Topic #3:

Scalars, Vectors and Tensors

William Hamilton (1805-65) Peter Tait (1831-1901)

• Scalars possess only magnitude

Examples
• mass
• temperature
• volume
• energy
• age
• Vectors (also called first order tensors)
possess magnitude and direction
Examples
• position
• velocity
• acceleration
• force
• traction (force per unit area)
• Tensors are more complicated than vectors,
and their order is determined by how they are
transformed from one coordinate system to
another (rotated one)
Examples
• stress
• strain
• rate of deformation
 x2
• We will use Cartesian y

coordinate systems x x1
ubiquitously in this course. z x3

• The notation used in undergraduate courses

for Cartesian coordinate directions is typically
x,y,z .
• In this course we will use instead x1,x2,x3 for
reasons of mathematical expediency that will
become apparent shortly.
 x2 x2’
The location and orientation
of a coordinate system is at the x1 x1’

discretion of the user x3

x3’

• Depending on the problem to be solved, some

coordinate systems will be more mathematically
complicated than others
• The user is cautioned: expediency (and accuracy)
demands that the simplest coordinate system be
employed
 x2 x2’

• Are coordinate systems in

x1 x1’
which an object sufficiently
x3
removed from other objects x3’
travels in a straight line

• Solutions to a problem obtained with two different

coordinate systems that are fixed with respect to one
another should be physically equivalent.
 x2 x2’
Solutions to a problem obtained
with two different coordinate x1 x1’

systems that are moving with x3

x3’
respect to one another should also
be physically equivalent.

• This restriction resulted in the modern theory of

relativity.
• We will not have need to account for the relativistic physics
in this course.
A coordinate system need only include as x2

many dimensions as necessary to model

x1
the physics of the problem at hand x 3

• One-dimensional example: rectilinear motion of

a rigid body ( only x1 direction needed)
• Two-dimensional example: a rigid body subjected
to coplanar forces (only x1 & x2 directions needed)
• Three-dimensional example: a rigid body
subjected to non-coplanar forces
• In most cases, deploying the lowest order
coordinate system is mathematically simplest
• Oftentimes, aligning one of the coordinate axes
with the center of the Earth is advisable
• In this course, the x2 coordinate axis will usually
be aligned vertically
• In this course, the coordinate axes will be chosen
for you a priori, and all problems should be solved
using these preset axes
Cybertecture Egg Building – Mumbai, India
 F
x2
• Vectors have point of application,
direction and magnitude x1
x3

• For reasons of mathematical expedience,

we describe them using base vectors and
components (magnitudes) in each
coordinate direction
• Are aligned with each of the coordinate
directions
• Each base vector has unit magnitude
x2

e2 e1
x1
e3
x3
• One or more of the coordinate axes may not be
geometrically orthogonal to the others
• One or more of the coordinate axes may also be
curvilinear
• The decision as to what type of coordinate
system to use is determined by the
mathematical simplicity of the resulting model
The test for linear independence of axes is:
• Given the three coordinate axis vectors x1, x2, and x3 ,
they are linearly dependent if there exist three
scalars α1, α2, and α3, not all zero, such that
1 x1  2 x2  3 x3  0
• Otherwise, the axes are linearly independent,
thus resulting in an acceptable coordinate
system.
• Cylindrical Coordinates • Polar (or Spherical) Coordinates

θ r
θ

z
r
φ
 F
x2

• Force, displacement, velocity, and x1

acceleration are vectors x3

• As a consequence, we will need to develop

the mathematical properties of vectors in
some detail
 x2
F3
• For our purposes it will F F2
turn out that it is x1
F1
convenient to describe a
x3
vector in terms of its three
Cartesian components and
the base vectors as follows:

F  F1e1  F2e2  F3e3

• Consider the following set of 3
equations in 3 unknowns
 a11 a12 a13   x1   c1 
a     
a22 a23  x2   c2 
 21 
 a31 a32    
a33   x3   c3 
where aij and ci have known values
and xj are to be determined
• The above equations could be
written equivalently as follows:
Free index
3

a x
j 1
ij j  ci i  1,..,3
Repeated index

We will now adopt a shorthand convention

as follows:
• A subscript that appears in a product
(called a repeated index) implies that
it should be repeated over its entire
range (assumed to be 3 unless
otherwise stated). Thus, our set of
equations simplifies to the following:
3

a x
j 1
ij j  aij x j  ai1 x1  ai 2 x2  ai 3 x3 i  1,..,3
• Unless otherwise stated, the range of an
unrepeated (free) index is three. Thus,
 a11 a12 a13   x1   c1 
a     
a22 a23  x2   c2 
 21 
 a31 a32    
a33   x3   c3 
becomes
aij x j  ci
 F  F1e1  F2e2  F3e3  Fi ei
ai bi  a1b1  a2b2  a3b3  ak bk

c11  c22  c33  ckk  cii  c jj

f1 f 2 f 3 f k
    f k ,k
x1 x2 x3 xk
Caveat: The same index may not be
repeated three times in the same product!!!
Index notation was
perfected by Albert
Einstein while he
was developing his
general theory of
relativity.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

We now introduce two
special symbols for
notational simplicity.

