Geotechnics - Analysis Acoustic Televiewer Result WR - 2013-38 (Report)

Working Report 2013-38
Analysis of Acoustic and Optical Televiewer Data

from the Olkiluoto Site: Drillholes OL-KR10, OL-KR19,
OL-KR40, OL-KR46 and OL-KR46B, 2010-2013
Maria Ask
Daniel Ask
April 2017
POSIVA OY
Olkiluoto
FI-27160 EURAJOKI, FINLAND
Phone (02) 8372 31 (nat.), (+358-2-) 8372 31 (int.)
Fax (02) 8372 3809 (nat.), (+358-2-) 8372 3809 (int.)
Working Report 2013-38
Analysis of Acoustic and Optical Televiewer Data

from the Olkiluoto Site: Drillholes OL-KR10, OL-KR19,
OL-KR40, OL-KR46 and OL-KR46B, 2010-2013
Maria Ask
Luleå University of Technology
Daniel Ask
FracSinus Rock Stress Measurements AB
April 2017
Working Reports contain information on work in progress

or pending completion.
The conclusions and viewpoints presented in the report

are those of author(s) and do not necessarily
coincide with those of Posiva.
ABSTRACT
In this report, we first present the theory of stress-induced elongations in drillholes, i.e.
borehole breakouts and drilling-induced fractures, logging tools and computer software
that are used for identifying and analyzing these features. We have obtained acoustic
televiewer data from five drillholes, OL-KR10, OL-KR19, OL-KR40, OL-KR46, and
OL-KR46B from the Olkiluoto site. Borehole breakouts are formed in the direction of
the minimum horizontal stress when the stress concentration of the in situ stress field
around the drillhole exceeds the rock strength of the drillhole wall. Hence, the
orientation of the maximum horizontal stress is 90º off. Drilling-induced fractures
(DIF’s) are formed in the orthogonal direction to that of breakouts; hence, parallel to the
direction of the maximum horizontal stress. The drillholes have been logged routinely
with two geophysical logging tools, acoustic borehole televiewer (BHTV) and optical
image method.
The most essential objective of this report is to investigate if borehole breakouts and
DIF’s exist at the Olkiluoto site. Should these features be identified, a secondary
objective is to roughly estimate the total length of breakouts and DIF’s, and their
orientation, i.e. the orientation of minimum and maximum horizontal stress,
respectively. In addition, these stress-induced features should be correlated with
existing structures in the drillholes (fractures and fractures zones), as determined by the
geological mapping. We emphasize that a full characterization of stress-induced
features, i.e. the determination of magnitude of horizontal stresses, is outside the scope
of this report, but may be undertaken at a later stage if borehole breakouts and DIF’s are
found.
No large-scale, dog-ear shaped, breakouts or prominent DIF’s are observed in the

investigated drillholes. Hence, the resulting stress concentration around the drillholes is
not exceeding the strength of the rock at the Olkiluoto down to some 800 m vertical
depth. However, long sections of grain-sized fallouts appear at diametrically opposite
sides of the drillholes. These seem to be correlated to key seats, i.e. mechanical wear of
the drill string, as they are observed near the top and bottom sides of the drillholes.
The analyses have been significantly hampered by the quality of the available data, of
which orientation problems and artifacts are the most important data degraders. For this
reason, we devote Chapter 6 to suggest improvements of quality assurance procedures.
The orientation problems imply that the observed grain-sized fallouts may deviate from
the top and bottom sides of the drillholes, and thus potentially be stress induced
features.
Keywords: Olkiluoto, stress-induced borehole failure, borehole breakouts,

mechanically-induced borehole deformation, key seats.
OLKILUODON AKUSTISEN JA OPTISEN KUVANTAMISLAITTEISTON
DATAN ANALYYSI: SYVÄKAIRAREIÄT OL-KR10, OL-KR19, OL-KR40, OL-
KR46, AND OL-KR46B, 2010-2013
TIIVISTELMÄ
Työraportissa esitellään ensiksi kairareikiin muodostuvan jännitysten aiheuttaman

rikkonaisuuden (borehole breakouts, drilling-induced fractures) teoria, loggaustyökalut
ja tietokonesovellus, jonka avulla rakoilut tunnistettiin sekä analysoitiin. Analyysiin
käytettiin Olkiluodon viiden syväkairareiän, OL-KR10, OL-KR19, OL-KR40, OL-
KR46 ja OL-KR46B, akustisen mittauslaitteen datoja. Borehole breakout:it muo-
dostuvat kairareiän seinämiä pitkin ja pienimmän horisontaalin jännityskomponentin
suuntaisesti, kun in situ jännityskenttä ylittää kiven lujuuden kairareiän seinämän
kohdalla. Tällöin suurin horisontaalijännityskomponentti suuntautuu kohtisuorasti
breakout:tiin nähden. Kairauksen aiheuttamat raot (englanniksi drilling-induced
fractures, DIF) muodostuvat kohtisuorassa breakout:tiin nähden, eli samansuuntaisesti
suurimman jännityskomponentin kanssa. Kairareiät loggattiin kahdella geofysikaalisella
mittalaitteella, akustisella (BHTV) ja optisella mittausmenetelmällä.
Työraportin päätarkoitus on määritellä breakout:tien ja kairauksen aiheuttamien rakojen

esiintyvyys Olkiluodossa. Tunnistettujen rakojen pituuden ja suuntien (pääjännitysten
maksimi- ja minimijännityksen suunnat) määrittäminen ja mittaaminen ovat raportin
seuraavat tavoitteet. Lisäksi nämä jännitysten aiheuttamat raot linkitettiin kairareikien
geologisen kartoituksen määrittämiin rakoihin ja rakovyöhykkeisiin. Jännitysten
aiheuttamien rakojen kokonainen karakterisointi (jännitysten magnitudit, jne.) ei kuulu
tämän työraportin tavoitteisiin.
Tutkituista kairarei'istä ei havaittu suuria, "dog-ear" muodon omaavia breakout:teja tai

kairauksen aiheuttamia rakoja. Näin ollen voidaan päätellä, että 800 m syvyyteen asti
Olkiluodon jännityskenttä kairareikien ympärillä ei ylitä kiven lujuutta. Kairarei'istä
havaittiin kuitenkin pitkiä osuuksia, joissa seinämät hilseilevät (grain-sized fallouts)
reiän vastakkaisilla puolilla. Hilseily vaikuttaisi liittyvän kairan putkien mekaaniseen
kulumiseen muodostaen key seat-tyyppisiä rakoja, sillä hilseilyä esiintyy kairareikien
high side:ssa ja low side:ssa.
Kuvien analyysiä haittasi datojen huono laatu, johon vaikuttivat eniten suuntaus-
ongelmat ja artefaktit. Tämän takia raportin 6. luvussa esitetään ehdotuksia laadun
parantamiseen. Suuntausongelmat vihjaavat, että havaitut hilseilyt eivät sijaitse reikien
high side:ssa ja low side:ssa ja siksi voivat olla jännitysten aiheuttamia.
Avainsanat: Olkiluoto, jännityksen aiheuttama kairareiän rakoilu, kairareiän breakout,

mekaanisesti aiheutunut kairareiän muodonmuutos, key seat.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
TIIVISTELMÄ
LIST OF SYMBOLS ........................................................................................................ 3
1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 5
2 STRESS-INDUCED DRILLHOLE FAILURE ................................................................ 9
2.1 General ............................................................................................................. 9
2.2 Theory ............................................................................................................... 9
2.3 Measurement .................................................................................................. 13
2.4 Analyses ......................................................................................................... 14
3 DATA AND DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................................... 17
3.1 Acoustic borehole televiewer data .................................................................. 17
3.2 Data analysis of borehole televiewer data ...................................................... 21
3.2.1 Image log processing ................................................................................... 22
3.2.2 Breakout log processing .............................................................................. 24
3.3 Optical borehole televiewer data .................................................................... 25
4 RESULTS OF BREAKOUT IDENTIFICATION .......................................................... 29
4.1 General ........................................................................................................... 29
4.2 Drilling-induced elongations ............................................................................ 34
4.3 Stress-induced elongations ............................................................................ 37
4.3.1 Results from OL-KR10 ................................................................................. 37
4.3.5 Results from OL-KR46B .............................................................................. 48
4.4 Uncertainties in existing data .......................................................................... 49
4.4.1 Measurement accuracy of the BHTV ........................................................... 49
4.4.2 Centralization of the tool .............................................................................. 49
4.4.3 Length calibration error ................................................................................ 50
4.4.4 Temperature effects ..................................................................................... 50
5 DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................ 51
6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ................................................ 53
6.1 Stress-induced elongations at the drillhole scale ............................................ 53
6.2 Recommendation for future logging ................................................................ 53
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 55
APPENDIX 1: IDENTIFICATION OF GRAIN-SIZE FALLOUTS IN DRILLHOLE OL-
KR19 ............................................................................................................................. 59
KR40 ............................................................................................................................. 61
KR46 ............................................................................................................................. 63
KR46B .......................................................................................................................... 65
2
3
LIST OF SYMBOLS
H = maximum horizontal stress

