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CHAPTER

3
Section 3.1 Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
Problem Solving

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
3

Inductive Reasoning Example 1 – Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number Example 1 – Solution cont’d

The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the
examination of specific examples is called inductive
reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning is a conjecture, since it may or may not be
correct.
When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next
number in the list according to some pattern you have
observed, you are using inductive reasoning.
4 5
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the
of the following lists. third numbers differ by 3.
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ? b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ? It appears that the difference between any two numbers
is always 1 more than the preceding difference.
Solution:
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next
number. Thus we predict that the next number in the list number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.
is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
6
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Counterexamples Example 4 – Find a Counterexample

A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all
cases.
If you can find one case for which a statement is not true,
called a counterexample, then the statement is a false
Counterexamples statement.
In Example 4 we verify that each statement is a false
statement by finding a counterexample for each.
Verify that each of the following statements is a false
statement by finding a counterexample.
For all numbers x:
Solution:
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we
need only find one counterexample to verify that the
statement is false.

a. Let x = 0. Then |0| = 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0,

we have found a counterexample.
Thus “for all numbers x, |x | > 0” is a false statement.
7 8 9

Example 4 – Solution cont’d

Deductive Reasoning
b. For x = 1 we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning.
we have found a counterexample. Thus “for all numbers
x, x2 > x” is a false statement. Deductive reasoning is distinguished from inductive
reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a conclusion
c. Consider x = –3. Then . . Since 3 is not by applying general principles and procedures.
equal to –3, we have found a counterexample. Thus “for Deductive Reasoning
all numbers x, is a false statement.

10 11 12
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Example 5 – Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture Example 5 – Solution

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following Let n represent the original number.
procedure produces a number that is four times the original
number. Multiply the number by 8:
Add 6 to the product:
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add
6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3. Divide the sum by 2: Inductive Reasoning vs.
Subtract 3: Deductive Reasoning
We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given
in this example produces a number that is four times the
original number.

13 14 15

Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning Example 6 – Determine Types of Reasoning Example 6 – Solution
In the next Example we will analyze arguments to determine Determine whether each of the following arguments is an a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific
whether they use inductive or deductive reasoning. example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning. examples, so it is an example of inductive reasoning.

a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general
every other year. Last year the tree did not produce assumption, this argument is an example of deductive
plums, so this year the tree will produce plums. reasoning.

b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate.

The contractor estimated that my home improvement will
cost $35,000. Thus my home improvement will cost
more than $35,000.

16 17 18

Logic Puzzles
19
Example 7 – Solution
From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or the dentist. In the
following chart, write X1 (which stands for “ruled out by clue
1”) in the Banker and the Dentist columns of Maria’s row.
From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by
clue 2) in the Editor column of Sarah’s row.
22
Logic Puzzles
Logic puzzles, similar to the one in Example 7, can be solved
by using deductive reasoning and a chart that enables us to
display the given information in a visual manner.
20
Example 7 – Solution cont’d
We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get
home, and we know from clue 2 that Sarah is the last to get
home; therefore, Sarah is not the banker. Write X2 in the
Banker column of Sarah’s row.
From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this
condition. There are now Xs for three of the four occupations
in Sarah’s row; therefore, Sarah must be the chef.
23
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Example 7 – Solve a Logic Puzzle
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has
a different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist).
From the following clues, determine the occupation of each
neighbor.
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before
the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the
editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
21
Example 7 – Solution cont’d
Place a in that box. Since Sarah is the chef, none of the
other three people can be the chef. Write X3 for these
conditions. There are now Xs for three of the four
occupations in Maria’s row; therefore, Maria must be the
editor.
Insert a to indicate that Maria is the editor, and write X3
twice to indicate that neither Sean nor Brian is the editor.
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Example 7 – Solution cont’d

From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4 for this

condition. See the following table. Since there are three Xs
in the Banker column, Sean must be the banker.

Place a in that box. Thus Sean cannot be the dentist.

Write X4 in that box. Since there are 3 Xs in the Dentist
column, Brian must be the dentist. Place a in that box.
Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the chef,
and Brian is the dentist. 25

CHAPTER
3
Problem Solving
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Terms of a Sequence
An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...
is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence that are
separated by commas are the terms of the sequence.
In the above sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is the second
term, 27 is the third term, 44 is the fourth term, and 65 is
the fifth term.
The three dots “...” indicate that the sequence continues
beyond 65, which is the last written term. It is customary to
use the subscript notation an to designate the nth term of a
sequence.
4 5
Section 3.2 Problem Solving with
Patterns
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Terms of a Sequence
We often construct a difference table, which shows the
differences between successive terms of the sequence.
The following table is a difference table for the sequence
2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ...
Each of the numbers in row (1) of the table is the difference
between the two closest numbers just above it (upper right
number minus upper left number). The differences in row
(1) are called the first differences of the sequence.
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Terms of a Sequence
3
Terms of a Sequence
In this case, the first differences are all the same.
Thus, if we use the above difference table to predict the
next number in the sequence, we predict that 14 + 3 = 17 is
the next term of the sequence.
This prediction might be wrong; however, the pattern
shown by the first differences seems to indicate that each
successive term is 3 larger than the preceding term.
6
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Terms of a Sequence Terms of a Sequence Example 1 – Predict the Next Term of a Sequence

