CE 406

Introduction to
Construction Materials
and Testing

Prepared By: Engr. Emmanuel Maala

What are construction
materials?

It is defined as the materials, supplies,

fixtures, or equipment, any combination
of such items, and any other leased or
purchased articles when the materials,
supplies, fixtures, equipment or articles
are to be utilized or consumed during
construction or are to be incorporated
into construction work pursuant to a
bonafide written construction contract.

Contoso Ltd.
2
3

Types of Common
Construction Materials

The following are listed on the next few

pages.
1. Steel
Steel is a metal alloy of iron and carbon and often other
alloying material in its composition to make it stronger and
more fracture-resistant than iron.

Contoso Ltd.
4
Add a footer
2. Aggregates
Construction aggregate is a broad category of particulate material
used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag,
recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are
the most mined materials in the world. They are divided into two
categories—fine aggregates and coarse aggregates.

Contoso Ltd.
5
Add a footer
3. Cement
Cement, in general, adhesive substances of all kinds, but,
in a narrower sense, the binding materials used in building
and civil engineering construction. Cements of this kind
are finely ground powders that, when mixed with water,
set to a hard mass.

Contoso Ltd.
6
Add a footer
4. Bitumen
A black viscous mixture of hydrocarbons obtained
naturally or as a residue from petroleum distillation. It is
used for road surfacing and roofing.

Contoso Ltd.
7
Add a footer
5. Concrete
Concrete is a composite material made of fine and coarse
aggregate (think gravel, crushed stone, recycled concrete,
and geosynthetic aggregates) bound together by a liquid
binder such as cement that hardens or cures over time.

Contoso Ltd.
8
Add a footer
6. Asphalt
Asphalt is a mixture of aggregates, binder and filler, used
for constructing and maintaining roads, parking areas,
railway tracks, ports, airport runways, bicycle lanes,
sidewalks and also play- and sport areas.

Contoso Ltd.
9
Add a footer
7. Masonry
Masonry construction uses individual units (such as bricks)
to build structures that are usually bound together by
some kind of mortar. The strongest and most commonly
used masonry unit now is a concrete block, which may be
reinforced with steel.

Contoso Ltd.
10
Add a footer
What is materials
testing?

Materials testing is a respected and

established technique which is used to
ascertain both the physical and
mechanical properties of raw materials
and components. It can be used to
examine almost anything from human hair
to steel, ceramics or composite materials.

Contoso Ltd.
11
Five major categories of materials testing

Testing for resistance

Mechanical Testing Testing for Thermal Testing for Electrical to corrosion, radiation Non-destructive
Properties Properties and biological testing
deterioration

Also known as destructive
testing, reveals the
properties of a material measure materials’ ability
under dynamic or static
force. Designed to ensure
that materials are suitable
for their intended
applications.
Testing for thermal Materials are subjected to Testing for breakdown or A testing and analysis
properties is used to electrical stresses under a deterioration of materials technique to evaluate the
variety of controlled under exposure to a properties of a material,
to transfer heat since it conditions, including liquid particular type of component, structure or
differs with each contaminants, dust and environment has greatly system for characteristic
substance and may fog, dry air electrical arc, increased in recent years. differences or welding
depend on structure, or high voltage dielectric defects and discontinuities
density, humidity, breakdown conditions. without causing damage
pressure and to the original part.
temperature.
Contoso Ltd.
12
Add a footer
Tests carried out on different construction materials
Aggregates
a. Sieve Analysis
b. Water Absorption
c. Aggregate Impact Value
d. Aggregate Abrasion Value
e. Aggregate Crushing Value
Bitumen Cement
a. Determining bitumen content a. Fineness Test
b. Determining flash and fire b. Soundness Test
point of bitumen
c. Consistency Test
c. Determining penetration of
bitumen d. Setting Time Test
d. Determining softening point
of bitumen
e. Determining specific gravity of
bitumen
f. Determining ductility of
bitumen
g. Determining marshal stability
of bitumen
Contoso Ltd.
13
Add a footer
Tests carried out on different construction materials

Hardened Steel
Fresh Concrete
Concrete Reinforcement
a. Slump Test a. Compression Strength Test a. Tensile Strength Test
b. Compacting Factor Test b. Flexural Strength Test b. Bend Test
c. VeBe Test c. Rebound Hammer Test c. Re-bend Test
d. K-Slump Test d. Ultrasonic Pulse velocity Test d. Shear Test
e. Brinell Hardness Test
f. Impact Test
g. Torsion Test

Contoso Ltd.
14
Add a footer
 Because it is critical for the viability and safety of a
Why is CMT
construction project. CMT can reveal any number of
issues related to construction quality. It can highlight
important?
future risks, help classify a building site, and assist with
engineering decisions. Without CMT, engineers and
builders may not know if the quality of the construction
meets the requirements.

Contoso Ltd.
15
Add a footer
 CE 406

Thank You!
References:
https://www.mtcopeland.com/blog/five-building-materials-commonly-us
ed-in-construction
https://www.definitions.net/definition/construction+aggregate
https://www.britannica.com/technology/cement-building-material
https://www.element.com/materials-testing-services/mechanical-testing-
services#:~:text=Designed%20to%20ensure%20that%20materials,resistan
ce%2C%20fracture%20toughness%20and%20fatigue.
http://info.shieldengineering.com/blog/why-is-construction-materials-test
ing-important
 Familiarization with the
Apparatus and Equipment Used in Testing of Materials
CE 406: Construction Materials and Testing
CEMENT/MORTAR
Cement Testing | Various
Tests for Cement |
Equipment Used in Cement
Testing
 Cement Cement Tests are performed to know the strength, characteristics and
properties of cement. Various Test on cement is done nowadays to check
Testing the quality of cement.

2/17/2022
3
Various Tests for Cement/Mortar
Here are some of the various tests conducted in cement.
1 Initial and Final Setting
Fineness Test
The fineness of cement is a measure of
cement particle size and is denoted as
terms of the specific surface area of
cement. The Test is done by sieving
cement samples through a standard IS
sieve.
4
2
Test
3
Initial Setting Time of Cement: It is the
time elapsed between the moment that Standard Consistency Test
the water is added to the cement, to the The standard consistency of cement
time that the paste starts losing its paste is defined as the percentage of
plasticity. water added In 300gm weight of cement
which will permit a Vicat plunger having
Final Setting Time of Cement: It is the 50 mm length and 10 mm diameter to
time elapsed between the moment the penetrate in cement paste to a depth of
water is added to the cement and the 33-35 mm from the top of the mold.
time when cement paste loses its
plasticity completely and has attained
sufficient firmness to resist certain
definite pressure.
 Various Tests for Cement
Here are the other tests for cement.

4 Soundness Test
▪ The soundness of cement indicates the stability of any cement
during the volume change in the process of setting and
5 Specific Gravity Test
▪ The specific gravity of cement is defined as the mass of cement
of specified volume to the mass of water of the same volume of
hardening. In case the volume change in cement is unstable cement. It can also be defined as the density of cement to the
after setting and hardening, the concrete element will crack, density of water for the same volume.
which can affect the quality of the structure or even cause
serious accidents, known as poor dimensional stability.