h = minimum horizontal stress
 = angle measured clockwise from the H-direction
R = drillhole radius
r = radial distance
Pb = borehole fluid pressure
Po = formation pore pressure
P = Pb – Po
mbl = meters borehole length
4
5
1 INTRODUCTION
The Olkiluoto site is located approximately 25 km north of Rauma on the west coast of
Finland (Figure 1-1). In December 2000, the Finnish Government made a decision-in-
principle that "it is in agreement with the society total interest to construct a final
repository in Olkiluoto" (Government Decision December 21, 2000, ratified by
Parliament on May 18, 2001). In the decision in principle, it is also stated that further
geoscientific investigations will be needed. The continued investigation of the Olkiluoto
site will focus on the construction and operation of an underground rock
characterization facility called the ONKALO.
In order to support rock engineering design, the rock mechanics analyses and the
Prediction-Outcome work for the ONKALO, a better understanding of the in situ stress
field and especially the stress tensor is required. The access ramp of the ONKALO
facility is now being excavated and, in November 2010, it has reached ~4480 m, which
is equivalent to the depth of about 425 m.
This report presents results from analyses and interpretation of stress-induced features
in the crystalline environment of the Olkiluoto site mainly using acoustic televiewer
data. Besides theoretical considerations, the activity focused on identifying potential
borehole breakouts and DIF’s (Drilling Induced Fractures) in five core drilled drillholes,
OL-KR10, OL-KR19, OL-KR40, OL-KR46, and OL-KR46B (Figure 1-1). These
drillholes, which were recommended by Posiva Oy, are between 11 and 1017 m long.
The characteristics of the drillholes are presented in Table 1-1.
Numerous stress measurement methods have been employed at the Olkiluoto site; yet,
the state of stress is not accurately known (e.g. Ask, 2011). The present study is an
attempt to better constrain the orientation of the horizontal stress field using the
borehole breakout and DIF methods. If breakouts and DIF’s occur, also the stress
magnitudes may be constrained.
Stress concentrations around drillholes include radial, circumferential and shear

stresses. If the circumferential compressional stress exceeds the rock strength, breakouts
will form on diametrically opposite sides of the drillhole (e.g. Bell & Gough, 1979),
parallel with the minimum horizontal stress, h. The stress concentration may also
produce tension in the drillhole wall. If the tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength of
the surrounding rock, DIF’s form on opposite sides of the drillhole wall in the direction
parallel to the maximum horizontal stress, H. As a result, these methods are important
indicators of horizontal stress orientation, particularly in aseismic regions and at small
and intermediate depths (< 5 km; e.g. Zoback, 1992; Zoback et al., 2003).
Breakouts generally vary in length from less than a metre to several tens of metres (e.g.
Shamir & Zoback, 1992), and the drillhole wall is usually rough inside a breakout and
smooth on the outside. In contrast, DIF’s are narrow features with a length from 0.1 to 4
m (e.g. Brudy & Zoback, 1996). Stress-induced drillhole elongations commonly appear
over large sections along a drillhole. Hence, these features provide continuous and not
point-wise information on the state of stress, and consequently, reveal important
6
information on the continuity of the stress field in the rock mass. Until now, only an
informal report on borehole breakouts and DIF’s occurrences in OL-KR10 has been
written at the Olkiluoto site.
Figure 1-1. Map of the Olkiluoto site, showing the location of studied drillholes and
their trajectories with depth in red (modified from Toropainen, 2007).
Borehole breakouts and DIF’s can be detected using standard geophysical logging tools
that map the geometry of the drillhole wall. As a result, this is a cost-efficient method
compared to most other stress measuring methods. The Posiva Oy standard logging data
include acoustic borehole televiewer (BHTV) and optical televiewer. The BHTV tool
provides two types of velocity images of the drillhole wall, whereas the optical tool
provides a digital image of the drillhole wall. In standard application, the optical data
7
are used for describing the lithology and structural geology of the drillholes, and for
reorienting drill cores. BHTV data are primarily used for describing the geometry of the
drillhole wall, and this knowledge is important for environmental corrections, as
drillhole size and roughness may partially mask or disrupt the log response from the
formation for other types of geophysical logging data. In this report, we use both tools,
when available, to derive potential breakout data and to characterize the orientation,
depth, and length.
Table 1-1. Drillhole characteristics as determined from acoustic BHTV device.

Drillhole Length Direction, Dip, Direction, Dip, Logged
upper upper lower lower length
[m] [oN] [o] [oN] [o] [m]
OL-KR10 613 360.01 89.81 345.62 81.42 573.6
OL-KR19 543 301.03 76.43 315.14 72.54 467.3
5 5 6
OL-KR40 1017 276.7 64.0 274.4 61.86 353.2
OL-KR46 591 176.07 69.27 179.88 70.68 408.2
OL-KR46B 11 -9 -9 -9 -9 9.5
Key: 1) based on deviation measurements; 2) based on deviation measurements; 3) at 100.35 meter
borehole length (mbl); 4) at 539.16 mbl; 5) at 349.95 mbl; 6) at 770.15 mbl; 7) at 190.53 mbl; 8) at
598.77 mbl; and 9) data not available.
Throughout this report, stresses are denoted using a geomechanical sign convention
with compressive stresses taken as positive. Stress orientations are given with respect to
geographic north, using a right-hand rule notation.
8
9
2 STRESS-INDUCED DRILLHOLE FAILURE
2.1 General
Borehole breakouts are stress-induced enlargements of the drillhole cross section (Bell
& Gough, 1979). They appear when the stress concentration around the drillhole
exceeds the rock strength (e.g. Zoback et al., 1985). The breakouts form on
diametrically opposite sides of the drillhole, are parallel to the minimum horizontal
stress (h), and generally vary in length from less than a metre to several tens of metres
(Bell & Gough, 1979; Figure 2-1). The borehole breakout method has since the late
1970s commonly been applied for determination of in situ stress orientations, because
its analysis is based on data from standard logging tools (e.g., Bell & Gough, 1979). For
example, about 20% of the data in the World Stress Map (WSM) are borehole breakout
data (Heidbach et al., 2008).
From the increased use of high resolution imaging tools, the occurrence of DIF’s has
been identified as a new type of stress indicator. DIF’s show the H orientation (Brudy
& Zoback, 1993), and can be utilized for constraining the stress tensor (e.g., Peska &
Zoback, 1995; Wiprut et al., 1997; Brudy & Zoback, 1999). Two types of DIF’s have
been observed (Brudy & Zoback, 1993; Zoback et al., 2003), namely those that are
subparallel to the drillhole axis, and those that have en-echelon pattern of fine wall
fractures that are inclined towards the drillhole axis. If DIF’s are oriented subparallel to
the drillhole axis, they suggest that the drillhole axis coincides with one principal stress.
On the other hand, the occurrence of en-echelon DIF’s indicates that the drillhole axis
does not coincide with the orientation of one principal stress.
2.2 Theory
Breakout theory was originally proposed by Bell & Gough (1979) and Gough & Bell
(1981), based on the equations of Kirsch (1898). Since then others have expanded the
theory and interpretation to: (1) include effective stresses and account for the effect of
the difference in pressure between the drilling fluid and the rock formation (Zoback et
al., 1985); (2) analyze data from inclined drillholes (e.g. Mastin, 1988; Peska & Zoback,
1995; Zajac & Stock, 1997); (3) estimate the stress regime from the breakout depth
distribution (Moos & Zoback, 1990); (4) estimate principal stress magnitudes from
breakout shape (Zoback et al., 1985; Barton et al., 1988; Zheng et al., 1988; Peska &
Zoback, 1995; Zajac & Stock, 1997); and (5) study fracture initiation and other types of
drillhole failure (Guenot, 1987; Plumb, 1989; Moos & Zoback, 1990; Haimson & Song,
1993). More comprehensive discussions on the theory of breakout formation and DIF’s
are given by e.g. Engelder (1993), Amadei & Stephansson (1997), and Zoback et al.,
2003.
The stress concentration around a (near-) vertical drillhole in a horizontal plate includes
radial, circumferential and shear stresses. The plate is assumed composed of an ideally
elastic and isotropic material with one of the principal stresses in the direction of the
drillhole, and subjected to a homogeneous stress field. Equations (1) to (3) shows the
theoretical relationship for applied far-field stresses was first described by Kirsch
(1898) and subsequently by others (e.g. Jaeger & Cook, 1969).
10
Figure 2-1. Schematic cross-sections of stress-induced drillhole failure (borehole

breakout and drilling-induced fracture; Tingay et al., 2005; Hillis & Reynolds, 2000).
Borehole breakouts form when the circumferential stress around the drillhole exceeds
the compressive rock strength and thus are oriented parallel to the minimum horizontal
stress (σh). DIFs form when the circumferential stress exceeds the tensile strength of the
drillhole wall and are thus oriented parallel to the maximum horizontal stress (σH).
 H   h   R 2     h   R2 R4  R2
r   1  2   H  1  4  2  3  4   cos 2  P  2 (1)
2  r  2  r r  r
 
