2/27/2022

CHAPTER

2
Section 2.1 Basic Properties of Sets
Sets
Sets

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3

Sets Sets Sets

Any group or collection of objects is called a set. The
objects that belong in a set are the elements, or members,
of the set. For example, the set consisting of the four
seasons has spring, summer, fall, and winter as its
elements.
The following two methods are often used to designate a
set.
• Describe the set using words.
For instance, let’s use S to represent the set consisting of The following table gives two examples of sets, where each
the four seasons. Using the roster method, we would write set is designated by a word description and also by using
the roster method.
S = {spring, summer, fall, winter}
The order in which the elements of a set are listed is not
important. Thus the set consisting of the four seasons can
also be written as
S = {winter, spring, fall, summer}
Define Sets by Using a Word Description and the Roster Method

• List the elements of the set inside a pair of braces, { }. Table 2.1

This method is called the roster method. Commas are

used to separate the elements.

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Example 1 – Use the Roster Method to Represent a Set Example 2 – Use a Word Description to Represent a Set Sets
Use the roster method to represent the set of the days in a Write a word description for the set The following sets of numbers are used extensively in
week. many areas of mathematics.

Solution:
Solution:
Set A is the set of letters of the English alphabet.

7 8 9

Sets Sets Sets

The set of natural numbers is also called the set of
counting numbers. The three dots ... are called an ellipsis
and indicate that the elements of the set continue in a
manner suggested by the elements that are listed.
The integers ... , –4, –3, –2, –1 are negative integers. The
integers 1, 2, 3, 4, ... are positive integers. Note that the
natural numbers and the positive integers are the same set
of numbers. The integer zero is neither a positive nor a
negative integer.
If a number in decimal form terminates or repeats a block
of digits without end, then the number is a rational number.
Rational numbers can also be written in the form
where p and q are integers and q  0. For example,
are rational numbers.
The bar over the 27 means that the block of digits 27
repeats without end; that is,
A decimal that neither terminates nor repeats is an
irrational number. For instance, 0.35335333533335. . .
is a nonterminating, nonrepeating decimal and thus is
an irrational number.
Every real number is either a rational number or an
irrational number.

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Example 3 – Use the Roster Method to Represent a Set of Numbers Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Use the roster method to write each of the given sets. b. Adding –5 to each side of the equation produces x = –6.
The solution set of
a. The set of natural numbers less than 5
b. The solution set of c. The set of negative integers greater than –4 is
c. The set of negative integers greater than –4 {–3, –2, –1}.
Definitions Regarding Sets
Solution:
a. The set of natural numbers is given by
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ...}. The natural numbers less than 5
are 1, 2, 3, and 4. Using the roster method, we write this
set as {1, 2, 3, 4}.

13 14 15

Definitions Regarding Sets Definitions Regarding Sets Example 4 – Apply Definitions Regarding Sets

A set is well defined if it is possible to determine whether
any given item is an element of the set. For instance, the
set of letters of the English alphabet is well defined. The set
of great songs is not a well-defined set.
It is not possible to determine whether any given song is an
element of the set or is not an element of the set because
there is no standard method for making such a judgment.
The statement “4 is an element of the set of natural Determine whether each statement is true or false.
numbers” can be written using mathematical notation
as 4  N. The symbol  is read “is an element of.”
To state that “–3 is not an element of the set of natural
numbers,” we use the “is not an element of” symbol, , and Solution:
write –3  N. a. Since 4 is an element of the given set, the statement is
true.