The following table is a difference table for the sequence These differences of the first differences are called the Use a difference table to predict the next term in the
5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ... second differences. sequence.
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, ...
The differences of the second differences are called the
third differences. Solution:
Construct a difference table as shown below.
To predict the next term of a sequence, we often look for a
pattern in a row of differences.
In this table, the first differences are not all the same. In
such a situation it is often helpful to compute the successive
differences of the first differences. These are shown in row
(2).
7 8 9

Example 1 – Solution cont’d

nth-Term Formula for a Sequence
The third differences, shown in blue in row (3), are all the In Example 1 we used a difference table to predict the next
same constant, 6. Extending row (3) so that it includes an term of a sequence.
additional 6 enables us to predict that the next second
difference will be 36. In some cases we can use patterns to predict a formula,
called an nth-term formula, that generates the terms of a
Adding 36 to the first difference 89 gives us the next first nth-Term Formula for a Sequence sequence.
difference, 125. Adding 125 to the sixth term 207 yields
332.

Using the method of extending the difference table, we

predict that 332 is the next term in the sequence.

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Example 2 – Find an nth-Term Formula Example 2 – Solution Example 2 – Solution cont’d

Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the
following figures continues.
a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in
the nth figure of the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 320 tiles?
13
a. Examine the figures for patterns. Thus the number of tiles in the nth figure is given by two
groups of n plus a group of n less one.
That is,
an = 2n + (n – 1)
an = 3n – 1
Note that the second figure has two tiles on each of the
horizontal sections and one tile between the horizontal b. The number of tiles in the eighth figure of the sequence
sections. is 3(8) – 1 = 23.
The third figure has three tiles on each horizontal
section and two tiles between the horizontal sections. c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320
tiles, we solve the equation 3n – 1 = 320.
The fourth figure has four tiles on each horizontal
section and three tiles between the horizontal sections. 14 15

Example 2 – Solution cont’d

The Fibonacci Sequence
3n – 1 = 320 Here is a statement of Fibonacci’s rabbit problem.
3n = 321 Add 1 to each side.
At the beginning of a month, you are given a pair of
n = 107 Divide each side by 3. newborn rabbits. After a month the rabbits have produced
no offspring; however, every month thereafter, the pair of
rabbits produces another pair of rabbits.
The 107th figure is composed of 320 tiles. The Fibonacci Sequence
The offspring reproduce in exactly the same manner. If
none of the rabbits dies, how many pairs of rabbits will
there be at the start of each succeeding month?

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The Fibonacci Sequence The Fibonacci Sequence The Fibonacci Sequence

The solution of this problem is a sequence of numbers that Fibonacci discovered that the number of pairs of rabbits for
we now call the Fibonacci sequence. any month after the first two months can be determined by
adding the numbers of pairs of rabbits in each of the two
The following figure shows the numbers of pairs of rabbits previous months.
on the first day of each of the first six months.
For instance, the number of pairs of rabbits at the start of
The larger rabbits represent mature rabbits that produce the sixth month is 3 + 5 = 8.
another pair of rabbits each month.
A recursive definition for a sequence is one in which each
The numbers in the blue region—1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8—are the successive term of the sequence is defined by using some
first six terms of the Fibonacci sequence. of the preceding terms.

19 20 21

The Fibonacci Sequence Example 3 – Find a Fibonacci Number Example 3 – Solution cont’d

If we use the mathematical notation Fn to represent the nth Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to find the seventh The eighth Fibonacci number is
Fibonacci number, then the numbers in the Fibonacci and eighth Fibonacci numbers.
sequence are given by the following recursive definition. F8 = F7 + F6
Solution: = 13 + 8
The first six Fibonacci numbers are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8. The
seventh Fibonacci number is the sum of the two previous = 21
Fibonacci numbers.

Thus,
F7 = F6 + F5
=8+5
= 13
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 2 /2 8 /2 0 2 2

CHAPTER

3
Section 3.3 Problem-Solving Strategies
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
Problem Solving

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
3

Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a
study of problem solving was George Polya (1887–1985).
He was born in Hungary and moved to the United States in
1940.
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy Example 1 – Apply Polya’s Strategy
In Example 1 we apply Polya’s four-step problem-solving Consider the map shown in Figure 1.2. Allison wishes to
strategy to solve a problem involving the number of routes walk along the streets from point A to point B. How many
between two points. direct routes can Allison take?

The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated

consisted of the following four steps.

1
City Map
Figure 1.2

4 5 6
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Example 1 – Solution Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Understand the Problem: We would not be able to Devise a Plan: The map in Because there are many routes, we consider the similar but
answer the question if Allison retraced her path or traveled Figure 1.2 has many extraneous simpler diagrams shown below.
away from point B. details.