 H   h   1  R 2    H   h   1  3  R 4   cos 2  P  R 2 (2)
2  r 
2
2  r 
4
r 2
 
 r  
 H   h   1  2  R 2  3  R 4   sin 2 (3)
2  r 2
r 
4

where H and h are the maximum and minimum horizontal stresses, R is the drillhole
radius, r the radial distance to the measurement point,  is the angle from H, ΔP is the
difference between the drillhole fluid pressure, Pb, and the formation pore pressure, Po.
Note that these equations are subjected to the hypothesis of fluid percolation (in case
fluid percolation is absent, the term ΔP·R2/r2 is reduced to ΔP in eqs. 1 and 2).
At the drillhole wall, r = R , and the formulas reduce to:

 r  P (4)
    H   h   2   H   h   cos 2  P (5)
 r  0 (6)
where P  Pb  P0 .
11
Maximum stress concentration occurs at  = 0, which is the direction of borehole

breakout formation. Minimum stress concentration occurs at  = 90, which is the
direction of DIF’s and hydraulic fracturing formation. For the borehole breakout case,
Equation (5) reduces into Equation (7). Correspondingly, Equation (5) reduces into
Equation (8) for the hydraulic fracturing case:
  0  3   H   h  P (7)
   90  3   h   H  P (8)
The specific failure mechanisms of borehole breakouts may vary with rock strength,
depth, and state of stress (Plumb, 1989). Detailed observations of breakouts in several
stages of development suggest that drillhole failure is dependent on lithology (Plumb,
1989). He observed that breakouts in crystalline rocks are small pits at the drillhole
wall, whereas breakouts first appear as well-developed fracture zones in sedimentary
rocks. From these observations, Plumb (1989) suggests that breakout failure in
crystalline rocks initiates at the drillhole wall, whereas it initiates inside the formation in
sedimentary rocks. From compilation of breakout images, Plumb (1989) presents three
main types of breakouts, which reflect one of three reference states of stress around the
drillhole: Type 1 forms at a stress state of r < z < , and consists of vertical fractures
parallel to the drillhole; Type 2 is formed when r <  < z, and consists of horizontal
extension fractures with shear fractures at a sharp angle to the drillhole wall; and Type 3
is formed when < r < z, and consists of stepped fractures developed from inclined
fractures.
By considering rock anisotropy and state of stress, Maury et al. (1999) suggest that six
theoretical rupture modes occur at compressional stress states in drillholes that are sub-
aligned to one principal stress direction: A1, A2, B1, B2, C1 and C2 (Figure 2-2). The
shear modes may appear along the entire length of the drillhole periphery is the stress
field is laterally isotropic, or along sections of the periphery if the stress field is
anisotropic. Caving shapes resulting from anisotropic stress fields are indicated on
right-hand side of Figure 2-2. The A1 and A2 rupture modes correspond to the well-
known "borehole breakouts", for which the horizontal (tangential) stress at the drillhole
wall exceeds the compressional strength of the rock (the axial stress is the intermediate
stress). The B1 and B2 modes are a result of excess of vertical stress relatively to the
internal pressure (tangential stress is intermediate). The C1 and C2 rupture modes
involve excessive internal pressure relatively to external stress and are believed as
feasible due to the accommodation of elastic deformation in the unruptured parts of the
drillhole but do not produce cavings (radial stress is intermediate; Maury et al., 1999).
Maury et al. (1999) also propose possible modes of rupture in extension and traction
(Figure 2-3). The extension mode E (isotropic or anisotropic) corresponds to similar
conditions as compression mode A1, with r < z <  (here r ≈ 0 and the rock behaviour
is very brittle). The vertical (D1) and horizontal (D2) true traction modes (hydraulic
fracturing) are well known, and traction mode D3 is induced by tensile radial stress inside
the wall (r ≈ 0). The latter has been observed as developing in cores. The three modes A1,
E1, and D3 (radial stress) are often differentiated for identification purpose.
12
Figure 2-2. Shear rupture modes around a (vertical) drillhole (after Maury et al.,
1999). Length of arrow is proportional to stress magnitude. Green arrow, ; blue
arrow, r; grey arrow, z.
Figure 2-3. Extension and true traction rupture mode in a (vertical) drillhole (after
Maury et al., 1999). Length of arrow is proportional to stress magnitude. Green arrow,
; blue arrow, r; grey arrow, z.
13
2.3 Measurement
Borehole breakouts and DIF’s are commonly identified using standard logging tools
such as oriented four-arm caliper (only breakouts), Formation MicroScanner (FMS),
Formation MicroImager (FMI) and borehole televiewer. The four-arm caliper tool
provides measurement of the drillhole geometry in two orthogonal directions, as well as
the position of the tool with respect to magnetic North and vertical. The FMS tool
collects both conventional four-arm caliper data (for breakout analyses) and small-scale
conductivity images (for analyses of DIF’s). The BHTV tool collects two types of
detailed acoustic data (travel time and amplitude images) of the drillhole wall that
provide information on the drillhole diameter and acoustic impedance. These images
can be used to detect borehole breakouts, DIF’s, and other structures that have an
acoustic contrast to the drillhole wall (Figure 2-4). Optical images of the borehole wall
may also be achieved with optical borehole televiewers, such as the ALT Optical
Borehole Televiewer, OBI-40. In clean drillholes, these probes provide images of the
borehole wall that may be used for identification of lithology and structures. In some
cases, the images may also be used to identify fallouts in drillholes (borehole breakouts
and DIF’s), especially in dark lithologies with light reflections, but generally the
obtained 2D image is limited in resolving the 3D expression of fallouts.
A B
Figure 2-4. Example of borehole breakouts and DIF’s occurring within the same
section. In the BHTV amplitude image (left), the borehole breakouts appear as dark,
wide bands (low reflection amplitudes), 180º apart. The weaker and thinner fractures
that occur 90º from the breakouts are DIF’s. Cross sections of the drillhole (right)
allow clear identification of borehole breakouts (from Zoback et al., 2003).
14
Several drillhole geometries may be encountered during analyses. At good conditions

(i.e. centralized tool, clear drillhole fluid, and sufficient acoustic contrast at the drillhole
wall), BHTV images provide a detailed shape of the drillhole wall that allows
separation between drilling-induced (key seats, washouts) and stress-induced (borehole
breakouts, DIF’s) drillhole elongations (Figure 2-5).
Figure 2-5. Examples of common drillhole geometries and their expression in four-
arm caliper logs (modified after Plumb & Hickman, 1985).
2.4 Analyses
Plumb & Hickman (1985) compared BHTV and four arm-caliper data. Their study led
to the identification of four common drillhole geometries (Plumb & Hickman, 1985;
Figure 2-5): (1) an in-gauge hole that has dimensions of the drill bit; (2) a breakout has
one diameter elongated but the orthogonal diameter remains at the original bit size; (3) a
key seat occurs when the drill-string wear has caused a pear-shaped drillhole. The risk
for key seats, or drill-pipe wear, increases with increasing drillhole inclination (as well
as lengths); and (4) a washout appears as an increase in all dimensions of the drillhole.
In contrast to caliper data, these drillhole geometries are often easy to recognize and
distinguish from each other in BHTV data.
The limitation of the BHTV tool is associated with the fact that the tool emits and
receives ultrasonic pulses. Particles in the drillhole fluid scatter and prevent part of the
pulse from reflecting at the drillhole wall. The results are depending on acoustic
contrasts at the drillhole wall. Fractures, voids, soft material, as well as borehole
breakouts and DIF’s absorb or scatter much of the pulse, which results in low-amplitude
and high travel time reflectance or dark zones in the unwrapped images (e.g. Tingay et
al., 2008). The quality of the results depends critically on whether or not the tool is
centralized in the drillhole. Deltombe & Schepers (2000) discuss different effects of
decentralized tool, and a summary is given in the sections below and in Figure 2-6.
Deltombe & Schepers (2000) start the discussion by reaffirming that the BHTV tool
measures multiple distances from the tool to the drillhole wall, which may not be equal to
drillhole caliper measurements, because caliper is only defined with respect to the centre
of a regular shaped drillhole. They discussed two scenarios of decentralized tool in an in-
gauge (circular) and elongated drillhole, respectively (Figure 2-6A). The acoustic beam
can hit the drillhole wall at perpendicular (green arrows, or beams) and inclined (red
15
arrows or beams) angles. For the case when the tool is decentralized in an in-gauge
drillhole, the “green” beams provide data on maximum reflection amplitudes and correct
travel times. On the other hand, all “red” beams provide measures of secants, and their
lengths depend on the position of the tool. For the case when the tool is decentralized in
an elongated drillhole, neither of the “green” or “red” beams provide meaningful data.
A B
Figure 2-6. Effects of a decentralized tool. A) Schematic presentation of effects of

