CE 406

Introduction to
Construction Materials
and Testing

Prepared By: Engr. Emmanuel Maala

What are construction
materials?

It is defined as the materials, supplies,

fixtures, or equipment, any combination
of such items, and any other leased or
purchased articles when the materials,
supplies, fixtures, equipment or articles
are to be utilized or consumed during
construction or are to be incorporated
into construction work pursuant to a
bonafide written construction contract.

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Types of Common
Construction Materials

The following are listed on the next few

pages.
1. Steel
Steel is a metal alloy of iron and carbon and often other
alloying material in its composition to make it stronger and
more fracture-resistant than iron.

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2. Aggregates
Construction aggregate is a broad category of particulate material
used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag,
recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are
the most mined materials in the world. They are divided into two
categories—fine aggregates and coarse aggregates.

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3. Cement
Cement, in general, adhesive substances of all kinds, but,
in a narrower sense, the binding materials used in building
and civil engineering construction. Cements of this kind
are finely ground powders that, when mixed with water,
set to a hard mass.

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4. Bitumen
A black viscous mixture of hydrocarbons obtained
naturally or as a residue from petroleum distillation. It is
used for road surfacing and roofing.

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5. Concrete
Concrete is a composite material made of fine and coarse
aggregate (think gravel, crushed stone, recycled concrete,
and geosynthetic aggregates) bound together by a liquid
binder such as cement that hardens or cures over time.

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6. Asphalt
Asphalt is a mixture of aggregates, binder and filler, used
for constructing and maintaining roads, parking areas,
railway tracks, ports, airport runways, bicycle lanes,
sidewalks and also play- and sport areas.

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7. Masonry
Masonry construction uses individual units (such as bricks)
to build structures that are usually bound together by
some kind of mortar. The strongest and most commonly
used masonry unit now is a concrete block, which may be
reinforced with steel.

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What is materials
testing?

Materials testing is a respected and

established technique which is used to
ascertain both the physical and
mechanical properties of raw materials
and components. It can be used to
examine almost anything from human hair
to steel, ceramics or composite materials.

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Five major categories of materials testing

Testing for resistance

Mechanical Testing Testing for Thermal Testing for Electrical to corrosion, radiation Non-destructive
Properties Properties and biological testing
deterioration

Also known as destructive
testing, reveals the
properties of a material measure materials’ ability
under dynamic or static
force. Designed to ensure
that materials are suitable
for their intended
applications.
Testing for thermal Materials are subjected to Testing for breakdown or A testing and analysis
properties is used to electrical stresses under a deterioration of materials technique to evaluate the
variety of controlled under exposure to a properties of a material,
to transfer heat since it conditions, including liquid particular type of component, structure or
differs with each contaminants, dust and environment has greatly system for characteristic
substance and may fog, dry air electrical arc, increased in recent years. differences or welding
depend on structure, or high voltage dielectric defects and discontinuities
density, humidity, breakdown conditions. without causing damage
pressure and to the original part.
temperature.
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Tests carried out on different construction materials
Aggregates
a. Sieve Analysis
b. Water Absorption
c. Aggregate Impact Value
d. Aggregate Abrasion Value
e. Aggregate Crushing Value
Bitumen Cement
a. Determining bitumen content a. Fineness Test
b. Determining flash and fire b. Soundness Test
point of bitumen
c. Consistency Test
c. Determining penetration of
bitumen d. Setting Time Test
d. Determining softening point
of bitumen
e. Determining specific gravity of
bitumen
f. Determining ductility of
bitumen
g. Determining marshal stability
of bitumen
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Tests carried out on different construction materials

Hardened Steel
Fresh Concrete
Concrete Reinforcement
a. Slump Test a. Compression Strength Test a. Tensile Strength Test
b. Compacting Factor Test b. Flexural Strength Test b. Bend Test
c. VeBe Test c. Rebound Hammer Test c. Re-bend Test
d. K-Slump Test d. Ultrasonic Pulse velocity Test d. Shear Test
e. Brinell Hardness Test
f. Impact Test
g. Torsion Test

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 Because it is critical for the viability and safety of a
Why is CMT
construction project. CMT can reveal any number of
issues related to construction quality. It can highlight
important?
future risks, help classify a building site, and assist with
engineering decisions. Without CMT, engineers and
builders may not know if the quality of the construction
meets the requirements.

