%) 9% 9%

4. Control Algorithm of the Proposed Method

The EV and LEV Charger has a CC-CV mode. Initially, the method starts in the CC mode and
then if it reaches a certain SOC, it changes to the CV mode. Figure 5 shows the characteristic curve of
the CC-CV mode. The general method and the basic charging method of fast charging are almost the
same. However, in the case of fast charging, a rated power of 10 times or more is required and larger
current is also required [26,27].
Figure 6a shows the transient section of the fast charger. When changing from constant current
to constant voltage, the transient section appears. In the case of a fast charger, a high current control
is needed for the CC mode. So, the mode control changing gap is bigger. To solve this problem, we
propose a new control algorithm and method.
The fast-charging devices use different control algorithms depending on the battery type. The
CC-CV charging algorithm is applied for the LIB and the CC charging algorithm is applied for the SC.
SC has different charging characteristics compared to LIB. By using the CC charging algorithm, we can
charge more rapidly.
Firstly, the CC-CV charging algorithm for LIB can be divided into a series type and parallel type
according to the controller structure. In the case of the series type, the voltage controller and the current
controller are constructed in series. In this case, the current is not constant but gradually decreases
while charging at a constant current, and the voltage is converted from a constant current to a constant
voltage state. This method can perform charging in a stable manner, but takes a long time to charge.
 Quality Factor (Q) 0.4 0.4
Resonant Capacitor 0.1 uF 0.1 uF
Resonant Inductor 0.18 mH 0.18 mH
Magnetization Inductor 1.2 mH 1.2 mH
Turn Ratio 18:2 18:2
Electronics 2019, 8, 362 6 of 14
Line regulation (%) 9% 9%

4. Control
In the parallelAlgorithm
type, the of the Proposed
voltage Method
controller and the current controller are configured in parallel and
when theThe battery voltage rises from a set SOC
EV and LEV Charger has a CC-CV mode. afterInitially,
charging thethe battery
method to in
starts a constant
the CC modecurrent
and state,
then if it changes
the voltage reaches a to
certain SOC, it changes
the constant voltagetostate.
the CVInmode. Figure 5 shows
this method, the characteristic
the battery curve of
can be charged quickly
at a the CC-CVcurrent.
constant mode. The general method
However, and the
the output basic
of the charging method
controller should of
befast charging
applied whenare the
almost the state
charge
same. Additionally,
changes. However, in the it case
doesofnot
fastreflect
charging,
the aoutput
rated power
of theofconventional
10 times or more is required
controller and larger
[28,29].
current is also required [26,27].

State of charging
100
5

SOC (State of charging)[%]

Charging Voltage
80
4
Battery Voltage

CC Region CV Region 60
3
40
2
Charging Current
20
1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Charging Time [h]

Figure
Electronics 2019, 8, x FOR PEER 5.5.The
REVIEW
Figure The characteristic
characteristic ofofthe
the CC-CV
CC-CV mode
mode curve.
curve. 6 of 15

Transient section Transient section

Figure 6a shows the transient section of the fast charger. When changing from constant current
to constant voltage, the transient section appears. In the case of a fast charger, a high current control
is needed for the CC mode. So, the mode control changing gap is bigger. To solve this problem, we
propose a new control
Control Value algorithm and method. Control Value
(Frequency) (Frequency)
The fast-charging devices use different control algorithms depending on the battery type. The
CC-CV charging algorithm is applied for the LIB and the CC charging algorithm is applied for the
SC. SC has different charging characteristics compared to LIB. By using the CC charging algorithm,
we can charge more rapidly.

Time Time
(a) (b)

Figure
Figure 6. The
6. The algorithmapplication
algorithm application (before
(before (a)
(a)and
andafter(b)).
after (b)).