b. There are no negative natural numbers, so the

statement is false.
16 17 18

Example 4 – Solution
c. Since is not an integer, the statement is true.
d. The word nice is not precise, so the statement is false.
Example 5 – Use Set-Builder Notation to Represent a Set
Use set-builder notation to write the following sets.
a. The set of integers greater than –3
b. The set of whole numbers less than 1000
Solution:
cont’d
Definitions Regarding Sets
The empty set, or null set, is the set that contains no
elements. The symbol  or { } is used to represent the
empty set. As an example of the empty set, consider the
set of natural numbers that are negative integers.
Another method of representing a set is set-builder
notation. Set-builder notation is especially useful when
describing infinite sets.
19
Definitions Regarding Sets
A set is finite if the number of elements in the set is a
whole number.
The cardinal number of a finite set is the number of
elements in the set. The cardinal number of a finite set A is
denoted by the notation n(A).
For instance, if A = {1, 4, 6, 9}, then n(A) = 4. In this case,
A has a cardinal number of 4, which is sometimes stated as
“A has a cardinality of 4.”
22
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Definitions Regarding Sets
For instance, in set-builder notation, the set of natural
numbers greater than 7 is written as follows:
The preceding set-builder notation is read as “the set of all
elements x such that x is an element of the set of natural
numbers and x is greater than 7.” It is impossible to list all
the elements of the set, but set-builder notation defines the
set by describing its elements.
20 21
Example 6 – The Cardinality of a Finite Set
Find the cardinality of each of the following sets.
Solution:
a. Set J contains exactly two elements, so J has a
cardinality of 2. Using mathematical notation, we state
this as n(J) = 2.
b. Only a few elements are actually listed. The number of
natural numbers from 1 to 31 is 31. If we omit the
numbers 1 and 2, then the number of natural numbers
from 3 to 31 must be 31 – 2 = 29. Thus n(S) = 29.
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Example 6 – Solution cont’d

Definitions Regarding Sets Example 7 – Equal Sets and Equivalent Sets

c. Elements that are listed more than once are counted The following definitions play an important role in our work State whether each of the following pairs of sets are equal,
only once. Thus n (T) = 3. with sets. equivalent, both, or neither.

Solution:
a. The sets are not equal. However, each set has exactly
For instance {d, e, f } = {e, f, d }.
five elements, so the sets are equivalent.

b. The first set has three elements and the second set has
four elements, so the sets are not equal and are not
equivalent.

25 26 27
 2 /2 7 /2 0 2 2

CHAPTER

2
Section 2.2 Complements, Subsets,
and Venn Diagrams
The Universal Set and the
Sets Complement of a Set

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3

The Universal Set and the Complement of a Set Example 1 – Find the Complement of a Set Example 1 – Solution cont’d

The set of all elements that are being considered is called Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, S = {2, 4, 6, 7}, and b. T = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Excluding the elements of T from U
the universal set. T = {x | x < 10 and x  the odd counting numbers}. Find gives us

We will use the letter U to denote the universal set. a. S b. T

Solution:
a. The elements of the universal set are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, and 10. From these elements we wish to exclude
the elements of S, which are 2, 4, 6, and 7.
1
Therefore

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The Universal Set and the Complement of a Set The Universal Set and the Complement of a Set

There are two fundamental results concerning the universal Using mathematical notation, we state these fundamental
set and the empty set. results as follows:

Because the universal set contains all elements under

consideration, the complement of the universal set is the
empty set. Subsets
Conversely, the complement of the empty set is the
universal set, because the empty set has no elements and
the universal set contains all the elements under
consideration.

7 8 9

Subsets Subsets Example 2 – Apply the Definition of a Subset

Consider the set of letters in the alphabet and the set of
vowels {a, e, i, o, u}. Every element of the set of vowels is
an element of the set of letters in the alphabet.
The set of vowels is said to be a subset of the set of letters
in the alphabet. We will often find it useful to examine
subsets of a given set.
Here are two fundamental subset relationships. Determine whether each statement is true or false.
a. {5, 10, 15, 20}  {0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30}
b. W  N
c. {2, 4, 6}  {2, 4, 6}
d. ∅  {1, 2, 3}
The notation A B is used to denote that A is not a subset
of B. To show that A is not a subset of B, it is necessary to Solution:
find at least one element of A that is not an element of B. a. True; every element of the first set is an element of the
second set.
2
b. False; 0 is a whole number, but 0 is not a natural
number.