5
Equipment Used in Cement Testing
Here are some of the apparatus and equipment used in cement.

2/17/2022
6 ADD A FOOTER
Vicat Needle Apparatus
Vicat apparatus is a penetration device used in
testing of hydraulic cements and similar
materials to determine their normal or standard
consistency. It is also used to determine the
initial setting time and final setting time of
hydraulic cements and similar materials.

7
 Flow Cone Apparatus
It is used for viscosity and fluidity determination
of mortars, muds, grouts, fluid materials and etc.

8
 Flame Photometer
▪ It is used to determine the alkali content of
cement.

9
Automatic Mortar
Mixer
It is expressively designed for the efficient mixing
of cement pastes and mortar, with two
automatic sequences of mixing cycle.

2/17/2022
10 ADD A FOOTER
Bulk Density of Cement
Set
This apparatus is used for the measurement of
the apparent density (bulk density) of powder
and non-cohesive materials. It consists of sieve
funnel with tripod, unit weight measure 1 liter
capacity with hopper, spatula, straight edge,
large spoon.

2/17/2022
11 ADD A FOOTER
 Le Chatelier Mold
Used for determining the expansion of cement.
The mould consists of a spring tensioned split
cylinder 30 mm internal diameter, 30 mm high
with two indicator stems which measure 165
mm from the points of the centre line of the
cylinder and O ring. Two or three moulds are
required for each test. To perform the test, a
water bath is also required.

12
 Le Chatelier Flask
Used to determine the specific gravity of
hydraulic cement and lime. Glass flask 250 ml
capacity, with graduated neck from 0 to 1 ml and
from 18 to 24 ml in 0.1 ml graduation with
accuracy of 0.05 ml.
Weight approx.: 500 g

13
Le Chatelier Water Bath
Le Chatelier Water Bath, used for the
determination of setting time and expansion of
cement samples.
Constructed with stainless steel inside chamber
and exterior case in painted steel sheet, it can
hold up to 12 Le Chatelier moulds (to be ordered
separately) in the removable rack, supplied with
the bath. The bath reaches the boiling point in
approx. 30 minutes.

14
 Cement Mortar
Permeability Apparatus
Permeability apparatus is used to determine
permeability to water of cement mortar specimens
with or without water proofing compound.
It comprises three brass/ gun metal cells mounted
on a stand and a pressure chamber with a pressure
regulator. The cell can accommodate 100mm dia x
50mm high specimen. Each cell assembly consists
of one base plate. The base plate has one outlet for
water and is recessed to hold the specimen in place
with a ring washer in between. The top plate has
an inlet for water and a suitable connector for the
application of pressurized water in the cell. The
mould and collar are clamped between the base
plate and the top plate with the help of four
tension rods and nuts. The cells are mounted on a
stand.
15
CONCRETE
Concrete Testing | Various
Tests for Concrete |
Equipment Used in Concrete
Testing
Concrete A concrete test is performed to learn more about the properties of a
specific sample of concrete. A number of different tests can be performed
Testing on concrete both, on a job site and in a laboratory.

2/17/2022
17
Various Tests for Concrete
Here are some of the various tests conducted in concrete.

1 Concrete Slump Test
Air Content Test
Air Content Test measures the total air
content in a sample of fresh concrete,
but does not indicate what the final
in-place air content will be, because a
certain amount of air is lost in
transportation, consolidating, placement
and finishing.
18
2
3
The test measures consistency of
Compressive Strength Test
concrete in that specific batch. It is
performed to check consistency of Out of many tests applied to the
freshly made concrete. Consistency concrete, this is of an utmost importance
refers to the ease with which concrete which gives an idea about all the
flows. It is used to indicate degree of characteristics of concrete. By this single
wetness. Consistency affects workability test one judge that whether concreting
of concrete. That is, wetter mixes are has been done properly or not.
more workable than drier mixes, but
concrete of the same consistency may
vary in workability. The test is also used
to determine consistency between
individual batches.
 Various Tests for Concrete
Here are the other tests for concrete.

4 Curing Test
▪ Curing plays an important role on strength development and
durability of concrete. Curing takes place immediately after
5 Flow Table Test
▪ The flow table test or flow test is a method to determine
consistency of fresh concrete. Flow table test is also used to
concrete placing and finishing, and involves maintenance of identify transportable moisture limit of solid bulk cargoes.
desired moisture and temperature conditions, both at depth
and near the surface, for extended periods of time. Properly ▪ If consistency is not at the desired level, concrete will not have
cured concrete has an adequate amount of moisture for the required strength and other qualities once it has set. If
continued hydration and development of strength, volume concrete is too pasty, cavities may form within it. Rebar may
stability, resistance to freezing and thawing, and abrasion and
scaling resistance. become corroded, and concrete will crack. Cavities also reduce
the concrete strength.

19
Equipment Used in Concrete Testing
Here are some of the apparatus and equipment used in concrete.

2/17/2022
20 ADD A FOOTER
Compression Testing
Machine
This Compression Testing Machine is a hydraulic,
electrically operated unit, designed for
conducting compression tests on concrete
specimens up to 20 cm. Diameter (or width and
depth) and 30 cm, in height and also rocks and
various other materials.

2/17/2022
21 ADD A FOOTER
Flow Table
This equipment is used to determine the flow of
concrete. The apparatus consists of a flow table,
stainless steel flow mould, tamping bar.
The steel cone, part of the apparatus, has a top
dia. of 130 mm a base dia. of 200 mm and is 200
mm high. All metal parts are protected against
corrosion.

22
Flexural Testing Machine
Flexural Testing Machines has a range of
100 kN and 200 kN capacity flexure testing
machines have been designed to meet the need
for reliable and consistent testing of flexural test
on standard concrete beams, transverse test on
kerbs and flagstones, indirect tensile tests on
concrete and interlocking pavers.

23
 Mortar Mixer
It is used for mixing cement pastes, mortars and
pozzolona.

24
Gauging Trowel
It is a round-nosed trowel used for mixing
mortar and applying small amounts in confined
areas; it is also used to replace crumbled mortar
and to patch concrete.

25
VeeBee Consistometer
It is used for workability as well as consistency
for fresh concrete. A slump cone and a
graduated rod supplied with the instrument
helps the operator to find out slump values and
Vibration Table with container and acrylic disc is
used to find out workability of concrete
expressed in Vee Bee degrees.
Vee Bee Degrees is defined as the time in
seconds to complete required vibrating at which
the fresh concrete flows out sufficiently to come
in contract of the entire face of acrylic disc.

26
 Slump Test Apparatus
It is used for the determination of the consistency
of freshly mixed concrete, where the maximum size
of the aggregate does not exceed 38mm.
It consists of one slump cone with handles and foot
pieces. The slump cone has internal dimensions
20cm. dia at base 10cm. top dia. and 30cm height.
Foot pieces can be fixed to the clamps on the base
plate. The base plate has lifting handle for easy
transportation. One graduated steel rod 16mm dia
x 600mm long, rounded at one end and graduated
in mms.