Firstly, the
We propose theCC-CV
CC-CV charging
chargingalgorithm
blockfordiagram
LIB can be individed
Figureinto a seriesis
7, which type and parallel type
supplemented with a
according algorithm
compensation to the controller
to solvestructure. In the problem
the transient case of the andseries type, stable
achieve the voltage controller Referring
fast charging. and the to
Figurecurrent
7, the controller are constructed
figure consists in series. InIntegral
of the Proportional this case, thecontrol,
(PI) current Limiter,
is not constant but gradually
Proportional (P) control
decreases while charging at a constant current, and the voltage is converted from a constant current
and Low Pass Filter (LPF). By using the LPF, the digital controller of the Analog-to-digital converter
to a constant voltage state. This method can perform charging in a stable manner, but takes a long
(ADC) quality is increased. The LPF can remove the noise. By using a PI controller in the CC mode
time to charge. In the parallel type, the voltage controller and the current controller are configured in
whichparallel
has beenandoperating
when thein the past,
battery the CV
voltage risesmode
from can
a setbe
SOCcompensated.
after charging ThetheCV modetoalso
battery starts with
a constant
the same
current state, the voltage changes to the constant voltage state. In this method, the battery can beusing
control value. So, initially, the CV mode can be started with the CC mode current. After
the P charged
controller, the compensation
quickly value However,
at a constant current. can be reduced. Finally,
the output of thethe CV control
controller canbebe
should operated
applied whenstably.
From the
Figure
charge6a,state
it can be seenAdditionally,
changes. that the controlit doesvalue changes
not reflect the abruptly
output of when the mode is
the conventional changed in
controller
[28,29].
the state before applying the algorithm. On the other hand, from Figure 6b, it can be seen that the
We propose
transient section the CC-CV
decreases sharply charging block diagram
after application [30].in Figure 7, which is supplemented with a
compensation algorithm to solve the transient problem and achieve stable fast charging. Referring to
Figure 8 shows the SC algorithm block diagram. It shows the CC Mode charging control. This
Figure 7, the figure consists of the Proportional Integral (PI) control, Limiter, Proportional (P) control
consists of a PI control, Limiter and LPF. The SC has a small variation in the charging voltage during
and Low Pass Filter (LPF). By using the LPF, the digital controller of the Analog-to-digital converter
charging and completion of charging. Considering these characteristics, charging in the CC mode
(ADC) quality is increased. The LPF can remove the noise. By using a PI controller in the CC mode
makeswhich
the charging
has been time muchinfaster
operating [31].
the past, the CV mode can be compensated. The CV mode also starts
Figure
with the9 same
shows the LIB
control charging
value. algorithm.
So, initially, the CV It usescan
mode DSP (TMS320F28335,
be started with the CCTexas
modeInstruments,
current.
Dallas, TX,using
After USA)the forP controlling
controller, thethe fast charger.
compensation Initially,
value can bethe controller
reduced. receives
Finally, the CV the input/output
control can be
operated stably. From Figure
voltage and input/output current data. 6a, it can be seen that the control value changes abruptly when the
mode is changed in the state before applying the algorithm. On the other hand, from Figure 6b, it can
be seen that the transient section decreases sharply after application [30].
 Electronics 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15

CC Mode

Electronics 2019, 8, 362 7 of 14

Iref 2019, +
Electronics 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW PFM Full bride LLC 7 of 15
PI Control Limiter resonant
converter
CC Mode-
IFout Iout

Iref + PFM Full bride LLC

LPF
PI Control Limiter resonant
converter
-
IFout Iout

CV Mode LPF Mode Translation

Controller

+
Vref + PFM
+ Full bride LLC
PI Control Limiter resonant
converter
CV Mode Mode Translation
- +
Controller
VFout Vout

+
P Control +
Vref + PFM Full bride LLC
PI Control Limiter resonant
converter
- +
VFout Vout
LPF
P Control

Figure 7. The proposed block diagram of the CC-CV (LIB).

Figure 8 shows the SC algorithm block diagram.

LPF It shows the CC Mode charging control. This
consists of a PI control, Limiter and LPF. The SC has a small variation in the charging voltage during
charging and completion of charging. Considering these characteristics, charging in the CC mode
Figure
makes the charging time 7. The
Figure
much proposed
7. The
faster block
proposed
[31]. blockdiagram
diagram of
of the CC-CV(LIB).
the CC-CV (LIB).