10 11 12

Example 2 – Solution
c. True; every set is a subset of itself.
d. True; the empty set is a subset of every set.
Proper Subsets of a Set
2 /2 7 /2 0 2 2
cont’d
Subsets Subsets
The English logician John Venn (1834–1923) developed The Venn diagram below shows a universal set and one of
diagrams, which we now refer to as Venn diagrams, that its subsets, labeled as set A.
can be used to illustrate sets and relationships between
sets.
A Venn diagram
A Venn diagram
In a Venn diagram, the universal set is represented by a The size of the circle is not a concern.
rectangular region and subsets of the universal set are
generally represented by oval or circular regions drawn The region outside of the circle, but inside of the rectangle,
inside the rectangle. represents the set A.
13 14 15
Proper Subsets of a Set Example 3 – Proper Subsets
For each of the following, determine whether the first set is
a proper subset of the second set.
a. {a, e, i, o, u}, {e, i, o, u, a} b. N, I
Solution:
a. Because the sets are equal, the first set is not a proper
subset of the second set.
b. Every natural number is an integer, so the set of natural
numbers is a subset of the set of integers. The set of 3
integers contains elements that are not natural numbers,
such as –3. Thus the set of natural numbers is a proper
subset of the set of integers.
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Example 4 – List All the Subsets of a Set Example 4 – Solution cont’d

Set C shows the four condiments that a hot dog stand {mustard, ketchup}, {mustard, onions},
offers on its hot dogs.
{mustard, relish}, {ketchup, onions},
C = {mustard, ketchup, onions, relish}
{ketchup, relish}, {onions, relish}
List all the subsets of C.

Solution: {mustard, ketchup, onions}, Number of Subsets of a Set

An organized list shows the following subsets. {mustard, ketchup, relish},
{mustard, onions, relish},
{} {ketchup, onions, relish}

{mustard}, {ketchup}, {onions}, {relish}

{mustard, ketchup, onion, relish}
19 20 21

Number of Subsets of a Set Number of Subsets of a Set Number of Subsets of a Set

In some applications we need to determine the number of
subsets of a set without making an actual list of all the
subsets. We know that the empty set has 0 elements and
the only subset of the empty set is the empty set. A set with
1 element has 2 subsets, namely, itself and the empty set.
It is easy to show that a set with 2 elements has 4 subsets
and a set with 3 elements has 8 subsets.
In Example 4 we found that a set with 4 elements has 16
subsets. The following diagram summarizes the above
results.
It appears that if the number of elements in a set is These observations lend support for the following theorem.
increased by 1, then the number of subsets of the set is
doubled. Thus we suspect that a set with 5 elements will
have 2  16 = 32 subsets and a set with 6 elements will
have 2  32 = 64 subsets.
Also note that each of the numbers in the bottom row of the Consider set A with n elements. All of the 2n subsets of A
diagram is equal to 2n. are proper subsets of A, except for A itself. Thus the
number of proper subsets of A is 2n – 1.
4

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Number of Subsets of a Set Example 5 – Pizza Variations Example 5 – Solution cont’d

In Example 5, we apply the formula for the number of A restaurant sells pizzas for which you can choose from Let T be the set consisting of the seven toppings.
subsets of a set to determine the number of different seven toppings.
variations of pizzas that a restaurant can serve. a. How many different variations of pizzas can the The elements in each subset of T describe exactly one of
restaurant serve? the variations of toppings that the restaurant can serve.

b. What is the minimum number of toppings the restaurant

must provide if it wishes to advertise that it offers over Consequently, the number of different variations of pizzas
1000 variations of its pizzas? that the restaurant can serve is the same as the number of
subsets of T.
Solution:
a. The restaurant can serve a pizza with no topping, one Thus the restaurant can serve 27 = 128 different variations
topping, two toppings, three toppings, and so forth, up to of its pizzas.
all seven toppings.
25 26 27

Example 5 – Solution cont’d

b. Use the method of guessing and checking to find the

smallest natural number n for which 2n > 1000.

5
The restaurant must provide a minimum of 10 toppings if
it wishes to offer over 1000 variations of its pizzas.

28
 2 /2 7 /2 0 2 2

CHAPTER

2
Section 2.3 Set Operations
Intersection and Union of Sets
Sets

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3

Intersection and Union of Sets Intersection and Union of Sets Example 1 – Find Intersections
In this section we define the set operations intersection and In the below figure, the region shown in blue represents the Let , , and .
union. In everyday usage, the word “intersection” refers to intersection of sets A and B. Find a. b.
the common region where two streets cross. The
intersection of two sets is defined in a similar manner.
Solution:
a. The elements common to A and B are 4 and 5.

b. Sets A and C have no common elements. 1

Thus .
4 5 6
 2 /2 7 /2 0 2 2

Intersection and Union of Sets Intersection and Union of Sets Intersection and Union of Sets
Two sets are disjoint if their intersection is the empty set. In everyday usage, the word “union” refers to the act of In the figure below, the region shown in blue represents the
The sets A and C in Example 1b are disjoint. The Venn uniting or joining together. The union of two sets has a union of sets A and B.
diagram below illustrates two disjoint sets. similar meaning.

