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Data

DATA
MANAGEMENT Qualitative Quantitative

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• Seeing is believing, they

say. Making direct
observations of simplistic
phenomena can be a very
quick and effective way of
Methods of collecting data with
Collection of Data minimal intrusion.

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Non-responsive sample subjects are a non-issue when More complex observations that ask observers to
you’re simply making direct observation. interpret something (e.g. how many cars are
driving dangerously) require more complex
training and are prone to bias.

If the observation is simple and doesn’t require

ADVANTAGES interpretation (e.g. the number of cars driving through an
intersection per hour), this model doesn’t require a very
DISADVANTAGES Analysis may rely heavily on experts who must
know what to observe and how to interpret the
(Observation) extensive and well-tailored training regime for the survey
workforce.
(Observation) observations once the data collection is done.

There is the possibility of missing out on the

Infrastructure requirement and preparation time are complete picture due to the lack of direct
minimal for simple observations. interaction with sample subjects.

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• Questionnaires, as we consider
them here, are stand-alone
ADVANTAGES (Questionnaire)
instruments of data collection that
will be administered to the sample Questionnaires give the researchers an opportunity
subjects either through mail, phone to carefully structure and formulate the data
or online. They have long been one collection plan with precision.
of the most popular data collection
Respondents can take these questionnaires at a
techniques. convenient time and think about the answers at
their own pace.

The reach is theoretically limitless. The

questionnaire can reach every corner of the globe if
the medium allows for it.

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DISADVANTAGES (Questionnaire)
• Conducting interviews can
help you overcome most of
the shortfalls of the previous
Questionnaires without human intervention (as we have taken
them here) can be quite passive and miss out on some of the two data collection
finer nuances, leaving the responses open to interpretation. techniques that we have
Interviews and focus group discussions, as we shall see later, are
instrumental in overcoming this shortfall of questionnaires.
discussed here by allowing you
to build a deeper
understanding of the thinking
behind the respondents’
Response rates can be quite low
answers.

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Interviews help the researchers uncover rich, deep Reaching out to all respondents to
insight and learn information that they may have conduct interviews is a massive,
missed otherwise.
time-consuming exercise that leads
to a major increase in the cost of
ADVANTAGES The presence of an interviewer can give the DISADVANTAGES conducting a survey.
respondents additional comfort while answering
(Interviews) the questionnaire and ensure correct
(Interviews)
interpretation of the questions. To ensure the effectiveness of the
whole exercise, the interviewers
The physical presence of a persistent, well-trained must be well-trained in the
interviewer can significantly improve the response necessary soft skills and the relevant
rate. subject matter.

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The presence of several relevant people together at

the same time can encourage them to engage in a
healthy discussion and help researchers uncover
information that they may not have envisaged.
• Focus group discussions
take the interactive benefits ADVANTAGES It helps the researchers corroborate the facts
of an interview to the next instantly; any inaccurate response will most likely be
countered by other members of the focus group.
level by bringing a carefully
chosen group together for a
moderated discussion on It gives the researchers a chance to view both sides
the subject of the survey. of the coin and build a balanced perspective on the
matter.

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Documents and records

Finding groups of people who are relevant to the survey and Analysis
persuading them to come together for the session at the same
time can be a difficult task.

DISADVANTAGES
(FGD) The presence of excessively loud members in the focus group
• Usingdocuments and records canbeefficient and
inexpensivebecauseyou’repredominantly using
can subdue the opinions of those who are less vocal.
research thathasalreadybeen completed. However,
sincethe researcher haslesscontrolover the results,
documentsand recordscanbe incompletedatasource.
The members of a focus group can often fall prey to group-think
if one of them turns out to be remarkably persuasive and
influential. This will bury the diversity of opinion that may have
otherwise emerged. The moderator of a focus group discussion
must be on guard to prevent this from happening.

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Oral histories
Data
• Atfirst glance, an oral history might sound likean interview.
Bothdata collection methodsinvolveasking questions.But an
oral history ismore preciselydefined asthe recording,
preservation,and interpretation of historical information
based on the opinions and personal experiencesof people
whowere involved in the events. Qualitative Quantitative

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are original materials on which other research

is based, including:
1. original written works – poems, diaries,

Sources of Data Primary

sources
court records, interviews, surveys, and
original research/fieldwork, and
2. research published in
scholarly/academic journals.

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are those used to organize and locate

are those that describe or analyze
primary sources, including:
1.books and articles that interpret,
Secondary review, or synthesize original
sources research/fieldwork.
secondary and primary sources.
1. Indexes – provide citations that
fully identify a work with
information such as author, titles of
a book, artile, and/or journal,
publisher and publication date,
Tertiary volume and issue number and
page numbers.
sources 2. Abstracts – summarize the primary
or secondary sources,
3. Databases – are online indexes
that usually include abstracts for
each primary or secondary
resource, and may also include a
digital copy of the resource.

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Sampling
• isthe processof identifying asubsetof apopulation that provides an accurate
reflection on the whole. Itcanbe a trickyprocess, aspopulations are often diverse.
However, there are some statisticalmethods that canmakesure a small subsetof the
community accuratelyrepresents the wholegroup.
Sampling Techniques

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Random sampling
• Justasitsname indicates,random sampling involves pickingrespondents withlikepicking
names outof ahat. While randomness mayseemunscientific,thismethod canbe
valuable in research, and in fact,isthe preferred wayof sampling, asatruly random
sample eliminates elements that canaffectthe validity of a study.
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Convenience sampling
• Thisisthe easiestsampling method but alsothe least reliable. Conveniencesampling
involves gathering information from whoever isclosestand easiestto reach.An example
would be askingcoworkersin the sameoffice a question, rather than questioning every
employee atthe company,sincegoing to other officesmight takemore time and effort.
Conveniencesampling canalsoinvolve using whateverdata isreadily available.
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Systematic sampling
• Easierthan random sampling, systematic sampling follows a
setof rules to createregularity in sampling.Anexampleis interviewing everytenth
customer. Aslong asyou follow the
counting system, you’ll knowthat there’ssome order to the
process.
• Systematicsampling retains some of the benefits of
randomness, but it canbe too rigid in caseswhere, for example,the researcherknows
that the counting system is
going to result in data that skewsone wayor another — for
instance, if someone isinterviewing everytenth customer and everytenth person winds
up being afemale in the same agerange.
Purposive Sampling
• The purposive sampling technique, also called judgment
sampling, is the deliberate choice of a participant due to the
qualities the participant possesses.
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Clustered sampling Stratified sampling

• With clusteredsampling, aresearcherusesthe subgroups of apopulation instead of
individuals. Clustersare often predefined, suchasmunicipalities in astudy about the
effect of aparticular phenomenon acrossthe country.
• Clustered sampling isfurther broken down into different types— single-stagecluster
sampling, whereall individuals in aclusterare included in the sample, or two-stage
cluster sampling, whereonly random individuals within the cluster arechosen.
• Another method that usessubgroups isstratifiedsampling. Thisdata collection
method involves dividing apopulation into subgroups that share similar
characteristics.
• For example, astudy canbreak respondents down by gender or age.When the
components are easyto determine, like gender or age,the risk of biasislow,especiallyif
the data comesfrom the respondents. Stratified sampling reduces bias, but sometimes
characteristicsare difficult to ascertain, whichcaneither frustrate the sampling processor
invite bias.

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Methods of DataPresentation

Methods of DataPresentation Textual Form

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Methods of DataPresentation

Tabular Form

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Methods of DataPresentation

Graphical

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