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 CE 406

Thank You!
References:
https://www.mtcopeland.com/blog/five-building-materials-commonly-us
ed-in-construction
https://www.definitions.net/definition/construction+aggregate
https://www.britannica.com/technology/cement-building-material
https://www.element.com/materials-testing-services/mechanical-testing-
services#:~:text=Designed%20to%20ensure%20that%20materials,resistan
ce%2C%20fracture%20toughness%20and%20fatigue.
http://info.shieldengineering.com/blog/why-is-construction-materials-test
ing-important
FAMILIARIZATION WITH APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT USED IN TESTING OF MATERIALS
AGGREGATE – ROCKS
Laboratory Ovens – laboratory purpose specially designed for drying, baking, conditioning, and
moisture determination.
Muffle Furnaces – designed for higher temperature heating’s
Moisture Tester – for accurate moisture reading on site of soil, sand, aggregates.
Chapman Flask – use for field determination of the amount of surface moisture in fine aggregates.
Sieves – device for separating wanted elements from unwanted materials or for characterizing the
particle size distributions of sample.
Sieve Shaker Motor – operated for sieves when performing sieving tests.
Crushing coefficient machine
Sample Splitters – designed for the reduction of test samples which are too large in volume to be
conveniently handed. It divides samples so that half is representative of the original whole sample.
Tribometer – Abrasion Tester – used to determine the resistance to abrasion and wear of cement,
concrete and similar materials.
Rock Classification Hammer – is used for rock classification tests.
Los-Angeles Abrasion Machine – used to determine the resistance of aggregates by abrasion.
Volumeter for aggregates – used to determine the resistance to abrasion and wear of cement, concrete
and similar materials.
Micro-Deval Testing Machine – used to determine the quality of aggregates by abrasion.
Jar Mill – designed to reduce to powder any sort pf granulometric material (clinker, cement, stones,
hard materials) for general purpose laboratory tests.
Dry Mixer – designed to mix dry materials like: powders, cement, gypsum, and granulometric materials.
In a short time, it assures a perfect and homogeneous mixture.
Abrasimeter – suitable to determine the abrasion resistance of glazed tiles and other materials.
Aggregate Crushing Value apparatus – used to measure resistance of an aggregate to crushing under
a gradually applied compressive load.
Buoyancy Balance – used for specific gravity and water absorption test.
CONCRETE
Core Drill – design to remove a cylinder of material, much like a hole saw.
Extruder – to thrust out; force or press out.
Portable Rock Shear Box Assembly – used to determine the strength and slope stability of rock size.
Climatic chamber – used to test the effects of specified environmental conditions.
Geological hammer – use for splitting breaking rock.
Compression Testing Machine – used to perform compression test on concrete beam specimens.
Flexural Testing Machine – used to perform flexural tests on concrete beam specimen.
Compressometer Static Modulus of Elasticity – used to determine the strain and deformation
characteristics of concrete specimens.
Simrup Apparatus – designed to measure the tensile strength of concrete beam specimens.
Drum Type Apparatus – suitable for field mixes of medium strength concrete.
Slump cone – for the determination of consistency, the medium and high workability of fresh concrete.
Vebe’s Consistometer – Vebe Consistometer method is based on the same principle of the simple
slump cone method, for the determination of the workability of concrete, but it has the advantage of a
mechanized action after removing the slump cone, the concrete undergoes a vibration to determine its
slump. A space disk set in contact with the upper surface of the wet concrete, gives the operator the
opportunity to determine when the compaction is complete. The operator will count the time necessary
to complete the requested vibration, so as to get an indication of the workability of the concrete.
Compacting Factor Apparatus – designed to undertake a more precise and sensitive test procedure
than the simple slump test.
K-slump Tester – to determine the degree of compaction and the workability of fresh concrete. Used
for in-situ measurements of inside test moulds. Test results can be correlated against the slump values.
Walz Consistometer – to measure the consistency of fresh concrete.
Flow table – used to determine the workability of concrete.
Kelly Ball Apparatus – it is used to determine the workability of fresh concrete. The ball is lowered into
the concrete and the penetration measured. It can be used on site or in laboratory.
Concrete Workability meter – the concrete workability meter (also known as plastometer) is designed
to test concrete for dynamic workability.
Plasticity meter – used for quick and easy measurement of the plasticity of mixtures especially concrete,
and so to detect rapidly any excess of water. The measuring system is related to the shear strength
applied by a three blades heads to the mixture under test.
Concrete Penetrometer – used to determine the setting time of the mortar fraction in concrete mixes
with the slump greater than zero, by testing mortar sieved from mix.
Air entrainment meter – it records directly the percentage of air enclosed in freshly mixed concrete by
operating according to the air pressure principle.
Unit weight measure – used to determine the weight per cubic meter of freshly mixed and compacted
concrete.
Joisel Apparatus – used to separate the various elements of the fresh concrete such as cement, sand,
and aggregates.
RAM (Rapid Analysis Machine) – used for the determination of cement content in fresh concrete, coarse
and fine aggregate, fly ash and GGBF slag content can also be determined.
Moulds – used for moulding.
Vibrating tables – used for the compaction of concrete specimens in laboratory.
Specimen Grinding Machine – designed to grind and polish cubic and cylindrical specimens of concrete,
rocks and natural stones.
Curing tanks – used for concrete specimens.
Core drilling machines – designed to remove a cylinder of a material much like a hole saw.
Specimen cutting machine – used to cut concrete specimens and any type of constructions materials
like blocks, tiles, pipes, rocks cores.
Ultrasonic pulse velocity tester – to measure materials characteristic using ultrasonic pulses.
Automatic concrete water permeability apparatus – designed to carry out water permeability tests on
cubic concrete specimens max.
Hydraulic press – is device using a hydraulic cylinder to generate a compressive force. It uses the
hydraulic equivalent of a mechanical lever.
Rapid chloride ion penetration meter – like water permeability test, this is also one of the tests to
determine the durability of concrete.
BITUMEN-ASPHALT
Automatic binder extraction unit – used to perform reliable analysis on bituminous mixture utilizing non-
flammable non explosion solvents, for quantitative determination of binder or bitumen contain in
pavement samples and hot mix mixtures.
Air-bath – used for softening bitumen before performing a range of tests including ductility, flash point,
penetration, loss on heating.
Reflux extractor – used for asphalt content determination in bituminous concrete.
Universal extruder – it could extrude marshall, CBR, and Standard and modified Proctor specimen.
Asphalt Testing System – MATTA – This apparatus is a general-purpose testing machine developed
to carry out a range of tests on asphalt.
Universal Testing machine UTM-5P – allows asphalt to be tested for its ability to simulate repeated
axial loading conditions, replicating traffic conditions.
Fatigue Tester of asphalt beams – is a stand-alone system for fatigue life testing of asphalt beams
subject to repeated flexural bending, given a measure of maximum tensile strength, maximum tensile
strain and flexural stiffness.
Penetrometer – used to determine the consistency of bituminous sampler under fixed conditions of
load, time and temperature.
Asphalt Oven – used for drying asphalt.
Frass Apparatus – used to determine the breaking point of semi solid and solid bitumen.
Viscometer – used to determine the viscosity of cut-back bitumen and road oil.
Duriez test set – used to determine the mechanical and physical properties of bituminous mixtures.
Tar Viscometer – used in determining viscosity of cut-back bitumen and road oil. Viscosity is measured
by determining the time taken by 50 cc of the material to flow from a cup through a specific orifice.
CEMENT-MORTAR
Bulk density of cement – this apparatus is used for the measurement of the apparent density (bulk
density) of powder and non-cohesive materials that it consists of sieve funnel with tripod, unit weight
measure 1 liter capacity with hopper, spatula, straight edge, large spoon.
Flow cone apparatus – used for viscosity and fluidity determination of mortars, muds, grouts, fluid
materials etc.
Automatic recording V-cut apparatus – used to determine the initial and final setting time of a hydraulic
binder.
V-cut apparatus – used for setting time and consistency of cement.
Flame Photometer – used to determine the alkali content of cement.
Length Comparator – used to measure the length variations of cement specimens and autoclave
soundness test that it can also be used to measure linear shrinkage of specimens.
Thermostatic bench cabinet – for curing cement, mortar, concrete specimens.
Automatic mortar mixer – expressly designed for the efficient mixing of cement pastes and mortar, with
two automatic sequence of mixing cycle.
STEEL
Universal hydraulic Servo-Controlled Machine – to carry out static tensile tests on metallic materials.
Marking-off Machine – used to mark off specimen with round, square shaped and with improved bond
for the measurement of the percentage elongation after their breaking, in accordance with the
standards.
Broaching Machine – used to make notching on impact test bars for resilience tests.
Pendulum Impact Charpy Tester – for resilience tests. Carried out on a Charpy sample in order to check
the energy absorbed during the impact, which is measured in Joule.
Bending Machine – designed to carry out building tests on steel bars for reinforced concrete.
SOIL
Penetrometer – used to establish the thickness of different strata, when testing compaction works and
to determine the relative density of fills and naturally deposited non-cohesive solid.
Soil Sampler – used to obtain undisturbed soil samples.
Nuclear Moisture Density Gauge – it provides a rapid method on-site determination of moisture density
content of soils, aggregates and asphaltic concrete.
Laboratory Vane Apparatus – used to determine the shear strength of a sample of soil confined within
its sample tube.
Water level indicator – utilized to measure the water level in boreholes, wells and any open underground
structure. A light and audible signal are activated when the probe touches the water.
Melting Pot – to melt wax and to cover soil samples keeping them to the original humidity.
Surface Soil sampler / core cutter – used to take field samples of compacted fill or undisturbed soils
and to evaluate density of compaction samples as the ground surface.
Universal Screw Extruder – used for a smooth and rapid extrusion of soil samples from tubes also o
thin walls with minimal disturbance.
Soil Hollow Punch / Sampler – to compress loose soils to hollow punch samples to carry out shear,
consolidation, triaxial and unconfined tests.
Soil Lathe – designed to reduce by trimming the diameter of a soil sample until reaching the desired
diameter size by using a wire saw.
Hollow Punches and Tamper – used to prepare soil sample and to fit them into the relevant cells to
carry out triaxial, consolidation shear, unconfined tests.
Pyknomter – used to evaluate the bulk density and voids of aggregates.
Sand Equivalent – used to determine the relevant proportions of clay-like or plastic fines and dusts in
granular soils and fine aggregates.
Proctor mould – used for determining the relationship between the moisture content and the density of
compacted soils. Steel made, complete with mould body, collar and base plated against corrosion.
Cone penetrator – used to determine the geotechnical properties of soil.
Plate bearing – used in the test performed for the determination of the bearing capacity of soil in-situ
on road constructions, foundations, road subgrades, and airport and highway pavements.
Compaction Permeameters – used for determining permeability to water of soil gravel, clay, sand
samples.
Front loading Oedometer (consolidation apparatus) – for consolidation test. The one-dimensional
consolidation test of a soil sample enables to ascertain the settlement characteristics over a given
period of time.
Direct / Residual Shear Test Apparatus – used to determination of the resistance to shearing of all
types of soil specimens both consolidated and drained, undisturbed or remolded samples.
WOOD
Moisture meters – are used to measure the percentage of water in a given substance, The information
can be used to determine if the material is ready for use, unexpectedly wet or dry, or otherwise in need
of further inspection, Wood and paper products are very sensitive to their moisture content.
Universal wood tester – is a screw type motor driven and its suitable for determination of shear strength.
Hardness (Janka Ball test), Cleavage, static bend plywood Grip’s nail / screw withdrawal test,
compression (parallel-to-grain) and many other tests on wood plywood.
GENERAL EQUIPMENT
Mechanical balances – measuring instrument used where the most accurate weighing is required.
Hydrometer – is an instrument used to measure the specific gravity (or relative density) of liquids.
Usually made of glass and consist of a cylindrical stem and a bulb weighted with mercury or lead.
Rotary automatic scales
Concrete Mixer – also known as cement mixer is a device that homogeneously combines cement,
aggregate such as sand or gravel and water to form concrete.
Mobile concrete mixer – this first type of concrete mixer is ideal for you if you need to use
concrete in more than one place in the same time.
Stationary Concrete mixer – stationary concrete mixer cannot be moved because they are fixed
in only one place.
Batching scale
Analytical balance
Electronic precision top loading and platform balances
Decanters – a vessel that is used to hold the decantation of liquid which may contain sediment
Wash bottles – sealed with a screw-top lid use to wash materials.
Funnels – use to channel liquid or fire grained substances into containers with a small opening
Bucket – is typically watertight
Pans
Sample Containers
Scoops – a deep bowl for taking something from a container
Spatulas – used to mix, spread and lift material
Trowel – used to spread building materials such as plaster or cement
Hot plates- used as a substitute for one the burners from an oven.
Wheelbarrow – a kind vehicle that is built to be pushed around with a load inside out.
Steel hammer – made of steel used for hitting nails or breaking things.
Mallet – used by wood workers for driving a tool. Used to pound on something
Immersion or needle vibrator – is perhaps the most commonly used vibrator. It essentially consists of
steel tube (with one end closed and rounded) having an eccentric element inside it.
External or Shutter Vibrators – these vibrators are clamped rigidly to form work at the predetermined
points so that the form and concrete are vibrated.
Surface vibrators – these are placed directly on the concrete mass.
Density pick
Density chisel
 Aggregates
Construction Materials and Testing
 Definition of Aggregates
Groups of Aggregates
Aggregates Classification by Density
Aggregates Classification by Shape
Lesson for Aggregates Classification by Size

Today Moisture Content of Aggregates

Absorption and Surface Moisture
Unit Weight of Aggregates
Specific Gravity
Evaluation of Aggregates

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Definition of Aggregates
Aggregates generally occupy 70 to 80%
of the volume of concrete and therefore
have a significant effect on its
properties. Strength of concrete and
mix design are independent of the
composition of aggregate, but
durability may be affected.

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Three Groups of Aggregates

Primary Aggregates: Secondary Aggregates: Recycled Aggregates:

specifically produced for use by-products of other from previously used
in concrete industrial processes not construction materials e.g.
previously used in from demolition.
construction

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Aggregates Classification by Density
Normal-density
Aggregates
• They are natural materials used
for making concrete, including
gravels, igneous rocks such as
basalt and granite and the
stronger sedimentary rocks such
as limestone and sandstone.
• They have relative densities
within a limited range of
approximately 2.55–2.75, thus, all
produced concretes normally
ranges 2250–2450 kg/m3 ,
depending on mix proportions.
Lightweight
Aggregates
• They are used to produce lower
density concretes, which are
advantageous in reducing the
self-weight of structures and also
have better thermal insulation
than normal-weight concrete.
• The reduced relative density of
this aggregate is obtained from
air voids within the aggregate
particles.
Heavyweight
Aggregates
• This type of aggregate can be
used where concrete of high
density is required, for example in
radiation shielding.
• These may be made with
high-density ores such as barytes
and haematite, or manufactured,
such as steel shot.
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Aggregate Classification by Shape

1 2 3 4 5 6
Rounded Irregular Angular Flaky Elongated Flaky and Elongated
Rocks, stone, sand and These consist of small This comes in the form It is defined as This type of A mix of the previous
gravel found in stones and gravel, and of crushed rock and aggregates that are aggregates is longer two– and the least
riverbeds are your offer reduced stone and used for thin in comparison to than they are thick or efficient form of
most common workability to rounded higher strength length and width. wide; adds more aggregate with
rounded aggregates. aggregates. concrete surface area to a mix. regards to workability.

6
Aggregate Classification by Size
Fine aggregates
• The size of fine aggregates is
defined as 4.75mm or smaller. That
is, aggregates which can be
passed through a number 4 sieve,
with a mesh size of 4.75mm. Fine
aggregates include things such as
sand, silt and clay. Crushed stone
and crushed gravel might also fall
under this category.
Coarse Aggregates
• Coarse aggregates measure above the
4.75mm limit. These are more likely to be
natural stone or gravel that has not been
crushed or processed. These aggregates
will reduce the amount of water needed
for a concrete mix, which may also reduce
workability but improve its innate
strength.
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 Moisture Content
Aggregate can contain water, both
internal, based on porosity, and
external, surface moisture. This gives
aggregate the ability to absorb water.
This will effectively reduce the amount
of water available for hydration; or
conversely, if the aggregate is very wet,
add excess water to a cement mix.
Four moisture states
There are four moisture states:
1. Oven-dry (OD); all moisture
removed.
2. Air-dry (AD); surface moisture
removed, internal pores partially full.
3. Saturated-surface-dry (SSD); surface
moisture removed, all internal pores full.
4. Wet; pores full with surface film.

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Absorption and Surface Moisture
To determine the amount of water an aggregate will add or subtract from a cement paste, the
following three quantities are used:
1. Absorption capacity (AC) -- maximum amount of water the aggregate will absorb. The
range for most normal-weight aggregates is 1 - 2%.

2. Effective Absorption (EA) -- amount of water required to bring an aggregate from the air dry
state to the saturated-surface-dry state.

The weight of water absorbed by the aggregate, Wabs, is calculated from the weight of the
aggregate, Wagg, in a concrete mix using effective absorption (EA).

10
Absorption and Surface Moisture
3. Surface Moisture (SM) -- amount of water in excess of SSD

It is used to calculate the additional water, Wadd, of the concrete mix.