27
Compaction Factor
Apparatus
Designed to undertake a more precise and
sensitive test procedure than the simple slump
test. The apparatus consists of two conical
hoppers mounted on a cylinder. Each hopper has
a hinged flange with quick release mechanism
and everything is mounted on a rigid steel stand.
The compacting factor is the ratio between the
weight of the partially compacted concrete and
the weight of the fully compacted concrete.
Dimensions: 500x400x1510 mm
Weight: 55 kg

28
 Kelley Ball Penetration
Apparatus
A test for the consistency of concrete using the
penetration of a half sphere; a 1-inch
(2.5-centimeter) penetration by the Kelly ball
corresponds to about 2 inches (5 centimeters) of
slump. Determines depth of penetration of metal
weight into plastic concrete. Apparatus consists of
30 lb. (14kg) cylinder with hemispherically shaped
bottom and handle. The stirrup (frame) guides the
handle and acts as a reference for measuring depth
of penetration. Handle is graduated in 1/4"
(6.4mm) increments on one side and
half-centimeter increments on the other side.
Concrete may be tested as placed in the forms
prior to any manipulation or in a suitable container.
20lb version can be used with lightweight
29 concrete.
Cube Mold
The standard size of cube is 150 mm. Cubes of
100 mm size are not suitable for concrete having
a nominal maximum aggregate size exceeding 20
mm. Cubes of 150 mm size are not suitable for
concrete having a nominal maximum aggregate
size exceeding 40 mm.
It allows accurate determination of compression
and flexural strength of concrete and it provides
superior alignment accuracy.

30
 Cylindrical Mold
Hard plastic and steel cylinder moulds are
manufactured in accordance with dimensions and
tolerances stated in the related standards. Two part
and clamp attached base plate cast iron, plastic and
steel moulds are designed to be durable, corrosion
resistant and easy to clean.

31
Beam Mold
For casting concrete specimens for flexure tests.
Specification: Made of cast iron. The moulds are
made of 4 plates assembled together. Each
mould is supplied complete with base plate.
Faces are machined flat to +/-0.2mm and
finished in size to 0.2mm

32
 Curing Tank
Specimens must be cured at a stable
temperature under water to ensure consistent
test results.

33
Vibrating Table
Vibrating tables have been used for the following
applications:
▪ powder compaction in boxes
▪ removing air from concrete molds
▪ settle and compact products in bulk bags and bulk boxes
▪ to settle and compact 30 to 55 gallon drums of powdered
chemicals
▪ vibrating ash shakeout system
▪ to settle and compact metal powders in molds
▪ light duty applications for labs and factories
▪ to settle and density activated carbon inside filter cartridges
and canisters
▪ remove bubbles in sealed containers filled with water

34
 Air Entrainment Meter
An air entrainment meter is used to measure the
amount of air that is trapped within the mix. The
water column type consists essentially of a
stainless steel flanged cylindrical vessel with
cover assembly, incorporating the measuring
cylinder, pressure gauge and valves. Supplied
complete with hand pump and calibration
cylinder apparatus which is essential for
adjustment to site barometric pressure.
The cylindrical vessel of all models can also be
used as unit weight measure for fresh concrete
for density determination.

35
 Three-Meter Straight
Edge
It is a metal device normally 3.0 meters long and
of straight section. It measures surface
irregularity of completed concrete and asphalt
pavements. These are widely used for checking
straightness and marking purposes.

36
AGGREGATES
Aggregate Testing | Various
Tests for Aggregates |
Equipment Used in
Aggregate Testing
Aggregate Aggregate Testing is used to determine the material characteristics and
properties of aggregate materials for use in pavement construction. Test
Testing results are an important part of mix design and can help predict pavement
quality.

2/17/2022
38
 Various Tests for Aggregates
Here are the other tests for aggregates.

1 Silt Content Test for Sand

▪ The permissible silt content in sand (fine aggregate) must not
exceed the values as specified in the standards. However, this
2 Bulking of Sand
▪ When sand is damp, the water coating on the surface of each
sand particle causes separation of particles from one another
method can only be used for natural sand, it should not be used due to surface tension. This causes sand to bulk. Bulked sand
for crushed rock sand. occupies more volume and hence if volumetric measuring is
▪ If silt content by weight exceeds 3% then washing of sand is done while proportioning it, bulking correction is necessary.
necessary. After conducting few tests, a co-relation can be
developed for silt layer thicknesses at various intervals of time.
The silt content at 10 minutes can be fixed as inspection
criteria.

39
 Various Tests for Aggregates
Here are the other tests for aggregates.

3 Sieve Analysis
Sieve analysis is done to check the gradation of aggregate. The
test is done as follow.
4 Fineness Modulus
▪ Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse
or fine the aggregate is. More fineness modulus value indicates
▪ Take required amount of aggregate sample that the aggregate is coarser and small value of fineness
modulus indicates that the aggregate is finer.
▪ Arrange the required no of sieves as per the contract or job
requirement in an descending manner. Shake vigorously the ▪ Sieve the aggregate using the appropriate sieves (80 mm, 40
sieve set for at least 2 minute. mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 micron,
300 micron & 150 micron)
▪ Then measure the weight of aggregate on each sieve and
express it as the percentage of passing.

40
Equipment Used in Aggregate Testing
Here are some of the apparatus and equipment used in aggregates.

2/17/2022
41 ADD A FOOTER
 Laboratory Oven
It is designed for drying, baking, conditioning
and moisture determination.

42
Muffle Furnace
Aside from the laboratory oven, this one is
designed for higher temperature heating.

2/17/2022
43 ADD A FOOTER
Flakiness Gauge
For determining flakiness index. Particle is flaky
when its thickness (smallest dimension) is less
than 0.6 of the mid-size of the sieve fraction.
Gauge has seven labeled slots for rapid hand
trying of particles from each of the seven sieve
cuts. The mass of all flaky particles (passing
appropriate slots) as percent of the sample is the
flakiness index.

2/17/2022
44 ADD A FOOTER
Void Content Apparatus
(Fine Aggregates)
Used to determine the uncompacted void
content of a fine aggregate sample. Indicates the
angularity, sphericality, and workability of fine
aggregate in a mixture. Includes 100 ml brass
cylindrical measure, funnel assembly, funnel
stand, and glass plate for calibration.

2/17/2022
45 ADD A FOOTER
 Void Content Apparatus
(Coarse Aggregates)
Used to determine the void content of
uncompacted coarse aggregates. In operation,
the aggregate is allowed to free-fall 115mm from
the funnel bottom into a 154mm diameter by
160mm high cylindrical measure. The excess
heaped aggregate is struck of using the included
bar, the mass is measured, and the void content
is computed. The apparatus consists of a
stainless steel hopper, stand, measure and
strike-off bar and a 170mm square glass plate for
calibration of the measure.

46
Sieves
A sieve, or sifter, is a device for separating
wanted elements from unwanted material or for
characterizing the particle size distribution of a
sample, typically using a woven screen such as a
mesh or net or metal.