7 8 9

Example 2 – Find Unions Example 2 – Solution cont’d

Intersection and Union of Sets
Let , , and . Find b. In mathematical problems that involve sets, the word “and”
is interpreted to mean intersection. For instance, the
a. b. phrase “the elements of A and B” means the elements of
. Similarly, the word “or” is interpreted to mean
Solution: union. The phrase “the elements of A or B” means the
a. List all the elements of set A, which are 1, 4, 5, and 7. elements of .
Then add to your list the elements of set B that have not
already been listed—in this case 2, 3, and 6. Enclose all
elements with a pair of braces. Thus
2

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Example 3 – Describe Sets Venn Diagrams and Equality of Sets

Write a sentence that describes the set. The Venn diagram in Figure 2.1 shows the four regions
formed by two intersecting sets in a universal set U. It
a. b. shows the four possible relationships that can exist
between an element of a universal set U and two sets A
Solution: and B.
a. The set can be described as “the set of all Venn Diagrams and Equality
elements that are in A, or are in B and C.”
of Sets
b. The set can be described as “the set of all
elements that are in J and are not in K.”
Venn diagram for two intersecting
sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.1
13 14 15

Venn Diagrams and Equality of Sets Venn Diagrams and Equality of Sets Example 4 – Equality of Sets
An element of U: • If both expressions are represented by the same Determine whether for all sets A and B.
region(s), then the expressions are equal for all sets A
• may be an element of both A and B. Region i and B. Solution:
• may be an element of A, but not B. Region ii • If both expressions are not represented by the same To determine the region(s) in Figure 2.1, represented by
• may be an element of B, but not A. Region iii region(s), then the expressions are not equal for all , first determine the region(s) that are represented
sets A and B. by .
• may not be an element of either A or B. Region iv

We can use Figure 2.1 to determine whether two

expressions that involve two sets are equal. For instance,
to determine whether and are equal for all 3
sets A and B, we find what region or regions each of the
expressions represents in Figure 2.1. Venn diagram for two intersecting
sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.1
16 17 18
 2 /2 7 /2 0 2 2

Example 4 – Solution cont’d

Example 4 – Solution cont’d
Example 4 – Solution cont’d

The expressions and are both represented

by region iv in Figure 2.1.

Venn diagram for two intersecting

Now determine the region(s) in Figure 2.1 that are sets, in a universal set U.

represented by . Figure 2.1

Thus for all sets A and B.

19 20 21

Venn Diagrams and Equality of Sets Venn Diagrams Involving Three Sets
The properties that were verified in Example 4 are known The Venn diagram in Figure 2.2 shows the eight regions
as De Morgan’s laws. formed by three intersecting sets in a universal set U. It
shows the eight possible relationships that can exist
between an element of a universal set U and three sets A,
B, and C.
Venn Diagrams Involving
De Morgan’s law can be stated as “the Three Sets
complement of the union of two sets is the intersection of
the complements of the sets.” De Morgan’s law 4
can be stated as “the complement of the
Venn diagram for three intersecting
intersection of two sets is the union of the complements of sets, in a universal set U.
the sets.” Figure 2.2
22 23 24
 2 /2 7 /2 0 2 2

Venn Diagrams Involving Three Sets Example 5 – Determine Regions that Represent Sets Example 5 – Solution
An element of U: Use Figure 2.2 to answer each of the following. a. is represented by all the regions
a. Which regions represent ? common to circles A and C. Thus
• may be an element of A, B, and C. Region i is represented by regions i
b. Which regions represent ?
• may be an element of A and B, but not C. Region ii and iv.
c. Which regions represent ?
• may be an element of B and C, but not A. Region iii
• may be an element of A and C, but not B. Region iv
• may be an element of A, but not B or C. Region v b. is represented by all the regions
• may be an element of B, but not A or C. Region vi obtained by joining the regions in circle
A (i, ii, iv, v) and the regions in circle
• may be an element of C, but not A or B. Region vii
C (i, iii, iv, vii). Thus is represented
• may not be an element of A, B, or C. Region viii by regions i, ii, iii, iv, v, and vii.
Venn diagram for three intersecting
sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.2
25 26 27