The moisture content (MC) of aggregate is given by:

If the moisture content (MC) is positive, there is surface moisture. If the MC is negative, it has
the potential for absorption. Therefore, the total moisture associated with an aggregate is:

11
 Unit Weight

Unit weight (UW) or bulk density is the weight of a given

volume of material. Basically, unit weight is measured by
filling a container of known volume with a material and
weighing it. The degree of moisture and compaction will
affect the unit weight measurement. Therefore, ASTM has
set a standard oven-dry moisture content and a rodding
method for compaction. The maximum unit weight of a
blend of two aggregates is about 40% fine aggregate by
weight. Therefore, this is the most economical concrete
aggregate since it will require the least amount of cement.

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Specific Gravity
A dimensionless ratio of density of the material in question to the density of water.

SG = [density of solid] / [density of water]

Absolute specific gravity (ASG) considers the weight and volume of the solid part of the
aggregate. Whereas, bulk specific gravity (BSG) is a measure of the weight/volume of solids
and pores of a material.

ASG > BSGSSD > BSGOD

However, since the porosity of most rocks used in concrete is 1 to 2%, the values of all specific
gravities are approximately the same; in the range of 2.5 to 2.8.

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Evaluation of
Aggregates
It should be noted that tests on
aggregates alone are not an
effective means of predicting
aggregate performance in the field.
Tests for aggregate properties for
mix design are straightforward.
However, tests for durability and
performance have limitations.

14
Physical Tests
Abrasion Resistance
• Abrasion resistance -- The Los Angeles test for abrasion involves ball milling an aggregate
sample for a given time and measuring how the sample particles are reduced in size.
• Scratch hardness test -- assumes a relationship between hardness and abrasion. Neither of
these tests are an accurate or reliable measure of the concrete hardness. An indication
would be to test the concrete itself.
Frost Resistance
• Soundness test -- This test is a simulation of ice formation in an aggregate sample. The
sample is saturated with a solution of sodium or magnesium salt and dried in an oven. The
salt crystals which form in the pores simulate ice. Correlation between this test and field
tests are not good. Again, a better approach is testing aggregate in concrete.

15
Chemical Tests
Alkali-silica Reaction
A rapid reliable test for alkali-aggregate reactivity has not yet been developed. Most acceptable tests
require long curing times of about 6 months. In this test, the aggregate is ground into a fine sand and
used to make a variety of mortar bars. The mortars are stored in hot, moist conditions to accelerate the
reaction. Expansion of the sample is measured and compared to ASTM specifications.
Aggregate Beneficiation
If an aggregate does not pass the ASTM tests, beneficiation may be useful in areas where aggregate is
scarce. There are several possible ways of treatment:
• Crushing -- Soft, porous rock may be removed by crushing.
• Heavy-media separation -- Lightweight particles may be separated by floating them to the top of a
liquid.
• Reverse water flow or air flow -- used to remove lightweight particles like wood.
• Hydraulic jigging -- Stratification of aggregate in a vertical pulsation of water. Lightweight particles
separate to the top.
• Elastic fractionation -- Aggregate is dropped on an incline steel plate. Hard particles bounce higher
off the plate than do softer particles. Appropriate placement of collection bins can provide good
separation.
• Washing and scrubbing -- Removes fine surface particles.

16
 References:
• Domone and Illston, Construction Materials: Their
Nature and Behavior
• http://www.ce.memphis.edu/1101/notes/concrete/e
Thank you verything_about_concrete/06_aggregate.html
• https://www.hintonswaste.co.uk/news/classification-o
faggregates/#:~:text=The%20different%20shapes%2
0of%20aggregates,the%20main%20factor%20behin
d%20workability.

9/3/20XX Presentation Title 17

Construction Materials and Testing Report
BSCE 2204 Group 2
Alcantara, Francis Marc L. Gupo, Kailah F.
De La Vega, Jenilie G. Macalalad, Blezie Mae H.
Gaya, Rica G.

General Properties of Materials

The materials used in the construction of Engineering Structures such as buildings,
bridges and roads are called Engineering Materials or Building Materials. In the construction
process, it is necessary for an engineer to be conversant with the properties of such
materials. Thus, the right selection of materials can be made for a construction activity only
when material properties are fully understood. Some of the most important properties of
building materials are grouped as follows:
Physical Properties
A physical property is any property that is measurable, whose value describes a state
of a physical system. The changes in physical properties of a system can be used to
describe its changes between momentary states. Listed below are some of the physical
properties of building materials.
Bulk density Weathering resistance
Porosity Spalling resistance
Durability Water absorption
Density Water permeability
Density index Hygroscopicity
Specific gravity Coefficient of softening
Fire resistance Refractoriness
Frost resistance
● Bulk Density of Building Materials
Bulk density is the ratio of mass to the volume of the material in its natural
state that is including voids and pores.
➢ expressed in kg/m​3
➢ influences the mechanical properties of materials like strength, heat and
conductivity etc.
Bulk density values of some of the engineering materials:
BUILDING BULK DENSITY
MATERIAL (kg/m​3​)
Brick 1600-1800
Sand 1450-1650
Steel 7850
Heavy concrete 1800-2500
Light concrete 500-1800
Granite 2500-2700
● Porosity of Building Materials
Porosity gives the volume of the material occupied by pores.
➢ ratio of volume of pores to the volume of material.
➢ influences many properties like thermal conductivity, strength, bulk density,
durability etc.
● Durability of Building Materials
The property of a material to withstand against the combined action of
atmospheric and other factors is known as durability of material. If the material is
more durable, it will be useful for longer life. Maintenance cost of material is
dependent on durability.
● Density of Building Materials
Density is the ratio of mass of the material to its volume in homogeneous
state. Almost all the physical properties of materials are influenced by its density
values. Density values of some building materials are given below.
Material Density ​(kg/m3)
Steel 7800 – 7900
Brick 2500 -2800
Granite 2600 – 2900
● Density Index
Ratio of bulk density of material to its density is termed as density index.
Hence it gives the volume of solid matter in the material. In nature, fully dense
material is not available so, density index is always less than 1 for any building
material.
● Specific Gravity of Building Materials
Specific gravity is the ratio of mass of given substance to the mass of water at
4oC for the equal volumes. Specific gravity of some materials is listed below.
Material Specific gravity
Steel 7.82
Cast iron 7.20
Aluminum 2.72
● Fire Resistance of Building Materials
The ability to withstand fire without changing its shape and other properties.
Fire resistance of a material is tested by the combined actions of water and fire.
Fireproof materials should provide more safety in case of fire.
● Frost Resistance
The ability of a material to resist freezing or thawing is called frost resistance.
It depends upon the density and bulk density of material. Denser materials will have
more frost resistance. Moist materials have low frost resistance and they lose their
strength in freezing and become brittle.
 ● Weathering Resistance
The property of a material to withstand against all atmospheric actions without
losing its strength and shape. Weathering affects the durability of material. For
example corrosion occurs in iron due to weathering. To resist this paint layer is
provided.
● Spalling Resistance
The ability of a material to undergo a certain number of cycles of sharp
temperature variations without failing is known as spalling resistance. It is dependent
on the coefficient of linear expansion.
● Water Absorption
The capacity of a material to absorb and retain water in it is known as water
absorption. It is expressed in % of weight of dry material. It depends on the size,
shape and number of pores of material.
● Water Permeability
The ability of a material to permit water through it is called water permeability.
Dense materials like glass metals etc. are called impervious materials which cannot
allow water through it.
● Hygroscopicity
Hygroscopicity is the property of a material to absorb water vapor from the air.
It depends on the relative humidity, porosity, air temperature etc.
● Coefficient of Softening
Coefficient of softening of a material is the ratio of compressive strength of a
saturated material to its compressive strength in dry state. It affects the strength of
water absorbent materials like soil.
● Refractoriness
The property of a material which cannot melts or lose its shape at prolonged
high temperatures (1580oC or more). Example: fire clay is high refractory material.

Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties of the materials are known by applying external forces on
them. These are very important properties which are responsible for behavior of a material in
its job. The mechanical properties are,
Strength Fatigue
Hardness Impact strength
Elasticity Abrasion resistance
Plasticity Creep
Brittleness Resilience
● Strength of Building Materials
The capacity of a material to resist failure caused by loads acting on it is
called strength. The load may be compressive, tensile or bending. It is determined by
 dividing the ultimate load taken by the material with its cross sectional area. Strength
is an important property for any construction materials. So, to provide maximum
safety in strength, a factor of safety is provided for materials and it is selected
depending on nature of work, quality of material, economic conditions etc.
● Hardness of Building Materials
The property of materials to resist scratching by a herder body. MOHS scale
is used to determine the hardness of materials. Hardness is most important to decide
the usage of particular aggregate. It also influences the workability.
● Elasticity of Building Materials
The capacity of a material to regain its initial shape and size after removal of
load is known as elasticity and the material is called elastic material. Ideally elastic
materials obey Hooke’s law in which stress is directly proportional to strain. Which
gives modulus of elasticity as the ratio of unit stress to unit deformation. Higher the
value of modulus of elasticity lower the deformations.
● Plasticity
When the load is applied on the material, if it will undergo permanent
deformation without cracking and retain this shape after the removal of load then it is
said to be plastic material and this property is called plasticity. They give resistance
against bending, impact etc. Examples: steel, hot bitumen etc.
● Brittleness
When the material is subjected to load, if it fails suddenly without causing any
deformation then it is called brittle material and this property is called brittleness.
Examples: concrete, cast-iron etc.
● Fatigue
If a material is subjected to repeated loads, then the failure occurs at some
point which is lower than the failure point caused by steady loads. This behavior is
known as fatigue.
● Impact Strength
If a material is subjected to sudden loads and it will undergo some
deformation without causing rupture is known as its impact strength. It designates the
toughness of material.
● Abrasion Resistance
The loss of material due to rubbing of particles while working is called
abrasion. The abrasion resistance for a material makes it durable and provides a
long life.
● Creep
Creep is the property of a material which indicates the tendency of material to
move slowly and deform permanently under the influence of external mechanical
stress. It results due to long time exposure to large external mechanical stress within
the limit of yielding. Creep is more severe in material that is subjected to heat for a
long time.
 ● Resilience
Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb the energy when it is deformed
elastically by applying stress and releasing the energy when stress is removed. Proof
resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed without
permanent deformation. The modulus of resilience is defined as the maximum
energy that can be absorbed per unit volume without permanent deformation. It can
be determined by integrating the stress-strain curve from zero to elastic limit.

Chemical Properties
Chemical properties relate to changes in chemical composition of material because it
interacts with other substances. Chemical properties of engineering materials are needed
because most materials, when they come in contact with other substances, can react to form
new materials. It is deterioration of material by chemical reaction with its environment.
● Chemical Resistance
The ability of construction materials to resist the effects by chemicals like
acids, salts and alkalis is known as chemical resistance. Underground installations,
constructions near sea etc. should be built with great chemical resistance. Chemical
resistant materials are required for various uses and in many environmental
conditions. Materials with high chemical resistance in many unfavorable
environments can improve the efficiency and productivity of the industry while
reducing the necessity for component spare parts.
● Corrosion Resistance
Formation of rust (iron oxide) in metals, when they are subjected to the
atmosphere is called corrosion. So, the metals should be corrosive resistant. To
increase the corrosion resistance proper measures should be considered. Otherwise
it will damage the whole structure.