CC Mode
Figure 8 shows the SC algorithm block diagram. It shows the CC Mode charging control. This
consists of a PI control, Limiter and LPF. The SC has a small variation in the charging voltage during
charging and completion of charging. Considering these characteristics, charging in the CC mode
Iref the charging
makes + time much faster [31]. PFM Full bride LLC
PI Control Limiter resonant
CC Mode converter
-

IFout
Iref + PFM Full bride LLC
PI Control Limiter resonant
converter
-

IFout
LPF

Figure The
8. 8.
Figure Theproposed
proposed block diagramofofCC
block diagram CC(the
(the
SCSC case).
case).

The power stage is protected by blocking the switchingLPF signals when overvoltage and overcurrent
are checked. If it does not have any problems, the soft start function is started. If the duty ratio is 0.5 or
the output current is over the 10 A, the soft start is finished.
When the LIB voltage is Figure
less 8. The 33
than proposed
V, theblock diagramisofstarted
CC mode CC (the by
SC case).
the PI controller. Using the PI
controller, we can change the PFM value. When CC the mode is operating, the PI controller tracks
the 30 A current. When over 33 V, the CV mode is started by the PI controller. The charging task is
terminated when the voltage finally reaches 33.6 V.
Electronics 2019, 8, 362 8 of 14
Electronics 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15

Start Stop
Controller Controller
Sensing
Vin,Iin,Vout,Iout

DSP
(ADC)

Protection
Function

Vin >Vin,ovp YES

Iin>Iin,ocp
Vout>Vout,ovp
Iout>Iout,ocp

NO

Soft Start

NO

Iout > 10A

YES NO
Vout < 33V

Current Voltage
PI Controller PI Controller
(CC Mode) (CV Mode)

NO YES

Vout = 33.6V

Figure
Figure 9.9.The
Theproposed
proposed algorithm
algorithmofof
LIB (Lithium-Ion
LIB Battery).
(Lithium-Ion Battery).

Figure 10 shows the SC charging algorithm. It also uses the DSP for charging control. Before the
PI controller starts, its function is almost the same as that of the LIB controller. If this controller has a
Electronics 2019, 8, 362 9 of 14

voltage less than 48 V, the CC mode is started. Additionally, charging is terminated at the moment the
voltage reaches 48 V.
Electronics 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15

Start Stop
Controller Controller
Sensing
Vin,Iin,Vout,Iout

DSP
(ADC)

Protection
Function

Vin >Vin,ovp YES

Iin>Iin,ocp
Vout>Vout,ovp
Iout>Iout,ocp

NO

Soft Start

NO

Iout > 10A

Current
PI Controller
(CC Mode)

NO

Vout = 48V

Figure 10. The proposed algorithm of SC (Super-Capacitor).

Figure 10. The proposed algorithm of SC (Super-Capacitor).
Electronics 2019, 8, 362 10 of 14

Both controllers track the 30 A. If we need to decrease the system charging time, it is possible to
change the CC mode current. However, if the battery specification does not support a high current, we
cannot apply this algorithm.
The experimental results and the efficiency using this algorithm are described in Section 5.
Electronics 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15
5.Electronics
Experimental Results
2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15
5. Experimental Results
A prototype of the full bridge LLC resonant converter was used for the experiments, as shown in
5. Experimental
A 11.
prototype Results
Figure Refer toofAppendix
the full bridge LLC
A, it can resonant
check converter
the detail of thewas used for the experiments, as shown
battery.
in Figure 11. Refer to Appendix, it can check the detail of the battery.
A prototype of the full bridge LLC resonant converter was used for the experiments, as shown
in Figure 11. Refer to Appendix, it can check the detail of the battery.