2/17/2022
47 ADD A FOOTER
 Sieve Shaker
Sieve Shakers save time and effort and improve
accuracy for particle sizing operations. Shakers
agitate a stacked series of test sieves to
efficiently separate materials of all different
types.
▪ Range: 20 µm to 125 mm
▪ Drive / sieving motion: electromagnetic 3D
▪ Amplitude: 0 - 3 mm
digital setting in 0.1 mm steps
"Closed Loop" amplitude control
▪ Sieve diameter: 100 / 200 mm
8''

48
Riffle Sample Divider
It allows dividing samples into two
representative subsamples with a good accuracy.
It is precisely designed to reduce the bulk of
material to a convenient representative size for
laboratory analysis. When used properly, it
provides an accuracy that is recognized through
out the industry

2/17/2022
49 ADD A FOOTER
 Proportional Caliper
Device
Use to determine the percentage of flat
particles, elongated particles, or both flat &
elongated particles in coarse aggregates. Steel
construction for strength & durability, plated for
corrosion resistance. 6" x 16" (152.4 x 406.4mm)
base plate with four rubber feet for stability, and
for convenience in tabletop testing. Ratio desired
is obtained by selecting one of four adjustable
positions: 2 = l:2; 3 = 1:3; 4 = 1:4; or 5 = 1:5.

50
Aggregate Impact Value
Test Apparatus
It is used for determining the aggregate impact
value. The Sturdy Construction consists of a base
and support columns to form a rigid framework
around the quick release trigger mechanism to
ensure an effective free fall of the hammer
during test. The free fall can be adjusted through
380±5mm. The hammer is provided with a
locking arrangement. Aggregate impact value
test apparatus is supplied complete with a
cylindrical measure of 75mm dia x 50mm depth,
an automatic blow counter and a tamping rod.

2/17/2022
51 ADD A FOOTER
 Aggregate Crushing
Value Test Apparatus
Aggregate crushing value test apparatus is used
for measuring resistance of an aggregate to
crushing. This is made of Mild Steel comprising
of:
▪ Cylindrical Cell, 150mm internal dia x 130 to 140mm height.
▪ Plunger, 148mm dia x 100 to 115mm height.
▪ Base Plate, 200 to 230mm square x 6mm thickness.
▪ Tamping Rod, 16mm dia x 450 to 600mm length.
▪ Metal Measure, 110mm internal dia x 180mm height.

52
WOOD

Wood Testing | Equipment

Used in Wood Testing
 Moisture Meter
This is used to measure the percentage of water
in a given substance. The information can be
used to determine if the material is ready for
use, unexpectedly wet or dry, or otherwise in
need of further inspection. Wood and paper
products are very sensitive to their moisture
content.

54
Universal Wood Tester
It is a screw type motor driven and its suitable
for determination of shear strength, hardness
(Janka Ball Test), Clavage, Static bend Plywood
GripsNail/Screw withdrawal test, compression
(parallel-to-grain) and many other tests on wood
plywood

2/17/2022
55 ADD A FOOTER
OTHERS
Other Equipment Used in
Construction Materials and
Testing
 Beaker
A beaker is a simple container for stirring, mixing
and heating liquids commonly used in many
laboratories. Beakers are generally cylindrical in
shape, with a flat bottom. Most also have a small
spout (or "beak") to aid pouring as shown in the
picture. Beakers are available in a wide range of
sizes, from one millilitre up to several litres.

57
Graduated Cylinder
It is a measuring instrument for measuring fluid
volume; a glass container whose sides are
marked or divided into amounts.

2/17/2022
58 ADD A FOOTER
 Thermometer
The design essentially consists of a lens to focus
the infrared thermal radiation on to a detector,
which converts the radiant power to an
electrical signal that can be displayed in units of
temperature after being compensated for
ambient temperature. This permits temperature
measurement from a distance without contact
with the object to be measured. A non-contact
infrared thermometer is useful for measuring
temperature under circumstances
where thermocouples or other probe-type
sensors cannot be used or do not produce
accurate data for a variety of reasons.

59
Mechanical Balance
It is a measuring instrument used where the
most accurate weighing are required.

2/17/2022
60 ADD A FOOTER
 Hydrometer
An instrument used to measure the specific
gravity (or relative density) of liquids. It is usually
made of glass and consists of a cylindrical stem
and a bulb weighted with mercury or lead.

61
Concrete Mixer
A device that homogenously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or
gravel, and water to form concrete.

Stationary Concrete Mixer - cannot be

Mobile Concrete Mixer – it is ideal if you need to use
moved because they are fixed in only
concrete in more than one place in the same area.
one place.
62
 Bucket
It delivers concrete by means of a tower crane. It
has a bottom opening to allow concrete to flow
out when in-place.

63
Scoop
A deep bowl for taking something from a
container.

2/17/2022
64 ADD A FOOTER
 Hammer
A deep bowl for taking something from a
container.

Mallet
A tool used to pound on something.

65
 Trowel
Used to spread building materials such as plaster
or cement.

Wheelbarrow
A kind of vehicle that is build to be pushed around
with a load inside out.

66
Equipment and Apparatus Used in the University
Here are some of the
photos of the apparatus
and equipment used in our
Soil Laboratory.

67
68 Graduated Cylinder Decanters
 Mortar & Pestle |
Vicat Needle Apparatus
69 Evaporating Dish
 Trowel Set of Sieves
70
71 Oven Universal Testing Machine
 Thank you!

victoria@fabrikam.com 404-555-0115 www.fabrikam.com

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 2. Porosity
· The characteristics of the · Porosity gives the volume of the
building materials that can be material occupied by pores.
observed and measured without · It is the ratio of volume of pores
changing its chemical properties. to the volume of material.
· Properties of materials that are · Porosity influences many
checked and tested based on the properties like thermal conductivity,
quality and condition of the strength, bulk density, durability etc.
materials without external force. 3. Durability
· The property of a material to
1. Bulk density withstand the combined action of
2. Porosity atmospheric and other factors is
3. Durability known as durability of material.
4. Density · Durable materials retain their
5. Density index original form, quality and
6. Specific gravity serviceability when exposed to the
7. Fire resistance environment.
8. Frost resistance 4. Density
9. Weathering resistance · Density is the ratio of mass of
10. Spalling resistance the material to its volume in a
11. Water absorption homogeneous state.
12. Water permeability · Almost all the physical properties
13. Hygroscopicity of materials are influenced by its
14. Coefficient softening density values.
15. Refractoriness · Density values of some building
materials are given below.
1. Bulk Density
· Bulk density is the ratio of mass
to the volume of the material in its
natural state that includes voids and
pores.
· It is expressed in kg/m3. 5. Density index
· The bulk density of a material · Ratio of bulk density of material
governs its properties such as to its density is termed as density
strength, heat conductivity, index. Hence it gives the volume of
permeability, etc. solid matter in the material.
· Bulk density values of some of · In nature, fully dense material is
the engineering materials are given not available, so the density index is
below. always less than 1 for any building
material.
6. Specific gravity
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
=
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
· Specific gravity of some
materials is listed below.