● Acidity or Alkalinity
Acidity or Alkalinity is an important chemical property of engineering
materials. A material is acetic or Alkane which is decided by its ph value. Ph value of
a material varies from 0 to 14. A Ph value of 7 is considered to be neutral. Ordinary
water has a pH value of 7. The materials which are having ph value below 7 are
called Acetic and Materials which are having ph value greater than 7 are called
alkane. Acidity of Alkalinity of material indicates how they react with other materials.
Electrical Properties
Electrical properties are their ability to conduct electrical current. Various electrical
properties are resistivity, Electrical conductivity, temperature coefficient of resistance,
dielectric strength and thermoelectricity.
● Electrical Resistivity
It is a property of material which resists flow of electric current through
material. It is give-and-take of conductivity. Resistivity values are reported in micro
ohm centimetres units. As mentioned above resistivity values are simple give and
take of conductivity. The electrical resistivity is particularly important because it will
determine its electrical performance and hence whether it is suitable for use in many
electrical components. In order to compare the capability of different materials to
carry electrical current, figures for the resistivity are used.
➢ Resistivity Figures
The definition of resistivity states that the
resistivity of a substance is the resistance of a cube of
that substance having edges of unit length, with the
understanding that the current flows normal to
opposite faces and is distributed uniformly over them.
Resistivity is normally measured in Ohm metres. This
means that the resistivity is measured for a cube of
the material measuring a metre in each direction.
Comparison of Resistivity of Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators

MATERIAL TYPICAL RESISTIVITY RANGE

Conductors 10​-2​ - 10​-8

Semiconductors 10​-6​ - 10​6

Insulators 10​11​ - 10​19

Electrical resistivity of materials is a key electrical parameter. It governs

whether materials can be used effectively in many electrical and electronic
applications. It is a key parameter that is used for determining the right materials to
be used within electrical and electronic items.
● Electrical Conductivity
It is a property of material which ​allows flow of electric current through
material​. It is a parameter which indicates how easily electric current can flow
through material. Conductivity of material is give and take of resistivity. Electrical
conductivity measure of ​how well material accommodates movement of an electric
charge​. It is the ratio of current density to electric field strength.
 ● Dielectric Strength
It is a property of material which indicates ability of material to withstand at
high voltages. Usually, it is specified for insulating material to represent their
operating voltage. Which material having high dielectric strength can withstand at
high voltages.
● Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
Temperature coefficient of resistance of material indicates change in
resistance of material with change in temperature. Resistance of conductor changes
with change of temperature. The rise in resistance of a material with rise in
temperature depends on following things,
1. R​2​ – R​1​ ∝ R​1
2. R​2​ – R​1​ ∝ t​2​ – t​1
3. Property of material of conductor.
Where, R​1 is the resistance of conductor at temperature of t​1​°C and R​2 is the
resistance of conductor at temperature of t​2​°C.
Hence, from above, R​2 – R​1 ∝ R​1 (t​2 – t​1​) or, R​2 – R​1 = α​1 R​1 ​(t​2 – t​1​) ⇒ R​2 = R​1
[1 + α​1​ (t​2​ – t​1​)]
Where, α​1 is the temperature coefficient of resistance of material at
temperature of t​1​°C.
● Thermoelectricity
If a link formed by joining two metals is heated, a small voltage of millivolt is
produced. This effect is called thermoelectricity or thermoelectric effect. This effect
forms the basis of operation of thermocouples and some temperature based
transducers. This can be used to generate electricity, to measure temperature and to
measure change is temperature of objects.

Magnetic Properties
Origin of magnetism lies in orbital and spin motions of electrons and how electrons
interact with one another. Magnetic properties of material are those which determine ability
of material for particular magnetic application.
● Permeability
It is a property of magnetic material which indicates how easily magnetic flux
is built up in material. It is determined by the ratio of magnetic flux density to
magnetizing force producing this magnetic flux density.
● Hysteresis
Magnetic Hysteresis is an important material by which it first becomes
magnetized and then demagnetized. Lack of retrace ability of magnetization curve is
called hysteresis and is related to existence of magnetic domains in material.
Magnetic hysteresis is the rising temperature at which a given material ceases to be
ferromagnetic, or falling temperature at which it becomes magnetic.
 ● Coercive Force
This force is defined as magnetizing force which is essential to neutralize
complete magnetism in an electromagnet after the value of magnetizing force
becomes zero. Due to retentivity of material, even after removal of external magnetic
fields some magnetization exists in material. This magnetism is called residual
magnetism of material. To remove this residual magnetization, we have to apply
some external magnetic field in the opposite direction. This external magnetic motive
force (ATs) required to overcome the residual magnetism is called “coercive force” of
material.
● Reluctance
It is a property of magnetic material which resists the buildup of magnetic flux
in material. It is denoted by R.

Thermal Properties
Thermal properties of engineering materials are diverse and so their uses in different
applications. Thermal properties are those properties of material which is related to its
conductivity of heat. In other words, these are properties which are displayed by material
when heat is passed through it. Thermal properties of material refer to characteristic
behaviors of material under thermal load.
● Thermal Capacity of Building Materials
Thermal capacity is the property of a material to absorb heat and it is required
to design proper ventilation. It influences the thermal stability of walls. It is expressed
in J/N o​​ C and it is calculated by the below formula.
Thermal capacity, T = [H/(M(T​2​ – T​1​))]
Where H = quantity of heat required to increase the temperature from T1 to T2
T​1 =
​ Initial temperature

T​2​ = Final temperature

M = Mass of material in N.
● Thermal Conductivity
The amount of heat transferred through the unit area of specimens with unit
thickness in unit time is termed as thermal conductivity. It is measured in kelvins. It
depends on material structure, porosity, density and moisture content. High porous
materials, moist materials have more thermal conductivity.
● Thermal Resistivity
It is the ability to resist heat conduction. And it is the reciprocal of thermal
conductivity. When it is multiplied by thickness of material it gives thermal resistance.
Thermal resistivity of soil varies from 30 to 500 0C-cm/W.
 ● Specific Heat
Specific heat is the quantity of heat required to heat 1 N of material by 1oC.
Specific heat is useful when we use the material in high temperature areas. Specific
heat values of some engineering materials are given below.

Optical Properties
The optical property of a material is defined as its interaction with electro-magnetic
radiation in the visible or simply the definition of how materials interact with light. Several
processes such as reflection, refraction, absorption, and transmission happens when light
falls on a material. The knowledge on optical properties can be applied in different fields
such as in the building industry for thermal insulation, transport infrastructure for the
emissivity of roads which is necessary to determine road surface temperature and in
photovoltaic for solar panels. Thus, the knowledge on the optical properties of materials is
really helpful in engineering.

● Absorption
When a light beam is striked on a material surface, a portion of the incident
beam that is not reflected by the material is either absorbed or transmitted through
the material. The fraction of beam that is absorbed is related to the thickness of the
materials and the manner in which the photons interact with the material’s structure
(Bouguer’s law).
● Reflection
Reflectivity is defined as the fraction of light reflected at an interface. The high
reflectivity of metals is one reason that they are opaque. This high reflectivity is
 desired in many applications including mirrors, coatings on glasses, etc. Moreover,
metals are known for having high reflectivity, which explains their shiny appearance.
● Transmission
The fraction of beam that is not reflected or absorbed is transmitted through
the material. The fraction of light that is transmitted through a transparent material
depends on the losses incurred by absorption and reflection. Thus,
​ +A+T=1
R
where R = reflectivity
A = absorptivity
T = transitivity
When light waves are transmitted, they continue through the material. Air,
glass and water are common materials that are very good at transmitting light. They
are transparent because light is transmitted with very little absorption.
● Refraction
When light photons are transmitted through a material, they cause
polarization of the electrons in the material and by interacting with the polarized
materials, photons lose some of their energy. As a result of this, the speed of light is
reduced and the beam of light changes direction. In simpler terms, refraction is the
bending of light as it passes from one transparent substance into another. One of the
applications of refraction related to construction is the one used in peepholes of
house doors and other magnifications.
Materials are classified on the basis of their interaction with visible light into three categories.
● Materials that are capable of transmitting light with relatively little absorption and
reflection are called transparent materials in which we can see through them.
● Translucent materials are those through which light is transmitted diffusely. With this,
objects are not clearly distinguishable when viewed through.
● Those materials that are impervious to the transmission of visible light are termed as
opaque materials. These materials absorb all the energy from the light photons.

Technological Properties
The properties of construction materials which have a bearing on their processing or
application are called technological properties. Here are some of the significant technological
properties of materials.
● Castability
The ease with which a metal can be cast
into form is known as castability of the metal.
This is tested through the process of Casting in
which a liquid material is usually poured into a
mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the
desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The
solidified part is also known as a casting, which
 is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Castability is based on
factors like solidification rate, gas porosity, segregation, and shrinkage.
● Machinability
It is defined as the ease with which a
given material can be cut permitting the removal
of material with a satisfactory finish at lower cost.
It is used to signify how well a material takes a
good finish. It may also be called finish
ability.​Good machinability is associated with high
cutting speed, low power consumption, and good
surface finish. An example of a material with excellent machinability are aluminum
alloys.
● Weldability
It is defined as the capacity of a metal to be
welded under the fabrication conditions imposed in a
specific suitably designed structure and to perform
satisfactorily in the intended service. Welding is a
fabrication process that joins materials, usually metals
or thermoplastics, by using high heat to melt the parts
together and allowing them to cool, causing fusion.
The real criteria in deciding on the weldability of a metal is the weld quality and the
ease with which it can be obtained.
● Formability
Formability is the ability of metals to form into
different shapes. The various factors which govern to
a large extent, the flow ability or ductility of the
material are metal structure, grain size, hot and cold
working, alloying elements and softening heat
treatments.
● Workability
T​his refers to the material’s capability of being
put into effective operation, practicable or feasible. Its
capability of being worked, dealt with, or handled. An
example is the workability of concrete. A workable
concrete is defined as a concrete that can be readily
placed and homogeneously compacted without having
any sort of bleeding or segregation.
 REFERENCES
Anupoju, S. (2016). ​Properties of Building Materials and their Importance in Construction.​
Retrieved February 8, 2021 from
https://theconstructor.org/building/properties-of-building-materials-construction/1489
1/#Electrical_Properties_of_Building_Materials
Ayesha, M. (n.d). ​Properties of Engineering Materials: Optical and Thermal.​ Retrieved
February 5, 2021 from
https://www.engineeringenotes.com/engineering/materials-engineering/properties-of
-engineering-materials-optical-and-thermal/34408
Electrical4U. (2020, October 25). ​Magnetic Properties of Engineering Materials.​ Retrieved
February 8, 2021 from
https://www.electrical4u.com/magnetic-properties-of-engineering-materials/
​ etrieved
Electrical4U. (2020, October 26). ​Chemical Properties of Engineering Materials. R
February 8, 2021 from
https://www.electrical4u.com/chemical-properties-of-materials/
​ etrieved
Electronics Notes. (n.d). ​Electrical Resistivity Table for Common Materials. R
February 8, 2021 from
https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/basic_concepts/resistance/electrical-resi
stivity-table-materials.php
Iqbal, S. (2019, August 20). ​Workability of Concrete – Definition – Factors affecting.
Retrieved February 5, 2021 from https://definecivil.com/workability-of-concrete/
Madhav University. (2018). ​Types of Properties of Engineering Materials. ​Retrieved
February 8, 2021 from
https://madhavuniversity.edu.in/types-of-properties-of-engg-materials.html
NPTEL. (n.d.). ​Optical Properties​. Retrieved February 5, 2021 from
https://nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/courses/112108150/pdf/PPTs/MTS_17_m.pdf
NTC-TTp. (n.d.). ​Applications of optical properties. ​Retrieved February 8, 2021 from
https://ttp.zcu.cz/en/laboratories/optical-properties/applications
Roshni. (n.d.). ​Technological Properties of Metals | Metallurgy.​ Retrieved February 5, 2021
from
https://www.engineeringenotes.com/metallurgy/technological-properties/technologic
al-properties-of-metals-metallurgy/41626
Susmita, B. (n.d.). ​Properties of Engineering Materials: General, Physical and Mechanical.​
Retrieved February 5, 2021 from
https://www.engineeringenotes.com/engineering/engineering-materials/properties-of
-engineering-materials-general-physical-and-mechanical/46255
Terra Universal. (n.d.). ​Chemical Compatibility Chart — Metals​. Retrieved February 8, 2021
from https://www.terrauniversal.com/blog/chemical-compatibility-chart-metals/
 CEMENT