Fast charg er Sy stem

Fast charg er Sy stem

Fast charger Sy stem

Fast charger Sy stem

Figure 11. The prototype of the full bridge LLC resonant converter.
Figure 11. The prototype of the full bridge LLC resonant converter.
Figure 11. The prototype of the full bridge LLC resonant converter.
Figure 12a,b show the LIB CC mode waveform of the LLC converter. The CC mode is controlled
Figure 12a,b show the LIB CC mode waveform of the LLC converter. The CC mode is controlled
by PFM. The12a,b
Figure system
showkeeps changing
the LIB CC mode thewaveform
frequencyofvalue for tracking
the LLC converter.the Iout.
The CC Through Figure 12b,
mode is controlled
by PFM. The system keeps changing the frequency value for tracking the Iout. Through Figure 12b,
the constant current can be confirmed. This mode almost has the same frequency
by PFM. The system keeps changing the frequency value for tracking the Iout. Through Figure 12b, as the resonant tank.
the constant current can be confirmed. This mode almost has the same frequency as the resonant
The
the IL wave appears
constant to bebea sinusoidal
current can confirmed. waveform
This modesimilar
almostto that
has theofsame
the LLC converter
frequency characteristics.
as the resonant
tank. The IL wave appears to be a sinusoidal waveform similar to that of the LLC converter
This
tank.mode
The can changeappears
IL wave rapidly toduebetoathe high current
sinusoidal control.similar
waveform If the CCto mode hasthe
that of a long
LLCtime, this can
converter
characteristics. This mode can change rapidly due to the high current control. If the CC mode has a
characteristics. This mode can change rapidly due to the high current control. If the
reduce the charging time. However, if it does not have the CV mode, the LIB is not safe. As mentioned CC mode has a
long time, this can reduce the charging time. However, if it does not have the CV mode, the LIB is
long
in time,4,this
Section thecan reduce the
frequency charging in
is operated time.
theHowever,
ZVS region.if itWe
doescannot have the
confirm CV
this mode,
from the LIB
Figure 12a.isBy
not safe. As mentioned in Section 4, the frequency is operated in the ZVS region. We can confirm this
not safe. As
operating in mentioned in Section
the ZVS region, we can4, the
getfrequency is operated inquality.
a good soft-switching the ZVS region. We can confirm this
from
fromFigure
Figure 12a.
12a. By
By operating
operating in in the
the ZVS
ZVSregion,
region,we
wecancanget
getaagood
goodsoft-switching
soft-switching quality.
quality.
V primary – 500V/div V primary – 500V/div
V primary – 500V/div V primary – 500V/div

V Secondary
V Secondary – 500V/div
– 500V/div
ZVS ONN Secondary–– 200V/div
VVSecondary 200V/div
ZVS Turn
Turn O – –5A5A
IoutIout /div
/div

IILL–– 20A/div
20A/div
V – 50V/div 10us/div Vout – –50V/div
Vout 50V/div 10us/div
10us/div
out – 50V/div
Vout 10us/div

(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 12.
12. LIB
LIB CC
CC (Constant
(Constant Current)
(ConstantCurrent) mode
Current)mode charging
modecharging waveform;
chargingwaveform;
waveform; (a)
(a) Vprimary,
Vprimary,
(a) Vsecondary,
Vsecondary,
Vprimary, IL,IL,
Vsecondary, Vout;
Vout;
IL, Vout;
Vprimary,
(b)Vprimary,
(b) Vsecondary,Iout,
Vprimary,Vsecondary, Iout,Vout.
Iout, Vout.
Vout.

Figure 13a,b
Figure 13a,b show the LIB LIB CVCV mode
mode waveform
waveformofofthetheLLC
LLC converter.
LLCconverter.
converter.The The
The CVCVmode
mode is is
alsoalso
controlled by
controlled by PFM.
PFM. The system keeps on
system keeps on changing
changingthe
thefrequency
frequencyfor fortracking
tracking
trackingthe theVout.
Vout. Through
Through
Vout.
Figure 13b,
Figure 13b, we
we can
can check the frequency
frequency and andIout.
Iout.They
Theyare
aredifferent
differentfrom
fromthe
theCC CCmode.
mode.
mode. This
This mode
mode
has aa high
has high frequency
frequency compared
compared with with that
that of
ofthe
theresonant
resonanttank.
tank.Therefore,
Therefore,the theILILwave
wave appears
appears in in
a a
non-sinusoidal waveform which is similar to the LLC converter characteristics. This
non-sinusoidal waveform which is similar to the LLC converter characteristics. This mode operates mode operates
gradually with
gradually with decreasing
decreasing current
current andandincreasing
increasingVout.
Vout.Through
Throughthis thisoperation,
operation, a fast charger
a fast chargercan
canbebe
worked safely. This frequency operates in the ZVS region. This can be confirmed from
worked safely. This frequency operates in the ZVS region. This can be confirmed from Figure 13a. By Figure 13a. By
operating in
operating in the
the ZVS
ZVS region,
region, it
it can
can also
also have
havesoft-switching
soft-switchingcharacteristics.
characteristics.
Electronics 2019, 8, 362 11 of 14