7. Fire resistance
· The ability to withstand fire
without changing its shape and other
properties.
· It is the ability of a material to
resist the action of fire without
significant deformation and strength
loss.
8. Frost resistance
· The ability of a material to resist
freezing or thawing is called frost
resistance.
· It depends upon the density and
bulk density of material.
9. Weathering resistance
· The property of a material to
withstand all atmospheric actions
without losing its strength and shape.
10. Spalling resistance
· The ability of a material to
undergo a certain number of cycles of
sharp temperature variations without
failing is known as spalling
resistance.
· It is dependent on the coefficient
of linear expansion.
11. Water absorption
· The capacity of a material to
absorb and retain water in it is known
as water absorption.
· It depends on the size, shape
and number of pores of material.
· It is mathematically defined as
the ratio of weight of water absorbed
by the material to its total volume,
including volume of pores, expressed
as a percentage.
12. Water permeability
· The ability of a material to permit
water through it is called water
permeability.
· Dense materials like glass
metals etc. are called impervious
materials which cannot allow water
through it.
13. Hygroscopicity
· Hygroscopicity is the property of
a material to absorb water vapor from
the air.
· The hygroscopicity of a material
depends on factors such as its
porosity, size of pores, surrounding
conditions including relative humidity,
air temperature, etc.
14. Coefficient of softening
· Coefficient of softening of a
material is the ratio of compressive
strength of a saturated material to its
compressive strength in dry state.
· It affects the strength of water
absorbent materials like soil.
15. Refractoriness
· This refers to the property of a
material which cannot melt or lose its
shape at prolonged high
temperatures (1580 degree Celsius
or more).
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The mechanical properties of materials
define the behavior of materials under the
action of external forces called loads.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
● STRENGTH
● ELASTICITY
● TOUGHNESS
● PLASTICITY
● DUCTILITY
● HARDNESS
● BRITTLENESS
● CREEP
● MALLEABILITY
● FATIGUE
● IMPACT STRENGTH
● ABRASION RESISTANCE Hardness measurement methods

● STRENGTH 1. Moh‘s scale

Strength of the materials refers to the
ability of a material to resist the 2. Vicker‘s hardness
externally applied forces (tensile,
compressive and shear forces) 3. Rockwell hardness
without breaking or yielding.
4. Knoop test

5. Brinell hardness

● ELASTICITY
It is the property of materials to
regain its original shape after
deformation when the external
forces are removed.

2 SUB PROPERTY

Elastic limit Proportional limit ● TOUGHNESS

It is the ability of a material to withstand

bending without fracture due to high impact
It is defined as It is defined as the loads.
the point up to point up to which the It is also measured by the amount of energy
which the stress and the strain that a unit volume of the material has
absorbed after being stressed up to failure
material are directly point and is the area under stress strain
remains elastic proportional curve.

● HARDNESS
Property of a material to resist
penetration by another material is
known as hardness. It embraces
many different properties such as
resistance to wear, scratching,
deformation etc.
● CREEP
When a part is subjected to a constant stress
at high temperature for a long period of time,
it will undergo a slow and permanent
deformation is called creep.
 ● PLASTICITY
It is the ability of material to undergo some
degree of permanent deformation without
rupture or failure.
● DUCTILITY
It is the property of a material which enables
it to draw out into thin wire with the
application of a tensile force.
● BRITTLENESS
Breaking of a material with little permanent
distortion simply states the property of
brittleness.
It is also a tendency of a material to fracture
when subjected to shock loading or a blow.
● MALLEABILITY
It is the ability of materials to be rolled,
flattened or hammered into thin sheets
without cracking by hot or cold working.
● Forging
● Rolling processes
Examples of Malleable Materials:
Aluminum, Copper, Tin, Lead
● FATIGUE
It is a failure of materials under cyclic loads.
3 stages of fatigue processes
i) Initial fatigue damage
ii) Progressive cyclic growth of a crack
iii) Final stage
● IMPACT STRENGTH
It is the ability of a metal to resist suddenly
applied loads.
● ABRASION RESISTANCE
It is the ability of a surface to resist being
worn away by rubbing or friction.
FACTORS including materials and surface
finishing, aggregate hardness, mix
proportions, aggregate/paste bond, and
placing and compaction.
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS
Thermal properties are those of a substance
that are related to its heat conductivity. In
other words, these are the qualities that a
material exhibits when heat is applied to
it.
HEAT CAPACITY
The heat capacity is an extensive property
that describes how much heat energy it
takes to raise the temperature of a given
system.
The amount of heat required necessary to
increase the temperature by 1 degree, (1K
or 1°C).
Two ways to measure heat capacity:
● Cp : Heat capacity at constant
pressure.
● Cv : Heat capacity at constant
volume.
THERMAL EXPANSION
● Most solids expand when heated.
● Thermal expansion is a direct result
of an;
1. increase in the separation distance of
adjacent atoms.
2. greater thermal vibrations of atoms
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Basic Mechanism of Heat Transfer by
Conduction:
● Heat is conducted by the transfer of
the energy of motion between
adjacent molecules.

Two mechanism:

1. Conduction of free electron

2. Atomic vibrations (phonons)

- Metal alloys have lower thermal

conductivities than pure metals.

Thermal expansion is of three types: - Thermal conductivity of ceramics and

polymers can be reduced by the presence of
● Linear expansion porosity.

● Area expansion

● Volume expansion
MELTING POINT
Material Chemical
The melting point of a substance is the Composition
temperature at which it changes its state
from solid to liquid. A substance’s melting Steel Fe, Cr, Ni
point depends on the pressure and is usually
specified at the standard pressure in 2. Atomic Bonding
reference materials. - Atomic bonding represents how
atoms are bonded to each other to
form the material. Many
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
properties, such as melting point,
A chemical property is any of a
boiling point, thermal conductivity
material's properties that becomes
and electrical conductivity of
evident during a chemical reaction
materials are governed by atomic
which is any quality that can be
bonding of materials.
established only by changing a
substance's chemical identity.
3. Acidity or Alkalinity
- Acidity or Alkalinity is an important
Chemical Properties:
chemical property of engineering
1. Chemical Composition
materials. A material is acetic or
2. Atomic Bonding
Alkane, it is decided by the ph
3. Acidity or Alkalinity
value of the material.
4. Toxicity
5. Chemical Resistance
4. Toxicity
6. Reactivity
- A toxic material is defined as a
7. Combustibility
material that releases a chemical
8. Corrosion Resistance
in sufficient quantities to kill cells
9. Oxidation
either directly or indirectly through
10. Solubility
inhibition of key metabolic
11. Permeability
pathways. The number of cells
that are affected is an indication of
1. Chemical Composition
the dose and potency of the
- The chemical composition of
chemical.
engineering material indicates the
elements which are combined
Asbestos
together to form that material.
- Asbestos was a popular
Chemical composition of a
engineering material owing to its
material affects the properties of
heat resistance and strength.
engineering materials very much.
Most of its applications were in the
The strength, hardness, ductility,
19th century. While companies
brittleness, corrosion resistance,
knew the dangers of this material
weldability etc. depends on
since the 1930s, it was not until
chemical composition of
the truth came out in 1970 that this
materials.
material was banned.
Example of Chemical Composition
- Asbestos was mostly found in the
building industry, where it was
 used for the construction of
shingles, cement products and
floor tiles.
5. Chemical Resistance
- Chemical resistance means that
materials can fulfill their function,
even in harsh working
environments. Chemical-resistant
materials don't require surface
treatment; they are able to
withstand exposure to chemicals
such as bases, solvents, and
acids.
6. Reactivity
- Reactivity of a substance is a
chemical property as opposed to a
physical property. The reason it
qualifies as a chemical property is
because it relies on its electron
configuration to determine how it
will behave around other
substances.
7. Combustibility
- Combustibility is a measure of
how easily a substance bursts into
flame, through fire or combustion.
This is an important property to
consider when a substance is
used for construction or is being
stored.
8. Corrosion Resistance
- Formation of rust (iron oxide) in
metals, when they are subjected
to the atmosphere is called
corrosion. So, the metals should
be corrosive resistant. To
increase the corrosion resistance
proper measures should be
considered. Otherwise it will
damage the whole structure.
9. Oxidation
- It is a chemical reaction of the
metal surface with the oxygen
present in the air that causes
some of the metal to corrode (or
oxidize) and form the respective
metal oxide on the surface.
10. Solubility
- It is the ability of a solid, liquid, or
gaseous chemical substance
(referred to as the solute) to
dissolve in solvent (usually a
liquid) and form a solution. The
solubility of a substance
fundamentally depends on the
solvent used, as well as
temperature and pressure.
2 Parts of Solution
● Solvent
- The part of solution that is
being dissolved (usually
the lesser amount)
● Solute
- The part of the solution that
dissolves the solute
(usually the greater
amount)

