UNIT 1

ROCK MECHANICS AND GROUND FORCES

1.0 OBJECTIVES: On completion of this unit, a learner will be able to

Define the Rock Mechanics and state the scope of the Rock Mechanics.

List the areas of application of Rock Mechanics in Mining.

List the ground forces acting on a block of in-situ rock.

List the different stresses on a block of rock in the field in three dimensions.

Explain the relation between vertical and lateral stresses.

Define the ‘Stress-field’.

Explain hydrostatic and litho static states of rock.

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Rock mechanics is a branch of engineering that covers the study of behaviour of rocks
under applied stresses. It deals with changes in mechanical behaviour of rocks and is also
associated with design and stability of underground structures.

Rock is one of the most commonly used construction material, which is very complex
and difficult to describe and define. It is a material about which we know very little. To avoid
structural failures associated with rock, it is absolutely necessary to understand and control it,
especially in its natural environment under the influence of load, water, and temperature.

The fundamental objective of Rock mechanics is to predict the motion of rock. In mining
engineering, the rock of interest is the mass adjacent to the open cuts, shafts, adits, stopes,
entries, rooms, panels and so forth that are excavated in the course of mining.

The superincumbent strata overlying the mineral body, is mainly responsible for forces
that may be found in the excavated ground. The forces developed due to weight, act primarily in
vertical direction and also in lateral direction through the rock mass. These forces are
redistributed to adjacent walls.

1.2.1 ROCK MECHANICS:

It is the theoretical and applied science of mechanical behaviour of rock and rock-mass
and is concerned with the response of the rock and rock-mass to the field of force in physical
environment.

1.2.2 SCOPE OF ROCK MECHANICS:

 Rock mechanics deals with the properties of the rock and a special methodology is
required for design of rock related components of engineering schemes. Rock, like soil is distinct
from other engineering materials in that the process of design with rock is really special. In
dealing with reinforced concrete structures, the engineer first calculates the load to be applied
and then he prescribes the material on the basis of strength. But in rock structures, the applied
loads are less significant than the forces deriving from redistribution of initial stress. Since rock
structures like underground openings posses many failures, the determination of material
strength required for the judgment depends upon the geological structure rather than the
designer’s freedom.

Knowledge of rock mechanics is essential for mining engineers, geologists and

geophysists. Although study of rock mechanics is necessary for mining engineers, geologists and
geophysists, it has got more importance for civil engineers who faced with problems relating to
rock mass during different construction operations.

If a building is very tall its foundation may go deep for stability requirements. In such
cases, the foundation may rest over a rock. To act as a good foundation support, bearing capacity
of the rock should be within permissible limits. At the same time settlement criteria also should
be such that there may not be uneven settlement of the building and for that, settlement
properties of the rock mass is required. In case a building is very tall and constructed on the
reclamed land over the shallow sea, the uplift force acts on the foundation, which goes into the
seabed. To make the building stable, the foundation has to anchored to deep sound rock bed by
anchor cables and for such operations knowledge of the rock mechanics is essential.

One of the most important works for civil engineers is the construction of masonary or
concrete dams, which are also known as gravity dams. A gravity dam has its foundation
supported on deep excavation into the rock mass. In such a case the rock supporting the dam
should have no fault zone and should be able to take stresses due to construction of the dam. At
the same time, the rock strata should be such that upstream water may not seep through the
foundation bed. For these details and proper design knowledge of rock mechanics is essential.

When a cut is made into the rock mass such as mining shafts, tunnels, underground
powerhouses then there is a stress relief in the surrounding rock mass which causes the
development of tensile stresses due to which cracks appear and subsequently there is rock fall
into the opening. In such cases the opening has to be designed such that rock cracks may not
appear excessively after the opening has been made. If at all cracks have appeared, then the rock
may be made stable by adopting a suitable design of rock reinforcement or a concrete lining.

For effective mining operations explosives are put for explosion, and then the mining
operations are done. Knowledge of Rock mechanics helps in effective selection of explosive
material depending on rock properties. Rock mechanics also helps in selecting the drilling bit
materials so that effective drilling may be done at deeper depths.

1.2.3 AREAS OF APPLICATION OF ROCK MECHANICS

 Knowledge of Rock mechanics is essential for mining engineers, geologists and geo
Physists. The study of rock mechanics and its applications are essential in engineering for
underground openings, rock slope engineering and in foundation engineering. Knowledge of
rock mechanics helps in selecting the drilling bit materials so that effective drilling may be done
at deeper depth such as for oil exploration etc.

The following are the applications of rock mechanics in mining.

1) Opencast workings and quarries.
a) Land slides
b) Bench failures, slope failures, base failures

2) Under ground excavations

a) Underground openings
b) Caving of mines
c) Tunnels
d) Underground chambers

1.2.4 GROUND FORCES ACTING ON A BLOCK OF INSITU ROCK

P1
The following are the forces acting on a block of in-situ rock.

1) Primary forces:
P2
a) Vertical compressive forces (P1) P2
Block of
b) Lateral forces (P2) Rock

2) Secondary forces: P1
The natural rock stresses are influenced by tectonic forces caused by folding, jointing,
fractures, restraint against lateral expansion, and hard spots.