decentralization. B) BHTV data for a decentralized tool in an in-gauge drillhole. See
text for discussion (modified from Deltombe & Schepers, 2000).
B shows an example of BHTV data for the case when the tool is decentralized in an in-
gauge drillhole (Deltombe & Schepers, 2000). The travel time (left image) contains a
clear maximum (yellow) and minimum (dark blue). The difference between maximum
and minimum is changing versus depth, as well as the direction of maximum and
minimum, which suggest that the amount of decentralization and its direction is changing
with depth. The travel time image contains little further information about the drillhole
shape, which implies that the drillhole wall is relatively smooth. The middle image shows
uncorrected amplitude data, which reveals the influence of decentralization as two broad
shades (light brown) running parallel to the variation of the travel time image. The narrow
near-vertical dark line in the amplitude images is interpreted to be stabilizer marks (e.g.
Lofts & Burke, 1999). The influence of decentralization can be removed to some extent
from the amplitude image by a 2D high-pass filter. The result of the process is shown in
the right image of Figure 2-6B, Amplitude (corrected).
Deltombe & Schepers (2000; 2004) observe that the widths of amplitude anomalies are
wider than those of travel time anomalies (i.e. drillhole elongations). They conclude that
amplitude images are more sensitive than the travel time images to detect defects in the
rock. They argue that the amplitude image may detect initial stages of failure of a
material, prior to the stage when the material falls out into the borehole and is visible on
the travel time image. Deltombe & Schepers (2000) further propose that the amplitude
16
image can be considered as an additional tool not only to see existing breakouts but also
to detect potential breakout areas. They also conclude that their new results call for
careful consideration of how the widths of breakouts are determined.
Decentralization can be prevented if centralizer springs are mounted on the BHTV tool.
However, the tool can become decentralized even if centralizer springs are in use,
because of either or a combination of: the number of centralizer springs and their
position on the tool, the drillhole diameter with respect to the centralizer springs, and on
the dip angle of the drillhole.
17
3 DATA AND DATA ANALYSIS
Posiva Oy has provided data from the five drillholes included in this study. Two types
of data were provided, acoustic BHTV and optical imaging. Data were provided in four
deliveries: (1) Pre-processed BHTV data in WCL- and ASC-format from drillhole OL-
KR10 were provided in 2007; (2) pre-processed BHTV data in WCL-format from the
remaining four drillholes (OL-KR19, OL-KR40, OL-KR46, and OL-KR46B) were
provided in April 2010; (3) optical televiewer data in WCL-format from all drillholes
were provided by Posiva in September 2010; and (4) almost un-processed BHTV data
from all drillholes were provided by Posiva in October 2010. Table 3–1 lists the files
that have been investigated and analyzed.
3.1 Acoustic borehole televiewer data
Acoustic borehole televiewer data have been collected during two campaigns by
Robertson Geologging Ltd (Siddans & Wild, 1996) and Suomen Malmi Oy (SMOY;
Tiensuu & Heikkinen, 2009). Both probes uses a fixed acoustic transducer and rotating
mirror system to acquire two-way travel-time and amplitude of the acoustic signal
reflected back to the transducer from a spiral trajectory on the drillhole wall. The start of
each spiral is referenced to the top of the drillhole during acquisition, using data from
axis magnetometers and accelerometers in the probes. The vertical sampling interval of
the spiral trajectory depends on the logging speed and the rotation-rate of the mirror.
The direction from logging differed in the two campaigns: Siddans & Wild (1996)
logged in the direction down to up, whereas the opposite direction of logging was
adopted by Tiensuu & Heikkinen (2009).
Drillhole OL-KR10 was surveyed by Robertson Geologging Ltd with their high
resolution RG 25 112 000 HiRAT televiewer (Table 3–2; Siddans & Wild, 1996). The
tool string consisted of three probes, from top to bottom, the natural gamma,
temperature and BHTV probes. In total, 573.6 m of the borehole was logged in four
runs (Table 3–3). Overlap between runs (≥ 5 m) permitted control of log quality and
depth-matching. The combination of the used transducer rotation rate, firing rate, and
logging speed result in an azimuthal resolution of 2.8º, which corresponds to 1.9, 2.1,
and 2.8 mm for the three borehole diameters of OL-KR10 (Table 1–1). The longitudinal
resolution is 3 mm, and data events were recorded each 10 mm. There was a
discrepancy of -32º between the BTHV and Dipmeter mean azimuths, and the latter was
considered more reliable, because the Dipmeter azimuths corresponded best with those
of Boremap (Lowit et al., 1996). Two problems with the raw data were identified
(Siddans & Wild, 1996): First, the drillhole orientation in space (average drillhole
deviation from vertical = 5.1º; drillhole azimuth = 350.1ºN), in relation that of the
Earth’s magnetic field (inclination = 75º to the horizontal, declination = +3.9º) differs
by an angle of 10.1º. Such small angular difference result in that the X- and Y
magnetometers will record even small differences in the tool orientation in space. The
consequence is that the results are subject to some uncertainties. Second, ferrous
minerals occur in narrow zones in Olkiluoto, for example from 250 – 275 m. These
zones locally deviates the Earth’s magnetic field.
18
Table 3-1. Name of data files used in this study with general description.
Drillhole Name of data file Type of data
OL-KR10 040-100_OL-10_BHTV_CAL WCL, BHTV
100-179_OL-10_BHTV_CAL WCL, BHTV
176-390_OL-10_BHTV_CAL WCL, BHTV
390-465_OL-10_BHTV_CAL_Centr WCL, BHTV
BHTFILE1 ASC
BHTFILE2 ASC
BHTFILE3 ASC
BHTFILE4 ASC
ORIENTB1 ASC
ORIENTB2 ASC
ORIENTB3 ASC
ORIENTB4 ASC
TEMPDEG1 ASC
TEMPDEG2 ASC
TEMPDEG3 ASC
TEMPDEG4 ASC
TVDATA1 ASC
TVDATA2 ASC
TVDATA3 ASC
TVDATA4 ASC
OL-KR19 KR19_ABI_100_200 WCL, BHTV
KR19_ABI_200_300 WCL, BHTV
KR19 kooste WCL, General info
KR19_40a WCL, OBI
KR19_101a WCL, OBI
KR19_150_200_final WCL, OBI
KR19_200_250_final WCL, OBI
KR19_250a WCL, OBI
KR19_301a WCL, OBI
KR19_351a WCL, OBI
KR19_402a WCL, OBI
KR19_450a WCL, OBI
KR19_503a WCL, OBI
OL-KR19_ABI_toHigh 100-538.5 WCL, BHTV
OL-KR19_ABI_2_toHigh WCL, BHTV
OL-KR19_ABI_2m_43m_toHigh WCL, BHTV
OL-KR19_ABI_36a_toHigh WCL, BHTV
OL-KR40 KR40_ABI_360_400 WCL, BHTV
OL-KR40_ABI_toHigh WCL, BHTV
19
Table 3–1 (continued). Name of data files used in this study with general description.
Drillhole Name of data file Type of data

OL-KR40 OL-KR40_ABI_400y_toHigh WCL, BHTV
OL-KR40_ABI_770y_toHigh WCL, BHTV
OL-KR40_40_100a_toHigh_DepthAdjtoCore WCL, OBI
OL-KR40_100_135a_HighSide_DepthCorr WCL, OBI
OL-KR40_240_276_HighSide_DepthCorr WCL, OBI
OL-KR40_275_310_HighSide_DepthCorr WCL, OBI
OL-KR40_310_345_ToHigh_DepthCorr WCL, OBI
OL-KR40_344_380a_ToHigh_DepthCorr WCL, OBI
OL-KR46 KR46_ABI_190-300 WCL, BHTV
KR46_ABI_300-400 WCL, BHTV
OL-KR46_ABI_toHigh WCL, BHTV
OL-KR46_193-401 ABI_190_toHigh WCL, BHTV
OL-KR46_OBI_40a_toHigh WCL, OBI
OL-KR46B KR46b kooste WCL, General info
OL-KR46B_ABI_toHigh WCL, BHTV
OL-KR46B_OBIa_ToHigh WCL, OBI
20
Table 3-2. Some specifications for the probe used in drillhole OL-KR10.
Probe RG 25 112 000 HIRAT, High resolution acoustic televiewer

Probe diameter 45 mm
Length 2.1 m
Weight 23 kg
Centralization 2 essential
Transducer type Focused piezoelectric
Transducer frequency 0.5 MHz
Transducer rotation rate 10 revolutions/second
Firing rate 128 times/revolution
Logging speed 2 m/minute
Orientation transducer 3-axis magnetometer, 3-axis accelerometers
Drillhole conditions Diameter: 67 – 150 mm; Deviation from vertical: 0 – 70°
SMOY conducted BHTV measurements in drillhole OL-KR19, OL-KR40, OL-KR46,

and OL-KR46B using the high resolution televiewer from Advanced Logic Technology
(ALT), ABI-40 (Table 3−3; Tiensuu & Heikkinen, 2009). The logged length in drillhole
OL-KR19, OL-KR40, OL-KR46, and OL-KR46B varied from 9 to 467 m in individual
drillholes, and was 1238 m in total (Table 1–1). Drillholes OL-KR19, OL-KR40, and
OL-KR46 were logged with a sampling rate of 288 radial samples/revolution (resolution
1.3º/revolution) and a survey rate of 80 - 120 cm/min, whereas drillhole OL-KR46B
was logged with a sampling rate of only 72 radial samples/revolution (resolution
5.0º/revolution) and a survey rate of 80 cm/min. Tiensuu & Heikkinen (2009) remarks
that the longitudinal and azimuthal resolution of the ABI-40 probe is controlled by the
width of the acoustic beam (1.5 mm), but that smaller features still may be detected.
They further reports that the resolution of the caliper readings, which is obtained from
the travel time through the drillhole fluid, is 0.08 mm at best. Fluid velocity was
estimated using a 76 mm nominal diameter drillhole, depends on pressure, temperature,
and salinity, and range from 1500 to 1600 m/s in the investigated drillholes (Tiensuu &
Heikkinen, 2009). With this tool and logging configuration and fluid properties, the
authors obtained a minimum drillhole diameter of 51 mm.
Table 3-3. Some specifications for the probe used in drillholes OL-KR19, OL KR40,
OL-KR46, and OL-KR46B
Probe ABI-40, High resolution acoustic televiewer probe