GROUP 3

ARELLANO, NICOLE ANN

BACQUIAN, BJORN REU

BRIONES, MARK ELEAZAR

HERNANDEZ, MARK JESSER B.

MAPACPAC, AXZEL MAE

INTRODUCTION

Cement is one of the most important building materials. It is a binding agent that sets and
hardens to adhere to building units such as stones, bricks, tiles, etc. Cement generally refers to a
very fine powdery substance chiefly made up of limestone (calcium), sand or clay (silicon),
bauxite (aluminum) and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast furnace
slag, slate.

Because it is a major component of building materials, cement is an extremely important

construction material. It is used in the production of the many structures that make up the
modern world including buildings, bridges, harbours, runways and roads. It is also used for
facades and other decorative features on buildings. The constant demand for all of these
structures, increasingly from the developing world, means that cement is the second most
consumed commodity in the world after water.

Cements are dry powders and should not be confused with concretes or mortars, but they
are an important constituent of both of these materials, in which they act as the 'glue' that gives
strength to structures. Mortar is a mixture of cement and sand whereas concrete also includes
rough aggregates.

FUNCTIONS AND APPLICATIONS

Some of the numerous functions of cement are given below.

o These are usually the basic ingredient in making concrete, which is a construction
material used as a load-bearing element. Portland cement is suitable for wet climates and
can be used underwater.
o It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.
o It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.
o It is used for water tightness of structure.
o It is used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, stairs, pillars
etc.
o It is used where a hard surface is required for the protection of exposed surfaces of
structures against the destructive agents of the weather and certain organic or inorganic
chemicals.
o It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts etc.
o It is used in the construction of important engineering structures such as bridges, culverts,
dams, tunnels, lighthouses etc.
o It is used in the preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths etc.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

 Fineness of Cement

The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required fineness of good cement is
achieved through grinding the clinker in the last step of cement production process. As hydration
rate of cement is directly related to the cement particle size, fineness of cement is very important.

 Soundness of Cement

Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Good quality cement
retains its volume after setting without delayed expansion, which is caused by excessive free
lime and magnesia.

 Consistency of Cement

The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.

 Strength of Cement

Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile and flexural. Various
factors affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio, curing
conditions, size and shape of a specimen, the manner of molding and mixing, loading conditions
and age. While testing the strength, the following should be considered:

 Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary depending on
multiple factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water ratio, chemical content, and
admixtures. Cement used in construction should have an initial setting time that is not too low
and a final setting time not too high.

 Heat of Hydration

When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration. Hydration
generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be beneficial in maintaining
curing temperature during cold weather. On the other hand, when heat generation is high,
especially in large structures, it may cause undesired stress.

 Loss of Ignition

Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is, until a constant weight is obtained) causes
weight loss. This loss of weight upon heating is calculated as loss of ignition. Improper and
prolonged storage or adulteration during transport or transfer may lead to pre-hydration and
carbonation, both of which might be indicated by increased loss of ignition.
  Bulk density

When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where there would normally be
air. Because of that, the bulk density of cement is not very important. Cement has a varying
range of density depending on the cement composition percentage. The density of cement may
be anywhere from 62 to 78 pounds per cubic foot.

 Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations. Portland cement has
a specific gravity of 3.15, but other types of cement (for example, portland-blast-furnace-slag
and portland-pozzolan cement) may have specific gravities of about 2.90.

COMPOSITION OF CEMENT
There are eight major ingredients of cement. The following image is showing the
ingredients of cement:
The general percentage of these ingredients in cement is given below:

Ingredient Percentage in cement

Lime 60-65
Silica 17-25
Alumina 3-8
Magnesia 1-3
Iron oxide 0.5-6
Calcium Sulfate 0.1-0.5
Sulfur Trioxide 1-3
Alkaline 0-1

Functions of Cement Ingredients

The main features of these cement ingredients along with their functions and usefulness or
harmfulness are given below:

1. Lime: Lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide.

o The presence of lime in a sufficient quantity is required to form silicates and

aluminates of calcium.
o Deficiency in lime reduces the strength of property to the cement.
o Deficiency in lime causes the cement to set quickly.
o Excess lime makes cement unsound.
o The excessive presence of lime causes the cement to expand and disintegrate.

2. Silica: Silicon dioxide is known as silica, chemical formula SiO2.

o The sufficient quantity of silica should be present in cement to dicalcium and
tricalcium silicate.
o Silica imparts strength to cement.
o Silica usually presents to the extent of about 30 percent cement.

3. Alumina: Alumina is Aluminium oxide. The chemical formula is Al2O3.

o Alumina imparts quick setting property to the cement.
o Clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of the requisite quantity of
alumina.
o Excess alumina weakens the cement.
 4. Magnesia: Magnesium Oxide. The chemical formula is MgO.
o Magnesia should not be present more than 2% in cement.
o Excess magnesia will reduce the strength of the cement.

5. Iron oxide: Chemical formula is Fe2O3.

o Iron oxide imparts color to cement.
o It acts as a flux.
o At a very high temperature, it imparts into the chemical reaction with calcium and
aluminum to form tricalcium alumino-ferrite.
o Tricalcium alumino-ferrite imparts hardness and strength to cement.

6. Calcium Sulfate: Chemical formula is CaSO4

o This is present in cement in the form of gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O)
o It slows down or retards the setting action of cement.

7. Sulfur Trioxide: Chemical formula is SO3

o It should not be present for more than 2%.
o Excess Sulfur Trioxide causes the cement to unsound.

8. Alkaline:

o It should not be present more than 1%.

o Excess Alkaline matter causes efflorescence.

PROCESS OF MAKING CEMENT

Stage of Cement Manufacture

There are six main stages of cement manufacturing process.
Stage 1
Raw Material Extraction/Quarry
The raw cement ingredients needed for cement production are limestone (calcium), sand
and clay (silicon, aluminum, iron), shale, fly ash, mill scale and bauxite. The ore rocks are
quarried and crushed to smaller pieces of about 6 inches. Secondary crushers or hammer mills
then reduce them to even smaller size of 3 inches. After that, the ingredients are prepared for
pyroprocessing.
Stage 2
Grinding, Proportioning and Blending
The crushed raw ingredients are made ready for the cement making process in the kiln
by combining them with additives and grinding them to ensure a fine homogenous mixture.
The composition of cement is proportioned here depending on the desired properties of the
cement. Generally, limestone is 80% and remaining 20% is the clay. In the cement plant, the raw
mix is dried (moisture content reduced to less than 1%); heavy wheel type rollers and rotating
tables blend the raw mix and then the roller crushes it to a fine powder to be stored in silos and
fed to the kiln.

Stage 3
Pre-Heating Raw Material
A pre-heating chamber consists of a series of cyclones that utilizes the hot gases
produced from the kiln in order to reduce energy consumption and make the cement making
process more environment-friendly. The raw materials are passed through here and turned into
oxides to be burned in the kiln.

Stage 4
Kiln Phase
The kiln phase is the principal stage of the cement production process. Here, clinker is
produced from the raw mix through a series of chemical reactions between calcium and silicon
dioxide compounds.
The kiln is angled by 3 degrees to the horizontal to allow the material to pass through it, over
a period of 20 to 30 minutes. By the time the raw-mix reaches the lower part of the kiln, clinker
forms and comes out of the kiln in marble-sized nodules.

Stage 5
Cooling and final grinding
After exiting the kiln, the clinker is rapidly cooled down from 2000°C to 100°C-200°C
by passing air over it. At this stage, different additives are combined with the clinker to be
ground in order to produce the final product, cement. Gypsum, added to and ground with clinker,
regulates the setting time and gives the most important property of cement, compressive strength.
It also prevents agglomeration and coating of the powder at the surface of balls and mill wall.
Some organic substances, such as Triethanolamine, are added as grinding aids to avoid powder
agglomeration. Other additives sometimes used are ethylene glycol, oleic acid and dodecyl-
benzene sulphonate.
The heat produced by the clinker is circulated back to the kiln to save energy. The last
stage of making cement is the final grinding process. In the cement plant, there are rotating
drums fitted with steel balls. Clinker, after being cooled, is transferred to these rotating drums
and ground into such a fine powder that each pound of it contains 150 billion grains. This
powder is the final product, cement.

Stage 6
Packing and Shipping
Cement is conveyed from grinding mills to silos (large storage tanks) where it is packed
in 20-40 kg bags. Most of the product is shipped in bulk quantities by trucks, trains or ships, and
only a small amount is packed for customers who need small quantities.