*Solutes dissolve into solvents to form a
solution.
Factors affecting Solubility
● Temperature
● Forces and bonds
● Pressure
11. Permeability
- Permeability is a measure of the
ease of passage of liquids or
gasses or specific chemicals
through the material. Permeability
is determined by applying a head
and determining the depth of
penetration or the amount of liquid
or gas passing through the
sample.
TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATERIAL
The technological properties of a
material refer to its characteristics that
affect its behavior and performance in
different technological applications.
These properties are very
advantageous when it comes to molding,
shaping, and producing materials.
1. Machinability
- refers to how easily a material
can be cut to remove material
with an acceptable finish, at a
lower cost. It describes how
well a material can achieve a
good finish, and can also be
referred to as "finishability".
2. Weldability
- Welding is a fabrication
process whereby two or more
parts are fused together by
means of heat, pressure or
both forming a join as the parts
cool.
- To assess the weldability of a
metal, one can observe how it
behaves during the process of
fusion and cooling, as well as
evaluate its sensitivity to
cracks and notches.
- Another approach is to
compare the heating and
cooling effects of the metal at
the joint with that of a metal
with known weldability.
3. Castability
- refers to the ability of a
material to be easily cast or
molded into a desired shape
and form.
- It is based on factors such as
solidification rate, gas porosity,
segregation, and shrinkage.
4. Formability
- the ability of a material to be
easily shaped, bent, stretched
or formed into a desired shape
without cracking, wrinkling or
other defects.
- Materials with good formability
can be easily deformed and
 shaped without undergoing
significant changes in their
microstructure or properties,
while those with poor
formability may require
preheating, annealing, or
lubrication to achieve the
desired shape or may not be
suitable for certain forming
processes.
5. Malleability
- refers to its ability to be easily
deformed under compression
without cracking or breaking. It
is a measure of a material's
ability to be rolled or
hammered into thin sheets or
other shapes without
rupturing.
 DEFINITION OF CEMENT

Cement, in general, refers to all types of adhesives, but in a more specific

sense, it refers to the tying agents used in building and civil engineering
construction. These are made of powders that are finely powdered and when
combined with water, form a solid mass.

Hydration, a chemical reaction between the cement compounds and water

that produces submicroscopic crystals or a substance with a high surface area, is
what causes setting and hardening.

Constructional cements are frequently referred to as hydraulic cements

because of their hydrating qualities. These cements will even set and solidify under
water. Portland cement is the most significant of these.

CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENT
Cement can be generally classified as
1. Natural Cement
2. Artificial Cement
a. Portland Cement
b. Special Cement

1. NATURAL CEMENT
- This type of cement can be obtained by burning limestone containing 20-40%
clay and crushing it to powder.
- Manufactured from stones
- Stones are first burnt and crushed
- Brown in color, and sets quickly when mixed with water
2. ARTIFICIAL CEMENT
- Artificial cement is obtained by burning, at a very high temperature, a mixture
of calcareous (containing lime) and argillaceous (containing clay) materials.
- Obtained by burning at a high temperature
- Manufactured in the factories
- Prepared in different varieties
- It is made from Lime, Silica, Alumina, Iron Oxide and Magnesia.
- The mixture is heated to approximately 1400 degree C.
- PORTLAND CEMENT
- cement that is manufactured from limestone and clay and that
hardens underwater.
- Ordinary Portland Cement
- Modified Portland Cement
- Rapid Hardening POrtland Cement
- Low Heat Portland Cement
- Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement
- Water-repellent Portland Cement
- Water-proof Portland Cement
 - SPECIAL CEMENT
- cement that serves some specific function such as altering the
setting or hardening behavior of concrete, producing different
colors for architectural effects, imparting superior workability,
imparting water retention and plasticity to mortars, resisting the
penetration of water in walls or containment vessels, or simply
reducing the cost of the cementing agent.
- High Alumina Cement
- Blast Furnace Cement
- Quick Setting Cement
- Calcium Chloride Cement
- White Cement
- Colored Cement
- Expanding Cement
- Super Sulphate Cement
- Masonry Cement
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE METHOD OF HARDENING AND SETTING
- Non- Hydraulic Cement
- Water is not required
- Requires dry conditions
- Basic materials are lime, gypsum, plaster, and oxychloride
- Rarely used as mortars for brick or stone masonry.

- Hydraulic Cement
- Hardens by hydration in the presence of water
- Made by burning the main raw material of non-hydraulic cement at a very
high temperature
- Forms a water-resistant product
- There are 16 types

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS

ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT

- Most common type
- Develops strength and generate heat at faster rate
- Sufficient resistance to dry shrinkage and cracking
- Less resistance to chemical attack
MODIFIED PORTLAND CEMENT
- Less heat of hydration than Ordinary Portland Cement
- Can be employed in hot climates
RAPID HARDENING PORTLAND CEMENT
- High early strength cement
- Burnt carefully at higher temperature than ordinary Portland Cement
- Strength developed at 3 days with the same water-cement ratio
- Lighter than Ordinary Portland Cement
EXTRA RAPID HARDENING PORTLAND CEMENT
- Intergrinding calcium chloride with rapid hardening Portland Cement
- Calcium chloride should not exceed 3%
 - - 25% higher than Rapid hardening at 1 to 2 days
- - 10% to 20% higher at 7 days
LOW HEAT PORTLAND CEMENT
- Low percent of tricalcium silicate
- High percentage of dicalcium silicate
- Less time than ordinary Portland Cement
- Low compressive strength
- Initial setting time is 1hr
- Final setting time is 10 hrs