Length 1.6 m
Weight 6 kg
Centralization 2 special centralizers for 76 mm-diameter borehole
Transducer type Fixed transducer and rotating focusing mirror, 1.5 mm acoustic beam-
width
Transducer frequency 1.2 MHz
Transducer rotation rate Up to 10 revolutions/second, automatic
Firing rate 72/144/288 steps/rev (user selectable)
Orientation transducer 3-axis magnetometer, 3-axis accelerometers. Inclination and azimuth
accuracies, 0.5º and 1.0º, respectively.
Drillhole conditions Diameter: 51 – 533 mm; Focusing depth, 152 mm
21
3.2 Data analysis of borehole televiewer data
We have used the log analyzing program WellCAD, version 4.3 including reader, cross-
plot and image modules. The aim of processing was to derive information of potential
stress-induced drillhole failure (borehole breakouts, DIF’s). The processing steps of the
first deliveries of BHTV data included filtering and centralization (Tiensuu &
Heikkinen, 2009). (Figure 3-1).
Figure 3-1. Standard presentation of unwrapped BHTV data from the bottom of
drillhole OL-KR40 (730 - 770 mbl; scale 1:500). The file involves various deviation and
tool data (first four columns), depth and then various amplitude and travel time images:
(i) the primary recording without filtering; (ii) normalized amplitude images, (iii)
centralized travel time; (iv) caliper data; and (v) results using optical imaging.
Data handling and processing of all new WCL files encompassed the following steps:
First, the irrelevant data in the new data files were deleted to reduce the file size, and the
layout was re-formatted. Second, we conducted several image log processing steps, in-
cluding filtering image data, interpolating bad traces, normalizing image data, and
centralizing data. For drillhole OL-KR10, we also attempted to set up an Image
reference. Third, breakout log processing steps included interactive picking of breakouts
and DIF’s, and derivation of breakout statistics. More detailed descriptions of these
steps are summarized below, and obtained from the WellCAD 4.3 manual, Book 3 –
Image & structure.
22
3.2.1 Image log processing
The purpose of filtering data is to remove noise from the data. WellCAD contains three
main types of filters; however, only the Average and Median filters were tested in this
study: The average value of a subset of the data in a data window is computed by the
Average filter, and then this average value replaces the original values within the data
window. All data points within the data window are sorted by the Median filter, and the
median value is then replacing all values within the data window. The Selective
Despiking filter first sorts the data points from the data window. It then compares these
values to cut-off values. If the value exceeds the cut-off high value, it is replaced by that
value. If the value is lower than the cut-off low value, it is replaced by that value. The
cut-off value is user definable. We used different window sizes in application of filters
for limited amount of data. These results revealed in somewhat blurred images that
became even more blurred with increasing data window. The selective despiking filter
probably would improve the image quality by removing spikes along the woodgrains
(see Chapter 4, Results of breakout identification); however, this would require better
definition of the data window and cut-off values than was achieved. We concluded that
filtering of data did only partially improve data quality.
Some traces in the data contain no data due to temporary problems during logging. They
appear as thin lines in the data that can be removed by the Interpolating Bad Traces
process. Here, traces with no data (NULL Values) are replaced by the adjacent trace
with valid data.
Data are normalized in order to obtain better contrast of the image and decrease the
effect from woodgrains. In this routine, the recorded range of data values (i.e. normally
a subset of the entire color palette) within a file is mapped and normalized with respect
to the entire range data values (i.e. color palette is computed). There are two main types
of normalization routines, Static and Dynamic normalization. The static normalization
takes the entire data set into consideration, which means that the values range between
total minimum and maximum of the log. The dynamic normalization allows
normalization of a subset of the data, and data are normalized along a sliding data
window. We tested to normalize amplitude data using the three available dynamic
normalization modes: Dynamic 1 dim, Dynamic 2 dim, and High Pass. We obtained by
far best results using the High Pass mode, where we applied a sliding window with the
width and height of 30° and 0.1 m, respectively. The draw back of this normalization
mode is that it is very time consuming in comparison to the other two modes, for which
Dynamic 2 dim is more time consuming than Dynamic 1 dim.
Decentralization of the BHTV tool during logging is very commonly occurring in

inclined drillholes. This decreases the quality of the images (cf. Figure 2−6). WellCAD
has the tool Centralize Process, in which the travel time data are corrected for
decentralization effects. The assumption is that the decentralization effect follows an
approximately sinusoid distribution, the Centralize Process removes this trend and
corrects the input data to a best-fitted sinusoid (e.g. approximating a straight line).
Figure 3-2 shows an example of filtering and 3D caliper plots. The 3D caliper plots are
calculated using the acoustic travel time and the velocity in the drillhole fluid, where the
23
velocity in the fluid is calculated using the fluid temperature and fluid conductivity. An
optional methodology involves centralized travel time and normalized amplitude.
It was apparent that orientation of the OL-KR10 data was incorrect. As a result, we
attempted, and only partially succeeded to rotate the image log to magnetic North. In
this process, magnetic and accelerometer sensor components are selected according to a
drillhole reference system. Orientation and magnetometer data are needed for this and
this data were imported from ASC-files. Further details and results of this attempt are
presented in Chapter 4.3.1, Results from OL-KR10.
Figure 3-2. Example of continued processing of data from drillhole OL-KR40, over
the depth interval between 730 and 770 mbl (scale 1:500). The file involves various
deviation and tool data (first two columns), depth and then various amplitude and travel
time images: (i) the primary recording without filtering; (ii) normalized amplitude
images; (iii) centralized travel time; (iv) 3D caliper data; (v) caliper data; and finally,
(vi) results using optical imaging.
24
3.2.2 Breakout log processing
WellCAD contains the routine Interactively Picking Breakouts, in which the breakout
(or DIF) is marked out using the mouse on the image log. A Breakout Log is then
superimposed on the image, which can be color-coded and signal breakout, DIF,
washout, etc (cf. the image Breakout CCT in Appendices 1-4). The results from the
Breakout Log (or Breakout CCT) are easily exported to Excel by copy and paste.
The drillhole geometry was primarily identified in WellCAD, but the optical log
sometimes provided supplementary and independent verification. A detailed view of the
drillhole geometry was obtained from plotting cross sections of the 3D caliper data using
the WellCAD routine “3D editor. In this presentation, unwrapped results, as well as
individual thin slices of the drillhole cross sections are inspected. The cross section
drillhole geometry is obtained by stacking a 0.2 m long depth interval of Caliper 3D data
(Figure 3-3A). The widths of breakouts, on the other hand, are best viewed on unwrapped
travel time logs (Figure 3-3B). A good understanding of the change in downhole drillhole
cross section is achieved by stepwise changes in depth of the cross section slices.
A B
Figure 3-3. BHTV data from drillhole OL-KR40. A, Drillhole cross section of stacked
caliper 3D data, 0.5 m thick. B, Unwrapped centralized travel time image from 730-777
mbl. Red arrow indicates the depth of the cross section in A at 731 mbl.
A commonly observed artifact in the amplitude logs is woodgrains (Figure 3-4), which
effectively prevent a non-biased identification of potential small-scale breakouts.
Woodgrain is caused by systematic errors in the acquisition peak interpolation (Lofts &
Bourke, 1999). We speculate that the occurrence of woodgrains is related to the high
magnitudes of ground currents that is typical of the Olkiluoto site.
25
Figure 3-4. Examples of woodgrains on normalized amplitude and 3D caliper images

(from drillhole OL-KR40). These features prevent a non-biased identification of
potential borehole breakouts.
3.3 Optical borehole televiewer data
Suomen Malmi Oy conducted optical image logging using the ALT Optical Borehole
Televiewer OBI-40 probe (Lahti, 2004; Tarvainen, 2007; Tarvainen & Heikkinen,
2008). The probe is essentially a standard CCD video camera installed in the probe in
front of a conical mirror. An acrylic window covers the mirror part, and the drillhole
image is reflected through the window part and displayed on the cone, from where it is
recorded. During measurement, pixel circles are scanned with a user definable
resolution of 90/180/360/720 pixels/circle. The system orientates the images using 3
26
axis magnetometers and 3 inclinometers providing an accuracy of 0.5 and 1.0o for
inclination and azimuth, respectively. Details of the probe are presented in Table 3−4.
Among other things, good quality optical logs requires well-centralized tools during
logging, Therefore, special plastic centralizers have been fabricated (Figure 3-5).
Table 3-4. Some specifications for OBI-40 probe.