Example 5 – Solution cont’d

Venn Diagrams Involving Three Sets Example 6 – Equality of Sets
c. is represented by all the regions In Example 6, we use Figure 2.2 to determine whether two Determine whether for all sets
common to circle A and the regions that expressions that involve three sets are equal. A, B, and C.
are not in circle B. Thus is
represented by regions iv and v. Solution:
To determine the region(s) in Figure 2.2 represented by
, we join the regions in A and the regions in
.

Venn diagram for three intersecting 5

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.2

28 29 30
 2 /2 7 /2 0 2 2

Example 6 – Solution cont’d

Example 6 – Solution cont’d
Example 6 – Solution cont’d

Now determine the region(s) in Figure 2.2 that are

represented by .

Venn diagram for three intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.2

31 32 33

Example 6 – Solution cont’d

Venn Diagrams Involving Three Sets
The expressions and are not Venn diagrams can be used to verify each of the following
represented by the same regions. properties.
Thus for all sets A, B, and C.
Thus for all sets A, B, and C.

Application: Blood Groups and

Blood Types
6

34 35 36
 2 /2 7 /2 0 2 2

Application: Blood Groups and Blood Types Application: Blood Groups and Blood Types Application: Blood Groups and Blood Types

Karl Landsteiner won a Nobel Prize in 1930 for his
discovery of the four different human blood groups.
He discovered that the blood of each individual contains
exactly one of the following combinations of antigens.
• Only A antigens (blood group A)
• Only B antigens (blood group B)
• Both A and B antigens (blood group AB)
• No A antigens and no B antigens (blood group O)
37
These four blood groups are represented by the following Blood without this factor is called Rh-negative and is
Venn diagram. denoted by Rh–.
The Venn diagram in Figure 2.3 illustrates the eight blood
types (A+, B+, AB+, O+, A–, B–, AB–, O–) that are possible
if we consider antigens and the Rh factor.
The four blood groups
In 1941, Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener discovered that
human blood may or may not contain an Rh, or rhesus,
factor. Blood with this factor is called Rh-positive and is
denoted by Rh+. The eight blood types
Figure 2.3
38 39

Example 7 – Venn Diagrams and Blood Type

Use the Venn diagrams in Figures 2.3 and 2.4 to determine

the blood type of each of the following people.
a. Sue b. Lisa

Solution:
a. Because Sue is in blood group A,
not in blood group B, and not Rh+,
her blood type is A–.
Figure 2.4

7
b. Lisa is in blood group O and she is
Rh+, so her blood type is O+.

40
 2 /2 7 /2 0 2 2

CHAPTER

2
Section 2.4 Applications of Sets
Surveys: An Application of Sets
Sets

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3

Surveys: An Application of Sets Example 2 – A Music Survey Example 2 – A Music Survey

Counting problems occur in many areas of applied A music teacher has surveyed 495 students. The results of How many students
mathematics. To solve these counting problems, we often the survey are listed below. a. like exactly two of the three types of music?
make use of a Venn diagram and the inclusion-exclusion 320 students like rap music. b. like only rock music?
principle, which will be presented in this section. 395 students like rock music. c. like only one of the three types of music?
295 students like heavy metal music.
In the next example we consider a complicated survey that 280 students like both rap music and rock music.
involves three types of music.
190 students like both rap music and heavy metal music.
245 students like both rock music and heavy metal music.
160 students like all three. 1