has a high frequency compared with that of the resonant tank. Therefore, the IL wave appears in a
non-sinusoidal waveform which is similar to the LLC converter characteristics. This mode operates
Electronics 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15
gradually with decreasing current and increasing Vout. Through this operation, a fast charger can be
worked safely. This frequency operates in the ZVS region. This can be confirmed from Figure 13a. By
Electronics 2019,
operating 8, x FOR
in the ZVSVPEER
region,REVIEW
it can also have soft-switching characteristics. Vprimary– 500V/div 12 of 15
primary– 500V/div

Vsecondary– 200V/div Vsecondary– 200V/div

Vprimary– 500V/div Vprimary– 500V/div
IL– 5A/div
Iout– 20A/div
Vsecondary– 200V/div Vsecondary– 200V/div
ZVS Turn ON
IL– 5A/div
Vout– 50V/div 10us/div Vout– 50V/div 10us/div
Iout– 20A/div

ZVS Turn ON
Vout– 50V/div
(a) 10us/div V – 50V/div 10us/div
(b)out

Figure 13. The LIB CV

(a)(Constant Voltage) mode charging waveform; (a) Vprimary,
(b) Vsecondary, IL,
Vout; (b) Vprimary, Vsecondary, Iout, Vout.
Figure 13. The LIB CV (Constant Voltage) mode charging waveform; (a) Vprimary, Vsecondary, IL,
Figure 13. The LIB CV (Constant Voltage) mode charging waveform; (a) Vprimary, Vsecondary, IL,
Figure
Vout; (b)14 shows the
Vprimary, CC modeIout,
Vsecondary, charging
Vout. waveform of the SC. In the case of LIB, it has the CC-CV
Vout; (b) Vprimary, Vsecondary, Iout, Vout.
controller. However, the SC only has the CC mode because it has low voltage regulation. The Iout
Figure
tracks 14 showsvalue.
the reference the CC mode charging
Through Figure 14b,waveform of the SC.
we can confirm thatInIout
theiscase of LIB, current.
a constant it has the CC-CV
Figure
Figure 14 shows the CC mode charging waveform of the SC. In the case of LIB, it has the CC-CV
controller. However, the SC only has the CC mode
14a shows the ZVS operation through the IL and Vprimary. because it has low voltage regulation. The Iout tracks
controller. However, the SC only has the CC mode because it has low voltage regulation. The Iout
the reference
Compared value.
withThrough
LIB and SC, Figure
they14b, wethe
have can confirm
same Iout. that Iout isthey
However, a constant current.switching
have different Figure 14a
tracks the reference value. Through Figure 14b, we can confirm that Iout is a constant current. Figure
shows the ZVS
frequencies. operation
Because through
LIB has a hightheloadILand
andSC
Vprimary
has a .low load, SC has low voltage regulation and it
14a shows the ZVS operation through the IL and Vprimary.
is possible to charge it to a much higher current.
Compared with LIB and SC, they have the same Iout. However, they have different switching
Vprimary– 500V/div Vprimary– 500V/div
frequencies. Because LIB has a high load and SC has a low load, SC has low voltage regulation and it
is possible to charge it to a much higher current.
Vsecondary– 200V/div Vsecondary– 200V/div
Vprimary– 500V/div Vprimary– 500V/div
IL– 10A/div Iout– 10A/div
V – 200V/div Vsecondary
V – –200V/div
50V/div
ZVS secondary
Turn ON Vout– 50V/div out