Probe OBI-40, optical borehole televiewer
Length ~ 1.7 m
Weight ~ 7 kg
Camera type DSP based digital CCD
Optics Polycarbonate conic prism
Azimuth resolution 90/180/360/720 pixels/circle
Vertical resolution User definable, depth or time sampling
Color resolution 24 Bit RGB value
Orientation transducer 3-axis magnetometer, 3-axis accelerometers. Inclination and azimuth
accuracies, 0.5º and 1.0º, respectively.
Drillhole conditions Diameter: 44 - 609 mm
Figure 3-5. OBI40 probe with nylon centralizers mounted. In front the winch is a four-
spring bow centralizer (from Majapuro, 2006).
27
Three drillholes were logged with the optical televiewer (boreholes OL-KR19, OL-
KR40 and OL-KR46; cf. Table 3-3). The objective for analyzing the optical images in
this study is that these images may help the interpretations of acoustic televiewer data
and stress-induced borehole features. During the analyses, we found that the orientation
of images in the acoustic disagreed with those of the optical televiewer in drillholes OL-
KR19 and OL-KR40, whereas more consistent values were obtained in drillhole OL-
KR46. An example from drillhole OL-KR19 is shown in Figure 3-6. There is a 70º shift
in the orientation of the logs, which is evident in sections containing fractures. In Figure
3-6C, we have reoriented the image in Figure 3-6B so that the center of the light-colored
band coincides with the bottom of the drillhole. In this image, the orientations of the
two fractures in the optical televiewer coincide perfectly with those of the acoustic
televiewer. According to Posiva, the shifting is due to the orientation methods used
before and after the measurements of OL-KR19. In early 2000's, the optical and
acoustical images were oriented to North. After 2002, it have been decided that the
measurements will be oriented to High side. OL-KR19 was measured during the
transition between the methods.
It is probable that some of the discrepancies between the two data sets may be explained
by the arguments above. However, in some cases there are no light-colored bands,
whereas several bands are observed in other cases. As mentioned above, the optical
televiewer was equipped with nylon centralizers to optimize the tool centralization. It
was commonly observed that these centralizers collected large amounts of debris during
logging (e.g. M. Lahti, E. Heikkinen, personal communication, 2011). It is likely that
debris subsequently could have been smeared onto the drillhole wall along several
bands. In such cases, the occurrence of debris bands may not be restricted to the low-
side of the tool.
We used optical data sporadically and the optical imager provided independent
verification of observed features: (1) rugged drillhole walls can be identified; and (2)
smooth, shallow borehole breakouts may be detected if they occur in dark rocks,
because the pits from fall-out grain produce reflecting bands Often, the data quality of
the optical imager does not permit more than point-wise verifications as a result of
chemical alterations, and particles in the drillhole fluid.
28
Figure 3-6. Example of discrepancy between acoustic and optical BHTV from a 1.1 m-
long section near 446 mbl in drillhole OL-KR19. A, Acoustic BHTV shows two steeply
dipping fractures (blue narrow sinusoids, red arrows) that dips towards ~300º from the
top-side of drillhole. B, Optical BHTV data shows the same fractures (light color, red
arrows). Both images in A and B have the same frame of reference (top of drillhole at
0/360º). However, the optical BHTV is shifted by about 70º (B) with respect to the
acoustic BHTV (A). A band with light color is observed along ~260º (see red double
arrow), and is interpreted as borehole debris. C, The optical BHTV image is reoriented
so that the borehole debris is centered at the bottom-side of drillhole (180º). The image
in (C) now fits with observed fracture orientations in the BHTV data.
29
4 RESULTS OF BREAKOUT IDENTIFICATION
4.1 General
Figure 4-1 to Figure 4-5 show the results from BHTV logging in drillholes OL-KR10,
OL-KR19, OL-KR40, OL-KR46, and OL-KR46B. The plots display the entire logged
section of the various drillholes, with corrections/filtering applied, and with solely the
logs of interest for detection of stress induced elongations.
As visualized at the scale of Figures 4−1 to 4−5, there is not a single large scale
borehole breakout within the study interval, which covers the vertical depth to about
800 m. However, a closer inspection of the data at a more detailed scale reveals that
many drillholes involve grain-size fallouts on two diametrically opposite sides of the
drillhole walls that are often apparent in the travel time log as lighter-coloured small
dots. Before focusing on these features, we will first present results regarding drillhole
elongations caused by the drilling- and logging process. This is followed by a
presentation of small scale, grain-size fallouts.
Figure 4-1. Results from BHTV logging in drillhole OL-KR10. Note that no tilt data
were available. This borehole was logged by Robertson Geologging Ltd.
30
Figure 4-2. Results from BHTV logging in drillhole OL-KR19. Note that the dark band
is interpreted to be a stabilizer mark of the logging tool (e.g. Lofts & Burke, 1999). This
band is normally vertical and thus indicates that tool orientation is faulty (see further
discussion in the text).
31
32
33
Figure 4-5. Results from BHTV logging in drillhole OL-KR46B.

34
4.2 Drilling-induced elongations
We observed three groups of drilling-induced elongations: (1) key seats; (2) washouts;
and (3) mechanical grooves, which are described hereafter. Key seats represent
mechanical wear of the drill string on one or more sides of the drillhole. Generally, key
seats appear at the bottom side of the drillhole, but for deviating drillholes, they may
appear also at the top of the drillhole (when primarily dip is changing as a function of
drillhole length) but may also appear on the left and right sides of the drillhole if the
drillhole direction is significantly changed (Figure 4-6). The formation of key seats is
also related to the drilling process, e.g. a large force causing bending of the drill string
may cause key seats even if the drillhole trajectory is more or less linear. A washout
appears as an increase in all dimensions of the drillhole and is commonly associated
with fallouts in pre-existing fractures or fracture zones. Multiple smaller washouts exist
in all investigated drillholes, related to pre-existing fractures (Figure 4-7 and Figure 4-
8). We also observed narrow sub-axial grooves (Figure 4-9) interpreted as mechanical
wear caused by transport of drill string and various logging tools in the drillhole.
OL-KR19 OL-KR46
Figure 4-6. Indications of key seats in drillholes OL-KR19 (at 101 mbl, left) and OL-
KR46 (at 191 mbl, right), looking down into the drillholes. Both drillholes display an
enlargement at the bottom. In drillhole OL-KR19, an enlargement is also observed at
about 20o anti-clockwise from the top of the well. In drillhole OL-KR46, grain-sized
fallouts are observed at about 20o and 200o clockwise from the top of the well, thus
slightly offset from top-bottom direction.
OL-KR19 OL-KR46
Figure 4-7. Washouts in drillholes OL-KR19 (at 102 mbl, left) and OL-KR46 (at 302
mbl, right), showing increased well dimension compared to nominal radius (grey
circle).
35
Figure 4-8. Washout out fracture at 104 mbl in drillhole OL-KR19. Results from the
BHTV and Optical imager logs at the same scale. This representation reveals a slight
offset in length between the two data sets. In addition, the bottom side of the optical log
(180°) does not coincide with the centre of the sedimentation area and should be shifted
about 45° (which would also lead to an improved fit with observed fractures in the
amplitude log).
36
Figure 4-9. Section from 283.0 – 235.0 mbl in drillhole OL-KR19 showing examples of
mechanical marks and a commonly observed artifacts (decentralization and/or wood
grains). Also shown is suspected grain-sized fallouts. Note that tool marks may cause a
bias when interpreting grain-sized fallouts, visible on the travel time image to the right.
37
4.3 Stress-induced elongations
As noted above, no large-scale borehole breakouts were observed in Figure 4-1 to