Classification of Cement
 RAPID-HARDENING CEMENT (RHC)
RHC has increased the lime content compared to the Portland cement (PC). Purpose of
having high lime content is to attain high strength in early days. It is used in concrete when
formwork is to be removed early.
 QUICK-SETTING CEMENT (QSC)
QSC is produced by adding a small percentage of aluminium sulphate as an accelerator and
reducing the amount of gypsum used with fine grinding. This cement is used when the work is to
be completed very quickly as in static and running waters.
 LOW-HEAT CEMENT (LHC)
LHC has compressive strength to heat of the hydration ratio of at least 7 at the age of 13
weeks. Alumina is a hydratable material and reduced alumina gives reduced hydration to
produce less heat of hydration. This is important in the construction of large structures to avoid
possible thermal cracking during concrete setting .
 SULPHATE-RESISTING PORTLAND CEMENT (SPRC)
Sprc is a special purpose cement used where sulfates are present in concentrations. Sulfate
resistance is achieved by adjustments to chemical composition to limit c3a.
 BLAST FURNACE SLAG CEMENT (BFSC)
BFSC is prepared by grinding the clinkers with ∼60% slag. BFSC resembles properties of
the Portland cement and is used for works in which economic considerations are predominant.
 HIGH-ALUMINA CEMENT (HAC)
It contains high alumina content, it is rapid-hardening cement with initial and final setting
times of about 3.5 h and 5 h, respectively . HAC is used in works where concrete is subjected to
high temperatures, frost, and acidic conditions.
 WHITE CEMENT (WC)
White Portland cement or white ordinary Portland cement (WOPC) is similar to ordinary,
grey Portland cement in all aspects except for its high degree of whiteness. Obtaining this color
requires substantial modification to the method of manufacture, and because of this, it is
somewhat more expensive than the grey product. White Portland cement is used in combination
with white aggregates to produce white concrete for prestige construction projects and decorative
work.
 COLOURED CEMENT (CC)
Contrary to WC, CC is prepared by deliberately adding mineral pigments to cement. CCs are
widely used in decorative works on floors. Iron oxides are used to get red, yellow, and black base
colours, and several mixed colours such as browns-terracotta-tuscany-sepia-beach. Standard
green and blue pigments are chrome oxide and cobalt aluminium oxide, respectively.
 POZZOLANIC CEMENT (PzC)
PzC is prepared by grinding the pozzolanic clinker with the Portland cement [24]. It is used
in marine structures, sewage works, and for laying concrete under water such as in bridges, piers,
and dams.
 AIR-ENTRAINING CEMENT (AEC)
AEC is produced by adding air-entraining agents that are surfactants such as alkali salts of
wood resins, synthetic detergents of the alkyl-aryl sulphonate type, calcium lignosulphate
derived from the sulphite process in paper making, and calcium salts of glues and other proteins
obtained in the treatment of animal hides, animal and vegetable fats, oil and their acids, wetting
agents, aluminium powder, and hydrogen peroxide, during the grinding of the clinker.

Physical Test
Fineness test on cement
The fineness of cement is responsible for the rate of hydration, rate of evolution of heat and
the rate of gain of strength. Finer the grains more is the surface area and faster the development
of strength.
The fineness of cement can be determined by Sieve Test or Air Permeability test.
o Sieve Test: Air-set lumps are broken, and the cement is sieved continuously in a
circular and vertical motion for a period of 15 minutes. The residue left on the
sieve is weighed, and it should not exceed 10% for ordinary cement. This test is
rarely used for fineness.
o Air Permeability Test: Blaine's Air Permeability Test is used to find the specific
surface, which is expressed as the total surface area in sq.cm/g. of cement. The
surface area is more for finer particles.
Consistency test on cement
This test is conducted to find the setting times of cement using a standard consistency test
apparatus, Vicat's apparatus.
Standard consistency of cement paste is defined as that water content which will permit a
Vicat plunger of 10 mm diameter and 50 mm length to penetrate depths of 33-35 mm within 3-5
minutes of mixing.
The test has to undergo three times, each time the cement is mixed with water varying
from 24 to 27% of the weight of cement.
This test should be conducted at a constant temperature of 25°C or 29°C and at a constant
humidity of 20%.

Setting Time of cement

Vicat's apparatus is used to find the setting times of cement i.e., initial setting time and final
setting time.
 Initial Setting Time: For this test, a needle of 1 mm square size is used. The needle is
allowed to penetrate into the paste (a mixture of water and cement as per the consistency
test). The time taken to penetrate 33-35 mm depth is recorded as the initial setting time.
 Final Setting Time: After the paste has attained hardness, the needle does not penetrate
the paste more than 0.5 mm. The time at which the needle does not penetrate more than
0.5 mm is taken as the final setting time.

Strength test of cement

The strength of cement cannot be defined directly on the cement. Instead the strength of
cement is indirectly defined on cement-mortar of 1:3. The compressive strength of this mortar is
the strength of cement at a specific period.

Soundness test of cement

This test is conducted in Le Chatelier's apparatus to detect the presence of uncombined lime
and magnesia in cement.

Heat of Hydration Test

During the hydration of cement, heat is produced due to chemical reactions. This heat may
raise the temperature of concrete to a high temperature of 50°C. To avoid these, in large scale
constructions low-heat cement has to be used.
 This test is carried out using a calorimeter adopting the principle of determining heat
gain. It is concluded that Low-heat cement should not generate 65 calories per gram of cement in
7 days and 75 calories per gram of cement in 28 days.

Tensile Strength of Cement

This test is carried out using a cement-mortar briquette in a tensile testing machine. A 1:3
cement-sand mortar with the water content of 8% is mixed and moulded into a briquette in the
mould.
This mixture is cured for 24 hours at a temperature of 25°C or 29°C and in an atmosphere
at 90% relative humidity.
The average strength for six briquettes tested after 3 and 7 days is recorded.

Chemical Composition Test

Different tests are conducted to determine the amount of various constituents of cement.

 Field Tests of Cement

The following tests should undergo before mixing the cement at construction sites:

 Colour Test of Cement

The colour of the cement should not be uneven. It should be a uniform grey colour with a
light greenish shade.

 Presence of Lumps
The cement should not contain any hard lumps. These lumps are formed by the absorption of
moisture content from the atmosphere. The cement bags with lumps should be avoided in
construction.

 Cement Adulteration Test

The cement should be smooth if you rubbed it between fingers. If not, then it is because of
adulteration with sand.
  Float Test
The particles of cement should flow freely in water for some time before it sinks.

 Date of Manufacturing
It is very important to check the manufacturing date because the strength of cement decreases
with time. It's better to use cement before 3 months from the date of manufacturing.
[Type text]

REFERENCES:

https://www.buildersmart.in/blogs/tests-on-cement

https://civiltoday.com/civil-engineering-materials/cement/10-cement-ingredients-with-functions

https://www.cement.org/cement-concrete/how-cement-is-
made#:~:text=Cement%20is%20manufactured%20through%20a,silica%20sand%2C%20and%2
0iron%20ore.

https://www.engr.psu.edu/ce/courses/ce584/concrete/library/construction/curing/composition%2
0of%20cement.htm
 Preparation and Curing of Concrete Test Specimen
Group 4
Catapia, Jovi Ann E.
Dalisay, Aljon Ray P.
Delag, Louise Lane R.
Recio, Shaira Anne D.
Salazar, Jane Belle Ann M