1.2.5 TYPES OF STRESSES ON A BLOCK OF ROCK IN FIELD IN 3 DIMENSION

The following are the different types of stresses on a block of rock

1) Weight stresses:
The cause of stresses in virgin undisturbed rock is the weight of the superimposed, or overburden
rock. These vary in magnitude with depth from the ground surface. The stresses are of two types.
They are
 a) Vertical stresses
The stresses which act in vertical direction to the rock mass is known as vertical stress

b) Lateral stresses:
The stresses which act in horizontal direction to the rock mass is known as lateral stress.

2) Inherent stresses:
These are due to natural causes such as pressure due to folding, faulting, igneous intrusions or
due to exothermic transformation of peat into coal.

3) Residual stresses:
In addition to the inherent stresses, resulting form the direct pressure due to tectonic movements,
residual stresses will remain from the shock loads inflicted by each rock disturbance and they
may accumulate to considerable values.

4) Induced stresses:
These are the stresses induced due to excavation. Induced stresses are responsible for altering the
original properties of rockmass as a whole.

1.2.6 RELATION BETWEEN VERTICAL AND LATERAL STRESSES

Theoretically vertical stress at any given depth is equal to the depth from the surface,
multiplied by the average density of the rock material above. For coal measure, it has been
shown that pressure increases at approximately 0.234 Kg/cm2 for every metre of depth. In
practice, however, this has never been proved. When working a mine and driving roadways in it,
it is, however, the immediate roof some 6m above the seam, and the immediate floor, some 3m
below the seam, that matters. Timbering, stowing and other artificial supports have the object of
supporting the immediate roof and sides and prevent sagging of the roof and heaving of the floor
of the coal seams.

Since coal measure strata are solid and not fluid, the lateral stresses existing in the rocks
by virtue of rigidity will ordinarily be much less than the vertical stresses. These lateral stresses
are increased by constraint and also the super-imposition of additional stresses. The resultant
lateral stresses at any time may, therefore by much greater then considerations of Poisson’s ratio
for the material would indicate. In exceptional cases such as in areas disturbed by complex
folding, faulting or igneous intrusions, the lateral stresses may exceed the vertical stresses in
intensity.

1.2.7 STRESS-FIELD:

The stress intensities on excavations or structures depend on their depth from the surface,
but the pattern of stress concentration around them is governed by the mutual relationship
between the forces in the horizontal and vertical directions. This relationship, expressed as ratio
between the lateral and vertical stresses is called “Stress Field” and is expressed by ‘K’.

The stress field thus defines the state of ground with respect to the nature of the forces
that are present therein and also specifies the relationship between the lateral and vertical
stresses.

The change of stress field alters the nature of stress concentration. In rock mechanics
studies, most of the theoretical investigations have been carried out in the stress fields ranging
from K=0 to K=1.

1.2.8 HYDROSTATIC AND LITHOSTATIC STATES OF ROCK:

Hydrostatic state of rock:- The rocks in earth crust are subjected to hydrostatic pressure
apart from the vertical compressive, linear, shear and bending forces due to the presence of
underground water. The rocks particularly sedimentary rocks are subjected to this type of
pressure as these are formed by the action of running water. The hydrostatic stress for the coal
seam at a depth of thousand meters is 0.23Kg/cm2 per meter depth. It varies from area to area
and geological factors will influence in deciding the hydrostatic stress.

Lithostatic state of rock:- The rocks in the earth crust are subjected to vertical compressive
forces, lateral forces, shear and bending forces by the action of over lying rocks. The physical
properties like density, specific gravity and mineralogical composition of rock play important
role to estimate the stress. When working a mine and driving roadways in it, it is however, the
immediate roof 6m above the seam, and the immediate floor 3m below the seam, that matters.
Timbering, stowing and other artificial supports have the object of supporting the immediate roof
and sides to prevent sagging of the roof and heaving of the floor of the coal seams.

1.3 SUMMARY:

The salient features of this unit are-

Rock mechanics is a branch of engineering which deals with the mechanical

behaviours of rocks.

This subject is related to the properties of rock and is required for design of rock
related components of engineering schemes.

The areas of application of rock mechanics in mining are opencast workings and
quarries (land slides, bench failures, slope failures, base failures), underground
excavations (caving of mines, tunneling, drilling and blasting of workings)

The forces acting on a block of in-situ rock are vertical compressive forces and lateral
compressive forces.

The stresses acting on a block of rock in field in 3 dimensions are a) weight stress b)
Inherent stress c) Residual stress d) Induced stress

The stress field defines the state of ground with respect to the nature of the forces that
are present therein and also specifies the relationship between the lateral and vertical
stresses.

1.4 ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:

1.4.1 SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1) Define the term Rock Mechanics.

2) State the scope of the Rock mechanics.
3) List the areas of application of Rock mechanics in mining.
4) List the different stresses acting on a block of rock in field in 3 dimensions.

1.4.2 ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS

1.a) Explain the relation between vertical and lateral stresses.

b) Explain hydrostatic and lithostatic states of rocks.
1.4.3 OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS.

1) The branch of engineering which deals with the behaviour of rocks is known as
______________________.
2) The ratio between vertical and lateral stresses is known as _____________.

KEY TO OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1) Rock Mechanics 2) Stress Field