Thus we assume that on a direct route, she always travels

along a street in a direction that gets her closer to point B. City Map
Figure 1.2

Simple street diagrams

Thus we make a diagram that

allows us to concentrate on the
essential information. See the The number at each street intersection represents the
figure at the right. number of routes from point A to that particular intersection.
A simple diagram of the
street map in Figure 1.2
7 8 9

Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Example 1 – Solution cont’d
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Look for patterns. It appears that the number of routes to
an intersection is the sum of the number of routes to the
adjacent intersection to its left and the number of routes to
the intersection directly above.
For instance, the number of routes to the intersection
labeled 6 is the sum of the number of routes to the
intersection to its left, which is 3, and the number of routes
to the intersection directly above, which is also 3.
Carry Out the Plan: Using the pattern discovered earlier in
the example, we see from the figure below that the number
of routes from point A to point B is 20 + 15 = 35.
A street diagram with the number of
routes to each intersection labeled
Review the Solution: Ask yourself whether a result of 35
seems reasonable.
If you were required to draw each route, could you devise a
scheme that would enable you to draw each route without
missing a route or duplicating a route?
2

10 11 12

Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Figure 1.4 shows two broken-line graphs. The red
broken-line graph displays the median age at first marriage
for men for the years from 2005 to 2013.
U.S. median age at first marriage
Figure 1.4
The green broken-line graph displays the median age at
first marriage for women during the same time period. The
symbol on the vertical axis indicates that the ages between
0 and 25 are not displayed.
Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Graphs are often used to display numerical information in a
visual format that allows the reader to see pertinent
relationships and trends quickly.
Three of the most common types of graphs are the bar
graph, the broken-line graph, and the circle graph.
13
Reading and Interpreting Graphs
This break in the vertical axis allows the graph to be
displayed in a compact form.
The segments that connect points on the graph indicate
trends. Increasing trends are indicated by segments that
rise as they move to the right, and decreasing trends are
indicated by segments that fall as they move to the right.
The blue arrows in Figure 1.4 show that the median age at
which men married for the first time in 2006 was 27.5 years,
rounded to the nearest half of a year.
16
2 /2 8 /2 0 2 2
Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Figure 1.3 is a bar graph that displays the average U.S.
movie theatre ticket prices for the years from 2008 to 2014.
The years are displayed on the horizontal axis. Each
vertical bar is used to display the average ticket price for a
given year. The higher the bar, the greater the average
ticket price for that year.
Average U.S. movie theatre ticket prices
Figure 1.3
14 15
Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Figure 1.5 is a circle graph or pie chart that uses circular
sectors to display the percentage of the 180,000,000 U.S.
Facebook users in selected age groups as of January 2014.
3
Classification of the 180,000,000 U.S.
Facebook users by age: January 2014
17
Figure 1.5
18

Example 8 – Use Graphs to Solve Problems
a. Use Figure 1.3 to determine the minimum average U.S.
movie theatre ticket price for the years from 2008 to
2014.
Average U.S. movie theatre ticket prices
Figure 1.3
19
Example 8(a) – Solution
The minimum of the average ticket prices is displayed by
the height of the shortest vertical bar in Figure 1.3.
Average U.S. movie theatre ticket prices
Figure 1.3
Thus the minimum average U.S. movie theatre ticket price
for the years from 2008 to 2014 was $7.18. 22
2 /2 8 /2 0 2 2
Example 8 – Use Graphs to Solve Problems cont’d Example 8 – Use Graphs to Solve Problems cont’d
b. Use Figure 1.4 to estimate the median age at which c. Use Figure 1.5 to estimate the number of U.S. Facebook
women married for the first time in 2011. Round to the users in the 18–24 age group. Round to the nearest
nearest half of a year. hundred thousand.
U.S. median age at first marriage
Figure 1.4 Classification of the 180,000,000 U.S.
Facebook users by age: January 2014
Figure 1.5
20 21
Example 8(b) – Solution cont’d
Example 8(b) – Solution cont’d
To estimate the median age at which women married for The height of this point represents the median age at first
the first time in 2011, locate 2011 on the horizontal axis of marriage for women in 2011, and it can be estimated by
Figure 1.4 and then move directly upward to a point on the moving horizontally to the vertical axis on the left.
green broken-line graph.
Thus the median age at first marriage for women in 2011
was 26.5 years, rounded to the nearest half of a year.
4
U.S. median age at first marriage
Figure 1.4
23 24
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Example 8(c) – Solution cont’d

Figure 1.5 indicates that 23.3% of the 180,000,000 U.S.

Facebook users were in the 18–24 age group.

0.233  180,000,000 = 41,940,000

Thus, rounded to the nearest

hundred thousand, the number of
U.S. Facebook users in this age
group was 41,900,000 in
January 2014.

Classification of the 180,000,000 U.S.

Facebook users by age: January 2014
Figure 1.5
25