IL– 10A/div 5us/div Iout– 10A/div 5us/div

ZVS Turn ON Vout– 50V/div Vout– 50V/div

(a) 5us/div (b) 5us/div

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Super
Super Capacitor
CapacitorCC CCmode
modecharging
chargingwaveform;
waveform;(a)(a)
Vprimary, Vsecondary,
Vprimary, IL,IL,
Vsecondary, Vout; (b)(b)
Vout;
Vprimary, (a)Iout,
Vprimary,Vsecondary,
Vsecondary, Iout, Vout.
Vout. (b)
Figure 14. Super Capacitor CC mode charging waveform; (a) Vprimary, Vsecondary, IL, Vout; (b)
Compared
Figure with
15a is LIB and
adapted SC, they
without have the same
a compensator. Iout. However,
Following this, Vout theycan behave different
confirmed, switching
switching
Vprimary, Vsecondary, Iout, Vout.
the frequency
frequencies. and Iout.
Because LIBDuring the change
has a high load and fromSCthe
hasCC mode
a low to the
load, SCCV hasmode, three factors
low voltage abruptly
regulation and it
ischange. These
possible abruptitchanges
to charge mean
to a much that the
higher switching component has stresses. Figure 15b shows the
current.
Figure 15a is adapted without a compensator. Following this, Vout can be confirmed, switching
improved
Figure CC-CV
15a is mode charging
adapted withoutwaveform.
a By compensating
compensator. Following this, for the CVcan
Vout Mode, the transient
be confirmed, effect
switching
the frequency and Iout. During the change from the CC mode to the CV mode, three factors abruptly
does
the not appear.
frequency
change. Theseand Iout.
abrupt During
changes the change
mean that thefrom the CC
switching mode to the
component hasCV mode,Figure
stresses. three 15b
factors
showsabruptly
the
change. These abrupt changes mean
improved CC-CV mode charging waveform. that the switching
By component
compensating for has
the CVstresses.
Mode, Figure
the 15b
transientshows
effectthe
Vout– 10V/div
improved
does not CC-CV
Vprimary mode
– 100V/div
appear. charging waveform. By compensating
Vprimary – for the
100V/div CV Mode, the transient effect
Vout– 10V/div
does not appear.
Figure 16 shows the efficiency Voutwith the charging current
– 10V/div Vprimary– at (a), (b), (c). All of the modes have
100V/div
Vprimary– 100V/div Vout– 10V/div
different control values. In the case of Figure 16a, the maximum efficiency is 96.4% at 30 A. This was
the closest region to the resonant frequency.
Transient sectionIn the case of Figure 16b, the maximum efficiency is 96.2%
Iout – 10A/div
Iout – 10A/div
at 25 A. The CV mode has a resonant frequency 1s/div of 25Transient
A. In the section
case of Figure 16c, it is a light 1s/div
load.
Therefore, the resonant region is at 50 A and the maximum efficiency is 96.4%.
Transient section Iout – 10A/div
Iout – 10A/div
(a) 1s/div Transient section
(b)
1s/div

Figure 15. (a) The CC-CV

(a) mode charging waveform without the compensator; (b)
(b)the improved CC-
CV mode charging waveform.

Figure 15. (a) The CC-CV mode charging waveform without the compensator; (b) the improved CC-
 Vprimary, Vsecondary, Iout, Vout.

Figure 15a is adapted without a compensator. Following this, Vout can be confirmed, switching
the frequency and Iout. During the change from the CC mode to the CV mode, three factors abruptly
change. These abrupt changes mean that the switching component has stresses. Figure 15b shows the
Electronics 2019, 8, 362 12 of 14
improved CC-CV mode charging waveform. By compensating for the CV Mode, the transient effect
does not appear.

Vout– 10V/div Vprimary– 100V/div

Vprimary– 100V/div Vout– 10V/div

Transient section Iout – 10A/div

Iout 2019,
– 10A/div
Electronics 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW
1s/div Transient section 1s/div
13 of 15