1 i  j
 ij   
0 i  j
Leopold Kronecker (1823-1891)

The Kronecker delta represents an identity
matrix, so that
 ij ai  a j
Note also that
 jj  3
 1
eijk  ( j  k )(k  i )(i  j ) i, j, k  1,2,3 nosumoni, j, k
2
It can be shown by direct substitution that

 1if (i, j, k )  (1, 2,3),(3,1, 2),(2,3,1)


eijk   1if (i, j, k )  (3, 2,1),(1,3, 2),(2,1,3)
0if anytwoormoresubscriptsareequal


Francis Murnaghan (1893-1976)

 x2
• Because forces can occur in
any direction, and because F3
F2
F
they are not always aligned x1
F1
with the coordinate axes we
x3
choose, it is necessary to
first calculate the three
components F1, F2 and F3.
 x2
• To obtain the three
components, we must first 2
F
know the magnitude of the 1
x1
force, F , and the direction 3
x3
cosines of the three angles
shown at right.
 x2
• It can be shown that a unit
vector that is collinear with 2
F
F is given by:  1
x1
3
  1e1   2e2   3e3  i ei x3

where  i are the direction cosines. It follows

that (employing the Pythagorean theorem):
ii  1
 F
x2
• Since  and F are collinear, 2
it follows that: 
F
1
x1
F  F   F (i ei ) 3
x3
 Fi ei
where
Fi  F i  F cos i
 x2
F3
• Suppose that, instead of F F2
x1
knowing the magnitude and F1
direction cosines, we know x3
the components of F.
• In this case, it follows that
Fi
F  Fi Fi i 
F
• Now that we know how to write
vectors in component form, it will
make it straightforward to perform
vector operations such as vector
addition, vector subtraction, and
vector multiplication.
 x2
B
C

Vector addition is A x1
defined as follows:
x3
A  Ai ei
B  Bi ei
C  A  B  Ai ei  Bi ei
C  ( Ai  Bi )ei
 x2
B
C

A x1

x3
If the two vectors in question are forces acting
at the same point, then the sum of the forces is
the resolved force that is statically
equivalent to the two forces acting on a rigid
body
• Vector addition is commutative

A B  B  A
• Vector subtraction
A  B  A  ( B)
• Vector addition is associative
A  B  C  A  ( B  C )  ( A  B)  C
 y
B
θ
Given two vectors
A x
A  Ai ei z
B  B je j
The dot (scalar) product of the two vectors is
defined as follows:

C  A B  A B cos 
where θ is the angle between the two vectors.
 x2

e2 e1
Given two different base x1
e3
vectors, the dot product
x3
is

ei e j  ei e j cos  1 1  0  0
2
The dot product of a base vector with itself is

ei ei  ei ei cos 0  1  1  1  1
 x2

e2 e1
The above may be written x1
e3
1 i  j x3
ei e j   
0 i  j
or
ei e j   ij
 y
B
θ
Given two vectors
A x
A  Ai ei z
B  B je j
The dot (scalar) product of the two vectors is
in our new notation:

C  A B  ( Ai ei ) ( B j e j )  Ai B j (ei e j )  Ai B j ij  Ai Bi
 x2

A
x1
It follows that x3

A A  Ai Ai

Thus, according to the Pythagorean theorem

A A A Ai Ai
 x2

A x1

x3

The dot product of a force with

itself is the square of the
magnitude of that force.
 x2
B
θ
Given two vectors
A x1
A  Ai ei C
x3
B  B je j
The cross product of the two is defined by:

C  A B C  A B sin 
where the vector C is perpendicular to the plane
of A and B according to the right hand rule
 x2
Using the above definition, we obtain

ei  e j   ei e j sin   ek  1  1  1 ek  ei  e j  ek
e2
e1
x1
e3
Similarly, x3

e j  ek  ei ek  ei  e j

e j  ei  ek ek  e j  ei ei  ek  e j

ei  e j  eijk ek
 x2
Using the above results, we obtain B

C  A  B  ( Ai ei )  ( B j e j )  Ai B j (ei  e j )  Ai B j eijk ek
A
x1
Plowing through the math gives C
x3
C  ( A2 B3  A3 B2 )e1  ( A3 B1  A1B3 )e2  ( A1B2  A2 B1 )e3
The above can also be written in determinant form
e1 e2 e3
C  A1 A2 A3
B1 B2 B3
 y
If both A and B lie in the x-y plane, then B