What is Concrete?
Concrete is the most used man-made material on earth. It is an important construction material
used extensively in buildings, bridges, roads, and dams. Its uses range from structural applications, to
pavements, curbs, pipes, and drains. It is a composite material consists mainly of Portland cement,
water, and aggregate (gravel, sand, or rock). When these materials are mixed, they form a workable
paste which then gradually hardens over time.
Many structures have concrete as their principal structural material, either in a plain, mass form,
as for example in gravity dams, but more often as a composite with steel, which is used to compensate
for concrete’s low tensile strength thus giving either reinforced or pre-stressed concrete. However, even
in those structures where other materials such as steel or timber form the principal structural elements,
concrete will normally still have an important role, for example in the foundations. Because of this,
concrete has been described as the essential construction material.
History of Concrete
As early as 6500BC, concrete has been used in structural works. The earliest recordings of
concrete structures date back to 6500BC by the Nabataea traders in regions of Syria and Jordan. They
created concrete floors, housing structures, and underground cisterns. In 3000 BC, Egyptians used mud
mixed with straw to bind dried bricks. The Great Pyramids at Giza used about 500,000 tons of mortar. A
form of cement was also used to build the Great Wall of China around this time. During 600 BC, Ancient
Romans were the first to utilize the concrete material widespread. By 200 BC, the Romans successfully
implemented the use of concrete in the majority of their construction. They used a mixture of volcanic
ash, lime, and seawater to form the mix. They then packed the mix into wooden forms, and once
hardened, stacked the blocks like brick. After more than 2,000 years, Roman concrete structures stand
tall due to their ingredients colliding with Earth’s natural chemistry. The ancient Romans used a material
that is remarkably close to modern cement to build many of their architectural marvels, such as the
Colosseum, and the Pantheon.
During the Middle Ages, concrete technology crept backward. After the fall of the Roman
Empire in 476 AD, the technique for making pozzolan cement was lost until the discovery of manuscripts
describing it was found in 1414. In 1793, the technology took a big leap forward when John Smeaton
discovered a more modern method for producing hydraulic lime for cement. He used limestone
containing clay that was fired until it turned into clinker, which was then ground into powder. He used
this material in the historic rebuilding of the Eddystone Lighthouse in Cornwall, England. In 1824, Joseph
Aspdin invented Portland cement by burning finely ground chalk and clay until the carbon dioxide was
removed. Aspdin named the cement after the high-quality building stones quarried in Portland, England.
Alvord Lake Bridge, the first reinforced concrete bridge, was built in 1889 in San Francisco, CA. This
bridge still exists today, over one hundred years after it was built. In 1891, the first concrete street in
American was built in Bellefontaine, Ohio. Today, pervious concrete is being advocated as the best, and
most environmentally friendly, surface for streets. The first concrete high rise was built in Cincinnati,
Ohio, in 1903. The Ingalls Building, as it is called, has sixteen stories, making it one of the great
engineering feats of its time. In 1908, Thomas Edison designed and built the first concrete homes in
Union, New Jersey. These homes still exist today. The first load of ready mix was delivered in Baltimore,
Maryland in 1913. The idea that concrete could be mixed at a central plant, then delivered by truck to
the job site for placement, revolutionized the concrete industry. During the 1970s, Fiber Reinforcement
Fiber reinforcement was introduced as a way to strengthen concrete. In 1999, Polished Concrete, HTC,
originally a Swedish company, introduced concrete polishing to the United States. The first installation in
the US was a 40,000-square-foot warehouse floor for the Bellagio in Las Vegas. The popularity of
polished concrete has soared in just the few short years it has been around, it is now being used in retail
locations and even residential homes. As of today, Concrete has become the most widely used material
in construction.
Uses of Concrete
1. As bed concrete below column footings, wall footings, on wall at supports to beams
2. as sill concrete
3. over the parapet walls as coping concrete
4. for flagging the area around buildings
5. for pavements
6. for making building blocks.
However major use of concrete is as a major ingredient of reinforced and prestressed concrete.
Many structural elements like footings, columns, beams, chejjas, lintels, roofs are made with
R.C.C. Cement concrete is used for making storage structures like water tanks, bins, silos, bunkers etc.
Bridges, dams, retaining walls are R.C.C. structures in which concrete is the major ingredient.
Types of Concrete: Properties and Uses
1. Reinforced Cement Concrete (R.C.C.)
Concrete is good in resisting compression but is very weak in resisting tension. Hence reinforcement is
provided in the concrete wherever tensile stress is expected. The best reinforcement is steel, since
tensile strength of steel is quite high and the bond between steel and concrete is good. As the elastic
modulus of steel is high, for the same extension the force resisted by steel is high compared to concrete.
However, in tensile zone, hair cracks in concrete are unavoidable. Reinforcements are usually in the
form of mild steel or ribbed steel bars of 6 mm to 32 mm diameter. A cage of reinforcements is
prepared as per the design requirements, kept in a form work and then green concrete is poured. After
the concrete hardens, the form work is removed. The composite material of steel and concrete now
called R.C.C. acts as a structural member and can resist tensile as well as compressive stresses very well.
Properties:
a. It should be capable of resisting expected tensile, compressive, bending and shear forces.
b. It should not show excessive deflection and spoil serviceability requirement.
c. There should be proper cover to the reinforcement, so that the corrosion is prevented.
d. The hair cracks developed should be within the permissible limit.
e. It is a good fire-resistant material.
f. When it is fresh, it can be molded to any desired shape and size.
g. Durability is very good.
h. R.C.C. structure can be designed to take any load.
Uses:
a. R.C.C. is used as a structural element such as the common structural elements in a building
(footings, beams, columns, slabs)
b. R.C.C. is used for the construction of storage structures (water tanks, bins, dams, silos and bunkers)
c. Used for the construction of big structures (bridges, retaining walls, docks and harbors, under water
structures)
d. Used for pre-casting (railway sleepers, electric poles)
e. R.C.C. is used for constructing tall structures (multistorey buildings, towers, chimneys)
f. Used for paving (roads, airports)
g. R.C.C. is used in building atomic plants to prevent danger of radiation. For this purpose, R.C.C. walls
built are 1.5 m to 2.0 m thick.
2. Reinforced Brick Concrete (RBC)
It is the combination of reinforcement, brick and concrete. It is well known fact that concrete is very
weak in tension. Hence in the slabs, lintels and beams the concrete in the portion below the neutral axis
do not participate in resisting the load. It acts as a filler material only. Hence to achieve economy the
concrete in tensile zone may be replaced by bricks or tiles. Dense cement mortar is used to embed the
reinforcement. The reinforcement may be steel bars, expanded mesh etc.
3. Prestressed Concrete (PSC)
Strength of concrete in tension is very low and hence it is ignored in R.C.C. design. Concrete in tension is
acting as a cover to steel and helping to keep steel at desired distance. Thus in R.C.C. lot of concrete is
not properly utilized. Prestressing the concrete is one of the methods of utilizing entire concrete. The
principle of prestressed concrete is to introduce calculated compressive stresses in the zones wherever
ensile stresses are expected in the concrete structural elements. When such structural element is used
stresses developed due to loading has to first nullify these compressive stresses before introducing
tensile stress in concrete. Thus, in prestressed concrete entire concrete is utilized to resist the load.
Another important advantage of PSC is hair cracks are avoided in the concrete and hence durability is
high. The fatigue strength of PSC is also more. The deflections of PSC beam is much less and hence can
be used for longer spans also. PSC is commonly used in the construction of bridges, large column free
slabs and roofs. PSC sleepers and electric piles are commonly used. The material used in PSC is high
tensile steel and high strength steel. The tensioning of wires may be by pre tensioning or by post
tensioning. Pre tensioning consists in stretching the wires before concreting and then releasing the
wires. In case of post tensioning, the ducts are made in concrete elements. After concrete of hardens,
prestressing wires are passed through ducts. After stretching wires, they are anchored to concrete
elements by special anchors.
Properties:
a. It has lighter members who give saving in the materials.
b. These members are economical than R.C.C. Members.
c. It possesses improved resistance to shearing forces.
d. The Prestressed Concretes members are stiffer than R.C.C. members.
Uses:
a. It has lighter members who give saving in the materials.
b. These members are economical than R.C.C. Members.
c. It possesses improved resistance to shearing forces.
d. The Prestressed Concretes members are stiffer than R.C.C. members.
4. Fiber – Reinforced Concrete (FRC)
Plain concrete possesses deficiencies like low tensile strength, limited ductility and low
resistance to cracking. The cracks develop even before loading. After loading micro cracks widen and
propagate, exposing concrete to atmospheric actions. If closely spaced and uniformly dispersed fibers
are provided while mixing concrete, cracks are arrested, and static and dynamic properties are
improved. Fiber reinforced concrete can be defined as a composite material of concrete or mortar with
discontinuous and uniformly distributed fibers. Commonly used fibers are of steel, nylon, asbestos, coir,
glass, carbon and polypropylene. The length to lateral dimension of fibers ranges from 30 to 150. The
diameter of fibers vary from 0.25 to 0.75 mm. Fiber reinforced concrete is having better tensile strength,
ductility and resistance to cracking.
Properties:
a. The volume of Fibers – When an increase in the volume of fibers increases approximately linearly
with tensile strength and toughness of the composite.
b. The orientation of Fibers – The fibers aligned parallel to the applied load offered more tensile
strength and toughness than randomly distributed or perpendicular fibers.
c. Workability and Compaction of Concrete – Poor workability if fibers are nonuniform distribute.
d. Size of Coarse Aggregate – Should not be greater than 10 mm to avoid an appreciable reduction in
strength of the composite.
e. Mixing (Fiber Reinforcement Concrete) – It is important that the fibers should disperse uniformly
throughout the mix.
Uses:
a. For wearing coat of airfields, roads and refractory linings.
b. For manufacturing precast products like pipes, stairs, wall panels, manhole covers and boats.
c. Glass fiber reinforced concrete is used for manufacturing doors and window frames, park benches,
bus shelters etc.
d. Carbon FRC is suitable for structures like cladding and shells.
e. Asbestos FRC sheets are commonly used as roofing materials.
5. Cellular Concrete
It is a lightweight concrete produced by introducing large voids in the concrete or mortar. Its density
varies from 3 kN/m3 to 8 kN/m3 whereas plain concrete density is 24 kN/m3. It is also known as
aerated, foamed or gas concrete.
Properties
a. It has low weight.
b. It has good fire resistance.
c. It has good thermal insulation property.
d. Thermal expansion is negligible.
e. Freezing and thawing problems are absent.
f. Sound absorption is good.
g. It has less tendency to spall.
Uses
a. It is used for the construction of partition walls.
b. It is used for partitions for heat insulation purposes.
c. It is used for the construction of hollow filled floors.
6. Ferro-Cement
The term ferro-cement implies the combination of ferrous product with cement. Generally, this
combination is in the form of steel wires meshes embedded in a Portland cement mortar. Wire mesh is
usually of 0.8 to 1.00 m diameter steel wires at 5 mm to 50 mm spacing and the cement mortar is of
cement sand ratio of 1:2 or 1:3. 6 mm diameter bars are also used at large spacing, preferably in the
corners. Sand may be replaced by baby jelly. The water cement ratio used is between 0.4 to 0.45. Ferro-
cement reinforcement is assembled into its final desired shape and plastered directly. There is no need
for form work. Minimum two layers of reinforcing steel meshes are required. According to American
Concrete Institute, “Ferro cement is a thin-walled reinforced concrete construction where usually a
hydraulic cement is reinforced with layers of continuous and relatively small diameter mesh. The mesh
used may be metallic or any other suitable material.” Ferro-cement is fast emerging as an alternate
material for timber. The history of ferro-cement goes back to 1843 (even before RCC). Joseph Louis
Lambet constructed several rowing boats, plant plots and garden seats using ferro-cement. In early
1940’s noted Italian engineer and architect Pier Luigi Nervi carried out scientific tests on ferro-cement
and used it to replace wood wherever possible. He built small tonnage vessels, the largest being 165
tons motor sailor. Nervi also pioneered the architectural use of ferro-cement in buildings. Ferro-cement
can be given the finish of teak wood, rose wood etc. and even for making tables, chairs and benches it
can be used.
Properties:
a. Its strength per unit mass is high.
b. It has the capacity to resist shock load.
c. It can be given attractive finish like that of teak and rose wood.
d. Ferro cement elements can be constructed without using form work.
e. It is impervious.
Uses:
a. Partition walls
b. Window frames, chajjas and drops
c. Shelf of cupboards
d. Door and window shutters
e. Domestic water tanks
f. Precast roof elements
g. Reapers and rafters required for supporting roof tiles.
h. Pipes
i. Silos
j. Furnitures
k. Manhole covers
l. Boats.
Desirable Properties of Concrete
Appropriate quality and quantity of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water should
be used so that the green concrete has the following properties:
(a) Desired workability
(b) No segregation in transporting and placing
(c) No bleeding and
(d) No harshness.
Hardened concrete should have:
(a) Required characteristic strength
(b) Minimum dimensional changes
(c) Good durability
(d) Impermeable
(e) Good resistance to wear and tear.
MAJOR INGREDIENTS OF CONRETE
Depending upon the proportion of ingredients, the strength of concrete varies. It is possible to
determine the proportion of the ingredients for a particular strength by a mixed design procedure.
In the absence of a mix design, the ingredients are proportioned as 1:1:2, 1:1 1 /2 :3, 1:2:4, 1:3:6, and
1:4:8, which is the ratio of the weight of cement to sand to coarse aggregate. In proportioning of
concrete, it is kept in mind that voids in coarse aggregates are filled with sand and the voids in the sand
are filled with cement paste.
The ingredients that are used are given below.
1. Cement is the binding material. After the addition of water, it hydrates, and binds aggregates and the
surrounding surfaces like stone and bricks. Generally richer mix (with more cement) gives more
strength. Setting time starts after 30 minutes and ends after 6 hours. Hence concrete should be laid in
its mold before 30 minutes of mixing of water and should not be subjected to any external forces till the
final setting takes place.
2. Coarse aggregate consists of crushed stones. It should be well graded, and the stones should be of
igneous origin. They should be clean, sharp, angular, and hard. They give mass to the concrete and
prevent shrinkage of cement.
3. Fine aggregate consists of river sand. It prevents the shrinkage of cement. When surrounded by
cement it gains mobility enters the voids in coarse aggregates and binding of ingredients takes place. It
adds density to concrete since it fills the voids. Denser the concrete higher is its strength.
4. Water used for making concrete should be clean. It activates the hydration of cement and forms a
plastic mass. As it sets completely concrete becomes a hard mass. Water gives workability to concrete
which means water makes it possible to mix the concrete with ease and place it in the final position. The
more the water better is the workability. However excess water reduces the strength of concrete.
A small number of admixtures like air-entraining agents, waterproofing agents, workability agents, etc.
may also be added to impart special properties to the plain concrete mixture.
Batching:
Batching is the process of measuring concrete mix ingredients by either mass or volume and introducing
them into the mixer. To produce concrete of uniform quality, the ingredients must be measured
accurately for each batch.
 Volume batching
o This method is generally adopted for small jobs. Gauge boxes are used for measuring the fine
and coarse aggregate. The volume of gauge box is equal to the volume of one bag of cement. Gauge
bow are also called as FARMAS. Bottomless gauge boxes are generally avoided. While filling the gauge
boxes the material should be filled loosely, no compaction is allowed.
 Weight batching
o Batching by weight is more preferable to volume batching, as it is more accurate and leads to
more uniform proportioning. It does not have uncertainties associated with bulking. Its equipment falls
into 3 general categories:
i. Manual
 In case of manual batching all weighing and batching of concrete are done manually. It is used
for small jobs.
ii. Semi-automatic
 In it, the aggregate bin gates are opened by manually operated switches and gates are closed
automatically when the material has been delivered.
 Contains interlock which prevents charging and discharging.
iii. Fully automatic.
 In it, the materials are electrically activated by a single switch and complete autographic record
are made of the weight of each material.
 The batching plant comprises 2,3,4 or 6 compartment bins of several capacities.
 Over the conveyer belt, the weigh batchers and discharging are provided below the bins.
Mixing:
The mixing should be ensured that the mass becomes homogeneous, uniform in color and consistency.
 Methods of Mixing:
1. Hands (using hand shovels) - Mixing by hands using ordinary tools like, hand shovels etc. This type of
mixing is done for less output of concrete.
2. Stationary Mixers - v Concrete is sometime mixed at jobsite in a stationary mixer having a size of 9
cubic meter. These mixers may be of: Tilting type and Non-Tilting type
3. Ready mix concrete - Concrete that is manufactured in a batch plant, according to a set engineered
mix design
Transporting
1. Mortar Pan: Concrete is carried in small Quantities
2. Wheelbarrows and Buggies: The capacity of wheelbarrows varies from 70 to 80 liters. Suitable for
concrete road construction where concrete is deposited at or below mixer level.
3. Belt Conveyors: Conveying concrete horizontally or higher/lower level.
4. Cranes and Buckets: Used for Work above ground level, Buckets use with Cranes, cableways, and
helicopters.
5. Pumps: Conveying concrete from central discharge point to formwork.
6. Transit Mixer: Used for transporting the concrete over long distance particularly in RMC plant.
Placing of Concrete
The process of depositing concrete in its required position is termed as placing. Concrete should be
placed in systematic manner to get optimum results.
• Placing concrete within earth mold
• Placing concrete in layers within timber or steel shutter
• Placing concrete within usual form work
• Placing Concrete Underwater
Compaction of concrete:
In the process of placing concrete, air is entrapped. The entrapped air reduces the strength of
concrete up to 30%. Hence it is necessary to remove this entrapped air. This is achieved by compacting
the concrete after placing it in its final position. Compaction can be carried out either by hand or with
the help of vibrators.
(a) Hand Compaction: In this method concrete is compacted by ramming, tamping, spading or
by slicing with tools. In intricate portions a pointed steel rod of 16 mm diameter and about a meter long
is used for poking the concrete.
(b) Compaction by Vibrators: Concrete can be compacted by using high frequency vibrators.
Vibration reduces the friction between the particles and set the motion of particles. As a result,
entrapped air is removed, and the concrete is compacted. The use of vibrators reduces the compaction
time. When vibrators are used for compaction, water cement ratio can be less, which also help in
improving the strength of concrete. Vibration should be stopped as soon as cement paste is seen on the
surface of concrete. Over vibration is not good for the concrete.
The following types of vibrators are commonly used in concreting:
(a) Needle or immersion vibrators
(b) Surface vibrators
(c) Form or shutter vibrators
(d) Vibrating tables.
Needle vibrators are used in concreting beams and columns. Surface vibrators and form vibrators
are useful in concreting slabs. Vibrating tables are useful in preparing precast concrete elements.
TESTS
Concrete slump test or slump cone test is to determine the workability or consistency of concrete mix
prepared at the laboratory or the construction site during the progress of the work. Concrete slump test
is carried out from batch to batch to check the uniform quality of concrete during construction
Compaction factor test is the workability test for concrete conducted in laboratory. The compaction
factor is the ratio of weights of partially compacted to fully compacted concrete. It was developed by
Road Research Laboratory in United Kingdom and is used to determine the workability of concrete. The
compaction factor test is used for concrete which have low workability for which slump test is not
suitable.
Compressive Strength Test of Concrete is considered as the most popular test performed on concrete in
construction as it gives a general idea on the all the characteristics of concrete. Based on this test, one
can either accept or reject a concrete work. Compressive strength as a concrete property depends on
several factors related to quality of used materials, mix design and quality control during concrete
production. Depending on the applied code, the test sample may be cylinder [15 cm x 30 cm is common]
or cube [15 cm x 15cm x 15 cm is the most common]. For example, as per ASTM C39, a standard test
method is given to get the compressive strength of concrete cylinders.
Curing
All concretes must be protected from moisture-loss from as soon after placing as possible and for the
first few days of hardening. Concrete hardens as a result of a chemical reaction called hydration
between cement and water, not because it dries. The hardening continues as long as moisture remains
in the concrete. If too much water is lost from the concrete through evaporation, the hardening process
slows down or ceases. Concrete also derives its strength as a result of the chemical reaction of the
mixed cement and water. Therefore, preventing moisture-loss in concretes is important because not
only will it reduce or eliminate cracking, but the prevention will also ensure that there is an adequate
supply of water for continued hydration and strength gain. Moisture-loss can be prevented through the
process called “curing”, which is an essential part of any successful concreting operation, although it is
often overlooked.
What is Curing?
Curing is the process of preventing the loss of moisture from the concrete whilst maintaining a
satisfactory temperature. Curing allows continuous hydration of cement, and consequently, continuous
gain in the strength. Once curing stops, strength gain of the concrete also stops. Curing is also a key
player in mitigating cracks in the concrete, which severely impacts durability. If the curing is neglected in
the early period of hydration, the quality of concrete will experience some irreparable loss. Concrete
that “dries” out will not reach its design strength or will not meet the necessary specifications. The
longer the cure, the better the concrete.
Importance of Curing
 Concrete Strength Gain
Concrete strength increase with age as moisture and a favorable temperature is present for hydration of
cement. Based on the experiment conducted by Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates Australia or CCAA, it
is evident that strength of concrete, if cured not at all, is only 40% against the concrete kept under
continuous curing.