Figure 4-5. However, numerous sections with grain-sized fallouts were identified,
which could, potentially, be interpreted as stress induced. We address these sections
hereafter.
4.3.1 Results from OL-KR10
Regrettably, there is no available optical data from drillhole OL-KR10, and the BHTV
data are associated with various problems. Figure 4-1 shows the multiple occurrence of
diagonal banded appearance of the amplitude and travel time images. Initially these
images were suggested as to have been caused by drill bit slide, processing noise
(woodgrains), tool orbiting and/or spiral hole. However, an alternate interpretation is
that the observed patterns could arise as a result of a major problem with the orientation
devices, suggesting that the inclinometers, accelerometers and magnetometers have not
picked up the tool rotation properly. Hence, amplitude and travel time plots display an
uncorrected image to tool rotation versus drillhole length.
It was possible to improve the collected data by correcting a depth misfit between
orientation devices and the amplitude and travel time data. However, this adjustment
only solved the rotation problem in part. It is clear that the accelerometers are not
functioning (both sensors showing 0.0o with no variation). Hence, we only have
magnetometers to rely on for image orientation, which is a major drawback in terms of
precision of orientation. The adjustment of the images to magnetic North requires
minimum two magnetometers, one to determine the rotation of the tool and another one
to determine the direction of rotation. Regrettably, the magnetometers do not seem to
provide this information with sufficient precision.
On the other hand, this may not have helped, because it is clear that the data also suffer
from woodgrains and stick-slip behaviour during logging (Figure 4-10) that may have
prevented an unbiased interpretation. Conclusively, data analyses of BHTV data from
drillhole OL-KR10 were not successful.
38
Figure 4-10. Logging artifacts in drillhole OL-KR10. A, Wood grains; B, Stick-slip.
Grain-sized fallouts were detected in several sections of the drillhole, from 42 mbl to
534 mbl (Figure 4-2; Appendix 1). In total, the results from the analysis suggest that
these are formed in about 373 m of the total 540 m drillhole length at the time of
logging, i.e. about 69 % of the logged drill length contain grain-sized fallouts. The
fallouts show a consistent orientation equal to 9o and 189oN, with a standard deviation
of 12o (with respect to the top of the drillhole). The majority of fallout zones show a
relatively small width, in average 60±19o. In general, the fallouts appear as two
diametrically opposite zones and are best visualized on travel time images and stacked
39
3D-caliper data (Figure 4-11 and Figure 4-12). In some cases, they are also evident in
the optical imaging data, although for most logged sections data quality is not sufficient
for an unbiased identification. The fallout zones are located on the top and bottom sides
of the drillhole, which is where one expects to find key seats. As a result, the features
cannot unambiguously be correlated to the prevailing stress field.
An interesting observation is that the observed fallouts are located on the top and
bottom sides of the drillhole, but as the depth increases, the orientation is shifted some
25o in the clock-wise direction (Figure 4-12). Because the drillhole rotates clock-wisely,
the same would be expected by the key seats. An optional, but less conceivable
interpretation is that the grain-sized fallouts are predominantly a result of key seats at
moderate depths, but as depth and stress increase, stress induced fallouts are dominating
(representing a H-direction of about 70oN).
Figure 4-11. Examples of grain-sized fallouts in drillhole OL-KR19 between 340 and
380 mbl (located close to high and low side of the hole). The dark band is interpreted to
be stabilizer marks from the logging tools and due to tool construction (e.g. Lofts &
Burke, 1999; Deltombe and Schepers, 2000). This band is normally uninterrupted and
thus indicates that tool orientation is faulty (see further discussion in the text).
40
101.8 210.0
400.0
338.2
420.0 440.0
460.0 480.0
500.0 520.0
Figure 4-12. Examples of cross-section plots (length 0.2 m) from 101.8, 210.0, 338.2,
400.0, 420.0, 440.0, 460.0, 480.0, 500.0, and 520.0 mbl in drillhole OL-KR19. The
grain-sized fallouts are located close to the low and high side of the drillhole, but rotate
slightly with depths.
41
When correcting the data for decentralization problems, a narrow dark line related to the
tool construction remains on the amplitude images (Figure 4-2). This line serves as a
good reference for tool rotation during logging. If the orientation devices are
functioning properly, the orientation of grain-sized fallouts should not be correlated
with tool rotation. Yet, some correlation seems to prevail, indicating that the orientation
of the fallout zones is not optimal. Without details of the orientation devices in the two
systems, this could not be investigated further.
Grain-sized fallouts were detected in the entire logged section of drillhole OL-KR40,
from 350 mbl to 764 mbl (Figure 4-3; Appendix 2). However, significant problems with
woodgrains affect the interpretation (Figure 4-14) and it is difficult to say if anything
useful can be obtained from the BHTV data as these features are difficult to filter. The
woodgrains are oriented around 159o and 339oN, with a standard deviation of 16o (with
respect to the top of the drillhole).
The travel time images and stacked 3D-caliper data (Figure 4-13 and Figure 4-14) give
some additional information, e.g. it seems that grain-sized fallouts also appear at the top
and bottom sides of the drillhole (Figure 4-15). For this drillhole, there is a strong
correlation between orientation of fallout zones and the narrow dark line related to the
tool construction on the amplitude images (Figure 4-3). This implies that the orientation
devices are not functioning properly and do not consider properly the tool rotation.
Without details of the orientation devices in the two systems, this could not be
investigated further.
Optical images are available for the entire drillhole length and these do provide some
additional data. However, similar to drillhole OL-KR19, the images do not seem to be
oriented correctly, when comparing with the sediment orientation and vertical,
mechanical wear along the drillhole axis (should be located at the bottom of the
drillhole; Figure 4-16). At the bottom 300 m of the well, grain-sized fallouts become
detectable at the top and bottom sides of the drillhole. These are hence interpreted as
key seats.
42
Figure 4-13. Images from drillhole OL-KR40 from 440 to 460 mbl. The travel time
image used for detection of grain-sized fallouts is also affected by the wood grains
causing a bias in results. What could be interpreted as fallouts (at about 135 and 315°
clockwise from the top of the drillhole), coincide with the long axis of the wood grains
and do not correspond to real data.
Figure 4-14. Stacked 3D caliper log of the section in Figure 4−13, from from 440 to
460 mbl in drillhole OL-KR40. The spikes coincides with the long axis of the wood
grains and are artifacts, not real data.
43
361.0 400.0
440.0 480.0
520.0 560.0
600.0 639.0
740.0 760.0
Figure 4-15. Examples of cross-sections plots (length 0.2 m) from 361.0, 400.0, 440.0,
480.0, 520.0, 560.0, 600.0, 639.0, 740.0, and 760.0 mbl in drillhole OL-KR40. The
grain-sized fallouts are significantly disturbed by woodgrain effects centred around
about 160 and 340o clock-wise from the top of the drillhole.
44
Grain-sized
fallouts
Sedimental &
mechanical
marks
Figure 4-16. Examples of optical imager results between 874-876 mbl in drillhole OL-
KR40. Sediment and mechanical, axial marks are located around 70-150o clock-wise
from the high side of the drillhole. Grain-size fallouts can be observed at diametrically
opposite sides of the drillhole (although difficult at this scale), centred around 120 and
300o, i.e. in the more likely location of top and bottom sides of the drillhole.
Grain-sized fallouts were detected in several sections of drillhole OL-KR46, from 196
mbl to 586 mbl (Appendix 3). Thus, similar to drillhole OL-KR40, they cover the entire
logged length of the drillhole. Regrettably, and also similar to OL-KR40, significant
problems with woodgrains affect the data (Figure 4-17 and Figure 4-18). The grain-size
fallouts show a consistent orientation in the upper 400 mbl, 16o and 196oN, with a
standard deviation of 10o (with respect to the top of the drillhole), whereas the bottom
section (417-586 mbl) indicates an orientation equal to 98o and 278oN, with a standard
deviation of 14o. After this observation the incorrect orientation were corrected. It have
been concluded that the error was due to the correction with a double-orientation of the
images to High side. Similar to drillhole OL-KR40, there is a strong correlation between
orientation of fallout zones and the narrow dark line related to the tool construction on
45
the amplitude images also in drillhole OL-KR46 (Figure 4-4). This is an indication that
the orientation devices are not functioning properly.
The travel time images and stacked 3D-caliper data (Figure 4-19 and Figure 4-20) give
some help in distinguishing potential grain-sized fallouts, but the disturbance caused by
rotation problems and woodgrains make the analysis biased. It is conceivable that a key
seat effect can be distinguished close to the top and bottom of the well of Figure 4-21.
In some sections, however, the optical imager gives a clear answer of top-bottom
fallouts, i.e. result from key seat.
Figure 4-17. Examples of biased results as a result of woodgrains in the data, which is
an artefact and not real data. Section from 210 to 220 mbl in drillhole OL-KR46.
Figure 4-18. Examples of grain-sized fallouts in drillhole OL-KR46 between 220 and
240 mbl (located close to top and bottom of the hole). Similar to Figure 4-14, the long
axis of the woodgrains coincide with what could be interpreted as fallouts (at top and
bottom of the drillhole) and may not correspond to real data. The dark vertical band is
interpreted to be a stabilizer mark of the logging tool (e.g. Lofts & Burke, 1999).
46
240.0 280.0
320.0 360.0
400.0 440.0
480.0 520.0
595.0
560.0
Figure 4-19. Examples of cross-sections plots (length 0.2 m) from 240.0, 280.0, 320.0,
360.0, 400.0, 440.0, 480.0, 520.0, 560.0, and 600.0 mbl in drillhole OL-KR46 (440 and
480 have been rotated 120o and 520, 560, and 595 with 70o). The grain-sized fallouts
are significantly disturbed by woodgrain effects centred around 160 and 340o clock-
wise from the top of the drillhole.
47
Grain-size
fallouts
Figure 4-20. Examples of optical imaging results between 123.5 and 124.3 mbl in
drillhole OL-KR46. Grain-sized fallouts are clearly visible at the top and bottom sides
of the drillhole, thus representing key seats.
48
Figure 4-21. Examples of optical imaging results between 874-876 mbl in drillhole OL-
KR46. Sediment and mechanical, axial marks are located around 70-150o clock-wise
from North when the image is oriented to the high side of the drillhole. Grain-size
fallouts can be observed at diametrically opposite sides of the drillhole, centred around
120 and 300o, i.e. in the more likely location of top and bottom sides of the drillhole.
4.3.5 Results from OL-KR46B
The BHTV logging in drillhole OL-KR46B was made with a very low azimuthal
sampling frequency, which makes the analysis more uncertain. There are, however,
indications of top-bottom grain-size fallouts, which are resulting from mechanical wear
of the drill string (Appendix 4).
49
4.4 Uncertainties in existing data
4.4.1 Measurement accuracy of the BHTV
The axial and vertical resolution depends on the frequency of the transmitted pulse and
the speed of logging, respectively. It is our experience that all logging should be made
with highest possible resolution; partly to allow more advanced analyse, but partly also
because the cost for increased logging time is small relative to the total cost.
The usefulness of the collected data is strongly dependent upon the performance of the
orientation devices in the tool. For most modern logging probes, it is quite possible to
resolve the drillhole direction within a few degrees with respect to both azimuth and
dip. For perfectly vertical wells, the precision is reduced as only magnetometers are
useful, which in addition may be sensitive to magnetic field disturbances.
However, such a high resolution in drillhole direction is dependent upon proper