4 5 6

Example 2 – Solution
The Venn diagram below shows three overlapping circles.
Region i represents the set of students who like all three
types of music. Each of the regions v, vi, and vii represent
the students who like only one type of music.
Example 2 – Solution
c. Using the same reasoning as in part b, we find that
region vi has 10 students and region vii has 20 students.
To find the number of students who like only one type of
music, find the sum of the numbers of students in
regions v, vi, and vii, which is 30 + 10 + 20 = 60.
Refer the earlier Venn diagram.
Example 2 – Solution
a. The survey shows that 245 students like rock and heavy
metal music, so the numbers we place in regions i and iv
must have a sum of 245.
Since region i has 160 students, we see that region iv
must have 245 – 160 = 85 students. In a similar manner,
we can determine that region ii has 120 students and
region iii has 30 students.
Thus 85 + 120 + 30 = 235 students like exactly two of
the three types of music.
7 8
cont’d
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
10
2 /2 7 /2 0 2 2
cont’d
Example 2 – Solution cont’d
b. The sum of the students represented by regions i, ii, iv,
and v must be 395. The number of students in region v
must be the difference between this total and the sum of
the numbers of students in region i, ii, and iv.
Thus the number of student who like only rock music is
395 – (160 + 120 + 85 ) = 30.
See the Venn diagram below.
9
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
A music director wishes to take the band and the choir on a
field trip. There are 65 students in the band and 30 students
in the choir. The number of students in both the band and the
choir is 16. How many students should the music director
plan on taking on the field trip?
Using the process developed in the previous example, we
find that the number of students that are in only the band is
65 – 16 = 49. The number of students that are in only the
choir is 30 – 16 = 14.
2
11 12

The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
See the Venn diagram below. Adding the numbers of
students in regions i, ii, and iii gives us a total of
49 + 16 + 14 = 79 students that might go on the field trip.
13
Example 3 – An Application of the Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
A school finds that 430 of its students are registered in
chemistry, 560 are registered in mathematics, and 225 are
registered in both chemistry and mathematics. How many
students are registered in chemistry or mathematics?
Solution:
and let
16
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
Although we can use Venn diagrams to solve counting
problems, it is more convenient to make use of the following
technique.
First add the number of students in the band to the number
of students in the choir. Then subtract the number of students
who are in both the band and the choir.
This technique gives us a total of (65 + 30) – 16 = 79
students, the same result as before.
Example 3 – Solution
Using the inclusion-exclusion principle, we see that 765
students are registered in chemistry or mathematics.
2 /2 7 /2 0 2 2
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
The reason we subtract the 16 students is that we have
counted each of them twice. Note that first we include the
students that are in both the band and the choir twice, and
then we exclude them once.
This procedure leads us to the following result.
14 15
cont’d
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
The inclusion-exclusion formula can be adjusted and
applied to problems that involve percents. In the following
formula we denote “the percent in set A” by the notation
p(A).
3
17 18
 2 /2 7 /2 0 2 2

Example 5 – An Application of the Percent Inclusion-Exclusion Formula Example 5 – Solution

A blood donation organization reports that about We are given p(A) = 44%, p(B) = 15%, and p(AB) = 4%.
Substituting in the percent inclusion-exclusion formula gives
44% of the U.S. population has the
A antigen.

15% of the U.S. population has the

B antigen.

4% of the U.S. population has both

the A and the B antigen. Thus about 55% of the U.S. population has the A antigen or
the B antigen.
Use the percent inclusion-exclusion
formula to estimate the percent of
the U.S. population that has the
A antigen or the B antigen. 19 20

4
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CHAPTER

2
Section 2.5 Infinite Sets
One-to-One Correspondences
Sets

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3

One-to-One Correspondences One-to-One Correspondences One-to-One Correspondences

Much of Georg Cantor’s work with sets concerned infinite
sets. Cantor’s set theory is based on the simple concept of
a one-to-one correspondence.
During a performance the manager of the concert hall
observes that every person occupies exactly one seat and
that every seat is occupied. Thus, without doing any
counting, the manager knows that there are 890 people in
attendance.
We have known that two sets are equivalent if and only if
they have the same number of elements. One method of
showing that two sets are equivalent is to establish a
one-to-one correspondence between the elements of the
sets.

During a different performance the manager notes that all

but six seats are filled, and thus there are 890 – 6 = 884
people in attendance.