Figure 16 shows the efficiency with the charging current at (a), (b), (c). All of the modes have
different control values.(a)In the case of Figure 16a, the maximum efficiency is
(b)96.4% at 30 A. This was
the closest region to the resonant frequency. In the case of Figure 16b, the maximum efficiency is
Figure 15. (a) The CC-CV mode charging waveform without the compensator; (b) the improved CC-CV
96.2% at 2515.
A.(a)
The
Figurecharging
CV
The
mode has a resonant frequency of 25 A. In the case of Figure 16c, it is a light
CC-CV mode charging waveform without the compensator; (b) the improved CC-
mode waveform.
load.CV
Therefore, the resonant
mode charging region is at 50 A and the maximum efficiency is 96.4%.
waveform.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 16. The efficiency based on the charging current: (a) the CC Mode (LI); (b) the CV Mode (LI);
Figure 16. The efficiency based on the charging current: (a) the CC Mode (LI); (b) the CV Mode (LI);
(c) the CC Mode (SC).
(c) the CC Mode (SC).
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
In this paper, we proposed a fast-charging device using an LLC resonant converter with soft
In thischaracteristics
switching paper, we proposed
in the ZVSa fast-charging
region. In the device
case ofusing an LLC
lead-acid resonant
batteries usedconverter withtheir
in the past, soft
switching characteristics in the ZVS region. In the case of lead-acid batteries used
frequent usage is being reduced due to the air and environmental pollution. Therefore, we propose in the past, their
frequent
this usagesystem
new LEV is being reduced
that due to the airscheme
has a fast-charging and environmental
with a LIB ofpollution.
800 Wh andTherefore,
SC of 50weWh.
propose
The
this new LEV system that has a fast-charging scheme with a LIB of 800 Wh and
previous LIB charging device has a long charging time of more than 2 h. This proposed fast-charging SC of 50 Wh. The
previous
LIB systemLIB charging
has devicetime
the charging has aoflong
aboutcharging time of more
1 h. Additionally, than
this 2 h. Thisfast-charging
proposed proposed fast-charging
SC system
LIB system has the charging time of about 1 h. Additionally, this proposed fast-charging
has a charging time of about 20 min. In the case of LIB, the compensation algorithm is implemented SC systemby
has a charging time of about 20 min. In the case of LIB, the compensation algorithm
reducing the transient period during the conversion from the CC mode to the CV mode. Finally, the is implemented
by reducing
maximum the transient
conversion periodofduring
efficiency the conversion
the output current of 30from
A in thethe
CCCCmode
mode toisthe CV mode. Finally,
96.4%.
the maximum conversion efficiency of the output current of 30 A in the CC mode is 96.4%.
Author Contributions: D.-H.K., H.-J.K. conceptualized the idea of this research project. D.-H.K., C.-H.K. designed
Author Contributions: D.-H.K., H.-J.K. conceptualized the idea of this research project. D.-H.K., C.-H.K.
the structure and components of LLC resonant converter. D.-H.K., M.-S.K. and S.H.N. designed a PCB board.
designedand
D.-H.K. theM.-S.K.
structure and components
developed of LLC
the control resonant
algorithm converter.
and D.-H.K.,
DSP program ofM.-S.K. and S.H.N.
LLC converter. designed
D.-H.K. a PCB
made an
board. D.-H.K.setup
experimental and M.-S.K.
and diddeveloped theThe
experiment. control
dataalgorithm and DSP
was analyzed program
by the authorsofand
LLCthe
converter.
paper wasD.-H.K. made
written by
D.-H.K. and H.-J.K.
an experimental setup and did experiment. The data was analyzed by the authors and the paper was written by
D.-H.K. and H.-J.K.

Funding: This research was supported by Brain Korea 21 Center for Creative Human Resource Development
Program for IT Convergence of Pusan National University. And supported by Korea Industrial Complex
Corporation of Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy [RBS18002]
Electronics 2019, 8, 362 13 of 14

Funding: This research was supported by Brain Korea 21 Center for Creative Human Resource Development
Program for IT Convergence of Pusan National University. And supported by Korea Industrial Complex
Corporation of Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy [RBS18002].
Acknowledgments: This research was supported by Brain Korea 21 Center for Creative Human Resource
Development Program for IT Convergence of Pusan National University. And supported by Korea Industrial
Complex Corporation of Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy [RBS18002].
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. LIB and SC Specification.

List Li-ion (800 Wh) Super Capacitor (50 Wh)

Nominal Voltage 29.2 V 48 V
Charge Voltage 33.6 V 51 V
Max. Discharge Current 30 A 1900 A
Stored Energy 800 Wh 53 Wh

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