C  A  B  ( A1e1  A2e2 )  ( B1e1  B2e2 )

A
x
C  ( A1B2  A2 B1 )e3 z
C
 x2 F

If d is the vector connecting a point of

interest, P, to the force vector F, then P d
x1
the cross product is the moment, M,
about the point P. x3 M

M  ( r2 F3  r3 F2 )e1  ( r3 F1  r1F3 )e2  ( r1F2  r2 F1 )e3

 x2 F
If both d and F lie in the x-y plane, then F2
P d1 d F1
d2
x1
M  d  F  (d1e1  d 2e2 )  ( F1e1  F2e2 )
M
x3

M  ( d1F2  d 2 F1 )e3
 x2 F
If both d and F lie in the x-y plane, then 
P d
M  ( d1F2  d 2 F1 )e3 x1
M
 ( d F sin  )e3 x3
d sin 
Thus, in this simple case we can see that the
magnitude of the moment, M, about the point P
is equal to the perpendicular distance from the
line of action of the force, F , multiplied by the
magnitude of the force.
Consider two Cartesian coordinate x2 x2’
x1’
systems fixed with respect to one x1
another, as shown at right. x 3
x3’

• It should be apparent that computing the effects of

translation between the two coordinate systems is
a trivial matter.
• On the other hand, computing the effects of rotation
between the two coordinate systems is definitely
NOT trivial!!!
 x2’ x2
• Because scalars do not possess
x1’
direction, they are identical in both x1
coordinate systems (coordinate x3
x3’
invariant).
• On the other hand, vectors and tensors possess
direction, so that transforming from one coordinate
system to the other will necessarily require the use of
trigonometric quantities relating the two coordinate
systems.
 x2’ x2
• Consider the components of a vector
x1’
described in the unprimed coordinate x1
system: x3
x3’
A  Ae
i i
• Now suppose that, given the orientation of the primed
coordinate system with respect to the unprimed one, we
wish to determine the components of the vector in the
primed coordinate system, that is
A  A'j e 'j
 x2’ x2
• It should be apparent that
x1’
x1
A  Ai ei  A e '
j
'
j x3
x3’

• To find the relation between the primed and unprimed

components, take the dot product of both sides with the
base vector ek'

Ai ei ek'  A'j e j' ek'  A'j jk  Ak'

 x2’ x2
• Now, let
x1’
x1
aik '  ei ek '  ei ek ' cos ik '  cos ik ' x3
x3’

• where ik ' is the angle between the two base vectors, and we
call aik’ the direction cosine tensor. Thus we find that

• Footnote:
A  Aa
'
k i ik ' aij '  a ji '
• Thus, we find that vectors transform from one
coordinate system to another (rotated) one via one
operation by the direction cosine tensor, which is
why we also call them first order tensors.

• The order of a tensor is determined by the number of

operations that must be performed using the
direction cosine tensor to transform from one
coordinate system to another rotated one.
• For example, consider the Kronecker delta.

 p ' q '  ep ' eq '  (a p ' i ei ) (aq ' j e j )  a p ' i aq ' j (ei e j )

 p ' q '  a p ' i aq ' jij

• Thus, we have just proven that the Kronecker delta is a

second order tensor.
Tensor Order No. of Components Transformation Sometimes Called

0 1 T=T’ Scalar

1 3 Tp’=ap’iTi Vector

2 9 Tp’q’=ap’iaq’jTij

3 27 Tp’q’r’=ap’iaq’jar’kTijk

4 81 Tp’q’r’s’=ap’iaq’jar’kas’lTijkl
• Tensor (index) notation is only appropriate
for use with Cartesian coordinate
systems!!!

• When curvilinear coordinate systems are

employed, coordinate invariant vector ( , ,  )
notation should be used!.
Given an input variable, I, and an output variable, R,
the output variable is related to the input variable via a
mathematical statement of the general form:
R  F(I )
where the function F(?) may be algebraic, differential, or
integral in form. The function F(?) is linear iff:

Superposition: F ( I1  I 2 )  F ( I1 )  F ( I 2 )
Homogeneity: F (cI )  cF ( I ) c  const
• Mechanics involves the study of motions of objects,
and motions are vector-valued quantities.

• Because we live in a (spatially) three dimensional

universe, we must also utilize both vector and
tensor mathematics in this course.

• Tensors are defined by the number of operations

required with the transformation tensor to
transform from one coordinate system to another.