Many practical problems can be solved by applying the

concept of a one-to-one correspondence. For instance,
consider a concert hall that has 890 seats.
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Example 1 – Establish a One-to-One Correspondence Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Establish a one-to-one correspondence between the set of Each natural number n  N is paired with the even number
natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... , n, ...} and the set of (2n)  E. The general correspondence n (2n) enables
even natural numbers E = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ... , 2n, ....}. us to determine exactly which element of E will be paired
with any given element of N, and vice versa.
Solution:
Write the sets so that one is aligned below the other. Draw For instance, under this correspondence, 19  N is paired Infinite Sets
arrows to show how you wish to pair the elements of each with the even number , and 100  E is
set. paired with the natural number
One possible method is shown in the following figure.
The general correspondence establishes a
one-to-one correspondence between the sets.

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Infinite Sets Example 2 – Verify That a Set Is an Infinite Set Example 2 – Solution cont’d

We know that the set of natural numbers N is an infinite set
because in previous Example, we were able to establish a
one-to-one correspondence between the elements of N
and the elements of one of its proper subsets, E.
Verify that S = {5, 10, 15, 20, ... , 5n, ...} is an infinite set. The general correspondence establishes a
one-to-one correspondence between S and one of its
Solution: proper subsets, namely T. Thus S is an infinite set.
One proper subset of S is T = {10, 20, 30, 40, ... , 10n, ...},
which was produced by deleting the odd numbers in S.
To establish a one-to-one correspondence between set S
and set T, consider the following diagram.

In the above correspondence, each (5n)  S is paired with

10 (10n)  T. 11 12

The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
Example 3 – Solution
If we arrange the elements of I as shown in the figure
below, then two general correspondences, shown by the
blue arrows and the red arrows, can be identified.
• Each even natural number 2n of N is paired with the
integer n of I. This correspondence is shown by the blue
arrows.
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
The symbol is used to represent the cardinal number for
the set N of natural numbers. is the first letter of the
Hebrew alphabet and is pronounced aleph. is read as
“alephnull.”
Using mathematical notation, we write this concept as
n(N) = . Since represents a cardinality larger than any
finite number, it is called a transfinite number. Many
infinite sets have a cardinality of .
In the next Example, for instance, we show that the
cardinality of the set of integers is by establishing a one
to-one correspondence between the elements of the set of
integers and the elements of the set of natural numbers.
13
cont’d
Example 3 – Solution
• Each odd natural number 2n – 1 of N is paired with the
integer –n + 1 of I. This correspondence is shown by the
red arrows.
Together the two general correspondences and
establish a one-to-one correspondence
between the elements of I and the elements of N.
Thus the cardinality of the set of integers must be the same
as the cardinality of the set of natural numbers, which is .
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Example 3 – Establish the Cardinality of the Set of Integers
Show that the set of integers I = {... , –5, –4, –3, –2, –1, 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...} has a cardinality of .
Solution:
First we try to establish a one-to-one correspondence
between I and N, with the elements in each set arranged as
shown below.
No general method of pairing the elements of N with the
elements of I seems to emerge from this figure.
14 15
cont’d
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
Every infinite set that is countable has a cardinality of .
Every infinite set that we have considered up to this point is
countable.
You might think that all infinite sets are countable; however,
Cantor was able to show that this is not the case. Consider,
for example,
17
A is not a countable set. 18
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The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
An infinite set that is not countable is said to be
uncountable. Because the set
is uncountable, the cardinality of A is not . Cantor used
the letter c, which is the first letter of the word continuum, to
represent the cardinality of A.
Cantor was also able to show that set A is equivalent to the
set of all real numbers R. Thus the cardinality of R is also c.
Cantor was able to prove that c > .
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
The following table lists several infinite sets and the
transfinite cardinal number that is associated with each set.
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
Your intuition may suggest that and c are the only two
cardinal numbers associated with infinite sets; however,
this is not the case.
In fact, Cantor was able to show that no matter how large
the cardinal number of a set, we can find a set that has a
larger cardinal number. Thus there are infinitely many
transfinite numbers. Cantor’s proof of this concept is now
known as Cantor’s theorem.

The Cardinality of Some Infinite Sets

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The Cardinality of Infinite Sets The Cardinality of Infinite Sets

The set of all subsets of S is called the power set of S and The following are some important theorems:
is denoted by P(S).

We can see that Cantor’s theorem is true for the finite set
S = {a, b, c} because the cardinality of S is 3 and S has
23 = 8 subsets.

The interesting part of Cantor’s theorem is that it also

applies to infinite sets.

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