calibration of both accelerometers/inclinometers and magnetometers prior to
measurement (and preferably also after completed measurement to enable assessing
time-dependent variations). In the existing data, it would have been most valuable to
have data providing some indication of that the orientation devices are indeed fully
reliable. For the case of both optical and acoustic logs in the same drillhole, a simple
comparison of the calculated drillhole direction with the various probes relative to
deviation measurements would be very informative. Another validation method is to
calculate the magnetic field declination using the magnetometers and compare that
result with the result of the Turku observatory for the logging date in question.
Some of the various problems identified in the logging may potentially be linked to the
strong ground currents at the Olkiluoto site. Logging using electrical imaging (Ask et
al., 2011) suffered from significant disturbances caused by currents with a frequency of
50, 200, and 400 Hz down to several hundred metres. Such currents may indeed cause
systematic errors in the acquisition system and explain e.g. the woodgrain effect and
length correlation error in OL-KR10. Ground currents would affect all sensors, although
acoustic probes should be significantly less sensitive compared to electrical logs.
4.4.2 Centralization of the tool
For acoustic probes, it is essential that the tool be centralized in the drillhole, because
the emitted pulses are not reflected back to the tool if it is off-centre. Regrettably, all
investigated drillholes suffer from decentralisation. Because the particles in the drillhole
fluid scatter and prevent part of the pulse from reflecting at the drillhole wall and
because fractures, voids, soft material (and borehole breakouts) absorb or scatter much
of the pulse, the decentralisation is displayed as low-amplitude and high travel time
reflectance, or dark zones in the unwrapped images.
To some extent this may be corrected for a posteriori, but the correction is based on the
assumption that the drillhole cross-section is perfectly circular. Of course, this is not
always the case, and it is always preferable to have properly functioning centralizers
during logging.
50
4.4.3 Length calibration error
There is clearly a mismatch between optical and acoustic logs for most of the
investigated intervals. Although the mismatch is small, it is worth nothing, because
length measurement is of importance for the ONKALO site investigation program. In
this study, it is not possible to determine which length measure that is the most credible.
According to E. Heikkinen (Pers. Comm 2011), the depth errors are within 2-5 cm.
4.4.4 Temperature effects
During this study, it is not clear if the BHTV data have been calibrated with respect to
temperature. However, we do not consider this a major source of uncertainty and it
primarily affects the measurement of breakout failure depth. Thus, this temperature
shortcoming, as well as the uncertainty in the mean caliper reading (±0.5 mm) used to
determine the breakout failure depth, will probably result in uncertainties in the stress
magnitudes, but they will most likely be considerably less than uncertainties related to
the imprecise measures of compressional strength. For this reason, breakout theory can
only provide crude bounds of the stress magnitudes.
51
5 DISCUSSION
Most grain-sized fallouts seem to appear close to the top and bottom of the drillholes.
As such, they can be linked to key seats and do not provide an unambiguous constraint
on the stress field orientation. However, most of the collected data appear to suffer from
problems with the orientation device, as tool rotations are correlated to the orientation of
fallout zones. This implies that there may be considerable errors in orientation of the
fallout zones relative to the top and bottom of the drillhole. In other words, there is a
potential that observed features are stress-induced. In addition, the available data also
suffer significantly from woodgrains effects, which effectively prevent an unbiased
interpretation of fallouts, especially for drillhole OL-KR40.
Conclusively, this study has revealed that the stress concentration around the drillholes
is not exceeding the strength down to about 800 m vertical depth at the Olkiluoto site.
However, our results are inconclusive with respect to small-scale, grain-sized fallouts;
they may be stress induced but may also represent mechanical wear of the drill string
and/or artefacts (wood grains). If we could rely more on the orientation data, we would
have interpreted the grain-size fallouts as being stress-induced whenever they would
occur in two diametrically opposite bands in other directions than that of the hole
azimuth. Regrettably, the data quality does not allow distinguishing the source of these
small-scale features.
52
53
6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
6.1 Stress-induced elongations at the drillhole scale
This initial study has demonstrated that borehole breakouts are absent down to about
800 m depth at the Olkiluoto site. However, as a result of quality issues in the data, the
analyses of grain-sized fallouts were only successful in drillholes OL-KR19 and OL-
KR46, and partly in drillhole OL-KR40. These drillholes all indicate top-bottom
fallouts, i.e. they are likely linked to mechanical wear by the drill string.
To avoid having affects of key seats, which cannot be differentiated from stress-induced
elongations, it would be valuable to use the same approach on a vertical drillhole. This
was indeed the idea with the analysis of data from OL-KR10, but the quality of the data
prevents such a study to be undertaken.
Because of the questionable quality of BHTV data in drillhole OL-KR10 and because
the full length of drillhole OL-KR40 yet has to be logged, we strongly recommend that
both boreholes are revisited for BHTV logging.
6.2 Recommendation for future logging
The available data have posed certain questions regarding logging equipment and
performance. The most important questions include: (1) what equipment type was used
during logging in OL-KR10; (2) what was the frequency of the ultrasonic pulse and the
axial resolution of the signal in individual logs; (3) what is the downhole variation in
torque/tension in the logging cable during logging; (4) why were centralizing springs
not functioning satisfactory; (5) what is the location and capacity of the piezoelectric
transducer; (6) what configuration was used during logging with respect to other
logging tools run together with the BHTV; (7) how was the length calibration made; (8)
why are not all drillholes logged to their full lengths; and (9) how was data quality
inspection conducted (e.g. why the occurrence of woodgrains in all drillholes, and why
only very limited or no re-runs).
Little is said about tool calibration in the logging reports. In order to increase credibility
of the data, it is suggested that all logging work should involve the following items to
validate collected data:
1. Check that caliper data (mean value) are close to bit size.
2. Description of calibration of orientation devices, preferably by presenting
correction factors.
3. Display of drillhole orientation as a function of drillhole length. The information
should involve comparison with deviation measurements and other logs
undertaken in the drillhole. In addition, in case the same section is logged more
than once, the repeatability of the orientation devices should be provided.
4. Calculation of the magnetic field declination (when magnetometers are
available) and comparison with the result of the Turku observatory for the
logging date in question.
54
5. Verification that there was no magnetic storm during the logging date (info can
be provided by the Turku observatory).
6. Description of how depth correlation is conducted.
7. Verification of bottom side of the drillhole relative to mechanical wear traces
and sediments when using optical imaging.
8. Some of the data from drillhole OL-KR10 were delivered in ASCII format. Yet,
when importing the data, the results do not appear to be raw data from the
orientation sensors, but transformed in the data acquisition. If this is a correct
interpretation, it is not optimal because identification of potential problems and
further data processing is prohibited. With known calibration factors and raw
data from orientation devices, it would be possible to fully re-evaluate the
rotation problem in drillhole OL-KR10.
9. Given the ground currents at the Olkiluoto site, which may explain some of the
problems observed, all sensors are affected by significant noise (there is simply
no stable ground). Experience has shown that it is possible to reduce the
problem by using current stabilizers, which is therefore recommended.
55
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59
APPENDIX 1: IDENTIFICATION OF GRAIN-SIZE FALLOUTS IN DRILLHOLE

OL-KR19
60
61

OL-KR40
62
63

OL-KR46
64
65

OL-KR46B
66

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Working Report 2013-38

Analysis of Acoustic and Optical Televiewer Data

Analysis of Acoustic and Optical Televiewer Data

Luleå University of Technology

FracSinus Rock Stress Measurements AB

Working Reports contain information on work in progress

The conclusions and viewpoints presented in the report

No large-scale, dog-ear shaped, breakouts or prominent DIF’s are observed in the

Keywords: Olkiluoto, stress-induced borehole failure, borehole breakouts,

Työraportissa esitellään ensiksi kairareikiin muodostuvan jännitysten aiheuttaman

Työraportin päätarkoitus on määritellä breakout:tien ja kairauksen aiheuttamien rakojen

Tutkituista kairarei'istä ei havaittu suuria, "dog-ear" muodon omaavia breakout:teja tai

Avainsanat: Olkiluoto, jännityksen aiheuttama kairareiän rakoilu, kairareiän breakout,

H = maximum horizontal stress

Stress concentrations around drillholes include radial, circumferential and shear

Table 1-1. Drillhole characteristics as determined from acoustic BHTV device.

2 STRESS-INDUCED DRILLHOLE FAILURE

Figure 2-1. Schematic cross-sections of stress-induced drillhole failure (borehole

At the drillhole wall, r = R , and the formulas reduce to:

Maximum stress concentration occurs at  = 0, which is the direction of borehole

Several drillhole geometries may be encountered during analyses. At good conditions

Figure 2-6. Effects of a decentralized tool. A) Schematic presentation of effects of

3 DATA AND DATA ANALYSIS

3.1 Acoustic borehole televiewer data

Drillhole Name of data file Type of data

Probe RG 25 112 000 HIRAT, High resolution acoustic televiewer

SMOY conducted BHTV measurements in drillhole OL-KR19, OL-KR40, OL-KR46,

Probe ABI-40, High resolution acoustic televiewer probe

3.2 Data analysis of borehole televiewer data

3.2.1 Image log processing

Decentralization of the BHTV tool during logging is very commonly occurring in

3.2.2 Breakout log processing

Figure 3-4. Examples of woodgrains on normalized amplitude and 3D caliper images

3.3 Optical borehole televiewer data

Table 3-4. Some specifications for OBI-40 probe.

4 RESULTS OF BREAKOUT IDENTIFICATION

Figure 4-5. Results from BHTV logging in drillhole OL-KR46B.

4.2 Drilling-induced elongations

4.3 Stress-induced elongations

As noted above, no large-scale borehole breakouts were observed in Figure 4-1 to

4.3.1 Results from OL-KR10

Figure 4-10. Logging artifacts in drillhole OL-KR10. A, Wood grains; B, Stick-slip.

4.3.2 Results from OL-KR19

4.3.3 Results from OL-KR40

4.3.4 Results from OL-KR46

4.3.5 Results from OL-KR46B

4.4 Uncertainties in existing data

4.4.1 Measurement accuracy of the BHTV

However, such a high resolution in drillhole direction is dependent upon proper

4.4.2 Centralization of the tool

4.4.3 Length calibration error

4.4.4 Temperature effects

6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

6.1 Stress-induced elongations at the drillhole scale

6.2 Recommendation for future logging

Ask, D., Fontbonne, F. and Brunet, C. 2011. Hydraulic stress measurements in

Bell, J. S. and Gough, D. I. 1979. Northwest-southeast compressive stress in Alberta:

Brudy, M. and Zoback, M. D. 1993. Compressive and tensile failure of boreholes

Brudy, M. and Zoback, M. D. 1999. Drilling-induced tensile wall-fractures:

Engelder, T. 1993. Stress regimes in the lithosphere, Princeton University Press:

Haimson, B. C., Song I. 1993. A laboratory study of borehole breakouts in Cordova

Jaeger, J. C. and Cook, N. G. W. 1969. Fundamentals of rock mechanics. Chapman and