 Improved Durability of Concrete

The durability of concrete is affected by a number of factors including its permeability, porosity and
absorptivity. Well-cured concrete can minimize thermal and drying shrinkage cracks, making concrete
more watertight, thereby increasing its durability.
 Enhanced Serviceability
Concrete that is allowed to dry out quickly undergoes considerable early age shrinkage. Inadequate
curing contributes to weak and dusty surfaces, having a poor abrasion resistance.
 Improved Microstructure
Material properties are directly related to their microstructure. Curing assists the cement hydration to
progress steadily and develops calcium silicate hydrate gel which binds the aggregates, leading to a rock-
solid mass. This makes the concrete denser, decreases the porosity, and enhances the physical and
mechanical properties of concrete.
When to Start Curing?
Start curing immediately after the concrete gets sufficient hardness to be able take the weight of a
person. Delayed curing will also reduce the concrete’s strength gain.
Duration of Curing
The duration of curing of concrete depends on:
 the grade and type of cement;
 mix proportion;
 designed concrete strength;
 shape and size of the concrete member; and
 environmental and exposure conditions.
The duration may vary from few days to months. In normal conditions, if Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC) is used, curing should be continued for at least seven (7) days. If mineral admixtures or blended
cements like Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) or slag cement is used, curing should be continued for at
least 10 days. If the concrete is exposed to dry and hot weather conditions, limits mentioned above may
be extended for 10 days and 14 days respectively. As a good practice, date of casting should be
mentioned on concrete surface, so that number of days of curing can be easily identified and
maintained.
Types of Curing
 Water Curing – prevents the moisture loss from the concrete surface by continuously wetting the
exposed surface of concrete.
This is the most common and most effective method of curing. It is done applying water over the
concrete surface to ensure that the concrete surface remains continuously moist. This prevents the
moisture from the body of concrete from evaporating.
Immersion - immersion curing is usually done during concrete testing when curing concrete test
specimens. It is done by submerging the concrete specimen to a water bath for a period of time.
Ponding - used to cure flat surfaces on jobs or controlled areas where water can be easily retained on
top of the concrete slab. Sand or earth dikes surround the slab and a layer of water is maintained on top
of the slab.
Spraying - an efficient method of supplying water to the concrete surface during hot weather, which
helps to reduce the temperature of concrete, eventually conserving moisture inside the body of
concrete. Of course, there is an interval and schedule for spraying.
Wet Covering - Curing concrete with wet covering is done after the concrete has hardened sufficiently
and the water covering will not damage concrete’s surface. A covering is usually sand, burlap, canvas or
straw that is kept continuously damp during the curing process.
 Membrane Curing – minimizes moisture loss from the concrete surface by covering it with an
impermeable membrane.
Sometimes, concrete works are carried out in places where there is acute shortage of water. The
quantity of water, normally mixed for making concrete is more than sufficient to hydrate the cement,
provided this water is not allowed to go out from the body of concrete.
Concrete could be covered with membrane which will effectively seal off the evaporation from concrete.
Plastic Sheeting – plastic sheets form an effective barrier to control moisture losses from the surface of
the concrete, provided they are secured in place and are protected from damage.
Membrane Curing Compounds – curing compounds are wax, acrylic, and water-based liquids which are
sprayed over the freshly-finished concrete to form an impermeable membrane. These are cost effective
methods of curing where standard curing procedures are difficult to adopt.
 Heat Curing – when concrete is subjected to higher temperature, it accelerates the hydration process
resulting in faster hardening and development of strength.
Though may seem rational at first, simply laying out the concrete and waiting for the sunlight to heat it
up without doing anything is actually improper. This is because concrete cannot be subjected to dry heat
like sunlight to accelerate the hydration process since presence of moisture is also essential in concrete.
Steam Curing – a process for accelerating the hydration and early hardening of concrete by exposing it
to steam and humidity.
Electrical Curing – concrete can be cured by passing alternating current of lower voltage and high
amperage through electrodes in form of plates covering the entire area.
Conclusion
Just as newborn baby when it comes into this world, it needs the utmost care for its development and
protection from this new environment. In a similar manner, a freshly placed concrete required proper
protection and care from the encapsulating and aggressive environment.
Cured Concrete = Quality Concrete
Curing requires adequate:
 Moisture
 Temperature
 Time
If any of these factors are neglected, the desired properties will not develop.