SULPHATE RESISTING PORTLAND CEMENT

- Below 5% of tricalcium aluminate
- Heat formed is not much bigger than low heat Portland Cement
- Cannot be easily and cheaply made
WATER-REPELLENT PORTLAND CEMENT
- Small percentage of water proofing materials
- Mixed with a cement and manufactured by A quacrete
- Formed with ordinary or rapid hardening Portland Cement and white cement
WATER-PROOF PORTLAND CEMENT
- Mixing with ordinary or rapid hardening Cement, a small percentage of some
metal at the time of grinding
- Resistant to penetration of water and some oils than ordinary cement
- Resistant to the corrosive actions of acids or other harmful salts

OTHER CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENT

HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT

- Quick-setting cement
- Chocolate color
- From bauxite and limestone
- Resist the action of acid and high temperature
- 4-5 hrs initial setting time, about 30 mins after initial for final setting
- Resistant to fire and not affected by frost
QUICK SETTING CEMENT
- Lower gypsum content, and ground much finer than ordinary Portland
cement
- Quite costly compared to ordinary Portland
- 5 minutes to start hardening, 30 mins to finish
BLAST FURNACE SLAG CEMENT
- intergrinding Portland cement clinker and granulated blast-furnace slag
- decreased rate of heat evaporation
- resistant to weathering agency attacts
- less expensive than ordinary portland cement
- initial setting time is not less than 30 mins
- final setting is not more the 10hrs
WHITE CEMENT
- Quite similar to OPC except for color
- Contains small amount of iron oxide and magnesium oxide
 - More expensive than OPC
- Not set earlier than 30mins
- Stored in close container
COLORED CEMENT
- Also known as Colourcrete
- Prepared by adding 5- 15% color pigment before cement is finally ground
- Iron oxide for red and yellow, Chromium oxide for green, and Cobalt for blue
color
- Much costlier than OPC
ACID RESISTANCE CEMENT
- Contains acid-resistance aggregates such as quartz, quartzites, etc.
- Additive such a sodium fluosilicate and aqueous solutionor soluble gas
EXPANDING CEMENT
- Formed by adding an expanding medium and a stabilizing agent to the OPC
- This cement expands
HYDROPHOBIC CEMENT
- Contains admixture
- Initial strength is lower
- After 28 days, strength is similar to OPC
PORTLAND POZZOLANA CEMENT
- Interground blended mixture of cement and pozzolana
- Natural or artificial material
- Commonly met with volcanic ash, burnt clay, ash, and etc.
- Higher tensile strength
- Evolves less heat during setting
- Less compressive strength in early days
- Less resistance to erosion and weathering action
SUPERSULPHATED CEMENT
- Resistant to seawater
- Can resist highest concentration of sulphates
- Heat of hydration is low
MASONRY CEMENT
- Intergrinding a mixture of Portland cement clinkers with inert materials
- Initial and final setting times are 90min and 24hours respectively
- Superior to lime mortar, lime-cement mortar, and cement mortar.

AIR ENTRAINING CEMENT

- Made up of OPC clinkers, gypsum, limestone, and air-entraining agents.

HISTORY OF CEMENT
INVENTION OF POZZOLANA

-Almost 2000 years ago, the Greeks and Romans ground lime and “pozzolin” – a
volcanic ash that is these days known as “pozzolana”

-The Romans mixed ground volcanic ash with lime to produce cement, and after
observing that cement can be set underwater, cement started to be used in the
construction of ports. This mixture would later be named “Pozzolanic Cement” after
the village of Pozzuoli in Vesuvius, near Rome.

-Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a Roman architect and engineer who lived in 1 AD, detailed
structures and related technologies from the past in his book “Ten Books of
Architecture”, and recommended concrete for its ability to give “polish to the floor
and to create a strong foundation”. The book also mentioned the use of mixed lime
and crushed rock, pozzolan, for the reinforcement of buildings, which is also said to
preserve its hardness underwater.

HYDRAULIC CEMENT

-In 1756, John Smeaton studied the chemical features of lime, and reached
significant conclusions on its binding qualities.

-Joseph Parker produced a binder known as “Roman Cement”, for which raw
material was obtained from the limestone around London

-The Renaissance ushered in a new era in which people were encouraged to think in
different ways, and the doors of the industrial revolution were thrown wide-opened.
- In 1822, Vicat used his hydraulic binder in one of the abutments of the Souillac
Bridge..He produced a synthetic binder by mixing silica, aluminum and lime at
certain amounts.

BIRTH OF PORTLAND CEMENT

-In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a mason from Leeds, heated ground clay and limestone until
the limestone calcified, and then ground the mixture once again, observing that the
mixture set some time later after adding water. Aspdin named his creation “Portland
Cement”. The “Wakefield Arms” building, which is still standing next to Kirkgate
Station in England, is known to have been constructed using the binder produced by
Joseph Aspdin.

-In 1845, Isaac Johnson baked a mixture of lime and clay mixture at a temperature of
1400°–1500°C – as is still done today – to produce the first modern Portland cement.

-The use of reinforced concrete first appeared in France in the 1840s. Many other
nations adopted the first cement standard for Portland cement that was established
in Germany in 1878, outlining the initial test procedures and minimum qualities.

Global cement output and use both increased at the turn of the century. Three
important developments in the manufacturing process lead to modern Portland
cement:

· Development of rotary kilns

· Addition of gypsum to control setting

· Use of ball mills to grind clinker and raw materials

Significant developments have been witnessed in production processes of

cement over time. As a result, the following systems have been adopted by the
cement sector:

• Lepol system by Polysius in 1928,

• Vertical roll furnace in 1930,

• Pre-furnace preheating cyclones in 1932,

• Fuller grill cooler in 1937

• Mechanical classifiers in 1950,

• The first furnace side-passing system in 1960,

• The pre-calcification system in 1966,

• High-productive classifiers in 1970

The Future of Concrete and Cement

In order to increase the durability, strength, and applicability of cement and concrete,
new technologies and innovations are continually being developed. Some
cutting-edge products, like roof tiles and countertops, combine fibers and unique
materials, while offshore manufacturing is also becoming more popular with the rise
of digitalization and AI, which might minimize waste and enhance productivity and
working conditions on-site.

PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

(A) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

1. Fineness of cement
Fineness of cement is a measure of the size of particles of cement.
Fineness is measured by doing sieve analysis or air permeability
method or by sedimentation method. In sieve analysis, the sizes of
cement particles are measured and in air permeability tests, fineness of
cement is mostly measured by specific surface area.
2. Soundness of Cement
Soundness is the ability of cement to retain its volume while hardening.
Cement is tested for its soundness by Le Chatelier Test and Autoclave
Test.
3. Consistency of Cement
- Consistency of cement is the ability of cement paste (cement +
water) to flow under normal conditions. Dry Mortar (mix of
cement and sand) or Dry concrete (mix of cement, sand and
aggregates) needs optimum water to come into workable
condition. Thus, optimum water-cement ratio should be
maintained to get the workable cement paste. The ability of
cement paste to flow is consistent.
- It is measured by the Vicat Test.
4. Strength of Cement
Factors affecting the strength of cement are:
a. Water-cement ratio of a mix.
b. Cement-fine aggregate ratio
c. Curing conditions
d. Size and shape of a specimen
e. The manner of moulding and mixing
f. Loading conditions
g. Age of cement
 Three types of strength of cement are measured compressive, tensile
and flexural.
- Compressive Strength: It is the most common strength test. A
test specimen (50mm) is taken and subjected to a compressive
load until failure. The loading sequence must be within 20
seconds and 80 seconds.
- Tensile strength: Though this test used to be common during the
early years of cement production, now it does not offer any useful
information about the properties of cement.
- Flexural strength: This is actually a measure of tensile strength in
bending. The test is performed in a 40 x40 x 160 mm cement
mortar beam, which is loaded at its center point until failure.

5. Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can
vary depending on multiple factors, such as fineness of cement,
cement-water ratio, chemical content, and admixtures. Cement used in
construction should have an initial setting time that is not too low and a
final setting time not too high. Hence, two setting times are measured:

Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs
within 30-45 minutes)
Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load
(occurs below 10 hours)

6. Heat of Hydration
When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called
hydration. Hydration generates heat, which can affect the quality of the
cement and also be beneficial in maintaining curing temperature
during cold weather.

The heat of hydration of Portland cement is calculated by determining

the difference between the dry and the partially hydrated cement
(obtained by comparing these at 7th and 28th days).

7. Bulk density
It is the volume taken up by the cement plus any air trapped between
the particles. Generally, cement has 1000 to 1300 Kg/Cum of bulk
density.

8. Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

Normally specific gravity is defined as the ratio between the weight of a
given volume of material (cement) and weight of an equal volume of
water. Generally, Portland cement has a specific gravity of value around
3.15. The value of specific gravity changes with change in type of
cement.
 9. Loss of Ignition (LOI)
Cement loses its weight when it is being heated at 900 to 1000 0C. This
loss of weight upon heating is calculated as loss of ignition. Loss on
ignition shows the pre-hydration or carbonation of cement due to
prolonged or improper storage (exposure to atmosphere). Pre-hydration
of cement reduces the strength of cement and influences the setting
time of cement. Carbonation of cement causes a change in strength,
porosity, pore size distribution, and chemistry in cement
paste/concrete/mortar.

(B) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

Main Chemical Compounds of Portland Cement

Portland Cement mainly comprises four basic chemical compounds.

Name of Compound Chemical Usual Percentage

Composition Abbreviation (%)

Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO2 C3S 51

Dicalcium Silicate 2CaO.SiO2 C2S 23

Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A 8

Tetracalcium 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF 9

aluminoferrite

01. Tricalcium silicate:

● Oxide composition: 3CaO.SiO2
● Abbreviation: C3S
● This compound helps cement to harden rapidly and is also responsible for
initial set and early strength.

02. Dicalcium Silicate:

● Oxide composition: 2CaO.SiO2
● Abbreviation: C2S
 ● This compound helps cement to harden slowly and it is also responsible for
increase in strength after one-week of age.

03. Tricalcium aluminate:

● Oxide composition: 3CaO.Al2O3
● Abbreviation: C3A
● This compound helps to develop strength in the first few days. It is responsible
for hydration of cement and also responsible for generating high heat of
hydration.

04. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite:

● Oxide composition: 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3
● Abbreviation: C4AF
● This compound contributes to the hydration process and slightly influences
the strength of cement.

Secondary Chemical Compounds in Portland Cement

● Lime (CaO)
● Free lime (CaO) leads to expansion after hydration which results into the
disintegration of hardened concrete.
● Magnesia (MgO): The excess amount of MgO leads to the expansion due to the
hydration of MgO in hardened concrete.
● Na2O & K2O (Alkali Oxides)
● The excess amount of alkalis like Na2O & K2O leads to the alkali-aggregate
reaction, which results in disruptive expansion.

Composition of Cement
1. Lime (60%-65%)
● Calcium oxide or calcium trioxide
2. Silica (17%-25%)
● Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
3. Alumina (3.5%-9%)
● Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
4. Iron oxide (0.5%-6%)
● Fe2O3
5. Magnesium oxide (0.5%-4%)
● MgO
6. Sulphur Trioxide (1%-2%)
● SO3
7. Alkalis (0.5%-1.3%)
● Sodium and potassium can be added to cement in small amounts as
alkali metal oxides, such as sodium oxide (Na2O) and potassium oxide
(K2O).
8. Gypsum (0%-0.2%)
 ● Calcium Sulfate Dihydrate (CaSO4 · 2H2O)

USES OF CEMENTS

Cement is used widely for the construction of various structures. Some of

them are listed below:

1. It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.

2. It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.
3. It is used for the water-tightness of the structure.
4. It is used in concrete for laying floors, and roofs and constructing lintels,
beams, stairs, pillars, etc.
5. It is used where a hard surface is required for the protection of exposed
surfaces of structures against the destructive agents of the weather and
certain organic or inorganic chemicals.
6. It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts, etc.
7. It is used in the construction of important engineering structures such as
bridges, culverts, dams, tunnels, lighthouses, etc.
8. It is used in the preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths, etc.
9. It is employed for the construction of wells, water tanks, tennis courts, lamp
posts, telephone cabins, roads, etc.

TESTS FOR CEMENTS

FIELD TESTS FOR CEMENT :

Date of Manufacturing: As the strength of cement reduces with age, the date of
manufacturing of cement bags should be checked.

Cement Color: The color of cement should be uniform. It should be a typical cement
color i.e. gray color with a light greenish shade.

Whether Hard Lumps are Formed: Cement should be free from hard lumps. Such
lumps are formed by the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere.

Temperature Inside Cement Bag: If the hand is plunged into a bag of cement, it
should be cool inside the cement bag. If a hydration reaction takes place inside the
bag, it will become warm.

Smoothness Test: When cement is touched or rubbed in between fingers, it should

give a smooth feeling. If it feels rough, it indicates adulteration with sand.

Water Sinking Test: If a small quantity of cement is thrown into the water, it should
float some time before finally sinking.

The smell of Cement Paste: A thin paste of cement with water should feel sticky
between the fingers. If the cement contains too much-pounded clay and silt as an
adulterant, the paste will give an earthy smell.
Glass Plate Test: A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of a glass
plate and it is kept under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.

Block Test: A 25mm × 25mm × 200mm (1”×1”×8”) block of cement with water is
made. The block is then immersed in water for three days. After removal, it is
supported 150mm apart and a weight of 15kg uniformly placed over it. If it shows no
sign of failure the cement is good.

1. FINENESS TEST OF CEMENT :

• This test of cement is performed to check the fineness of cement according

to standard specifications.

• The fineness of cement can be measured either by the grain size of cement
or by the surface area of cement.

• The sieve Test (IS 4031- part-I) – 90 µ size sieve.

• The fineness of cement has a significant effect on the hydration and in

increasing the rate of gain strength. The strength of cement is directly
proportional to its fineness.

2. STANDARD CONSISTENCY TEST OF CEMENT :

• It is used to find out the percentage of water required to produce cement

paste of standard consistency.

• It is also sometimes called Normal Consistency (CPNC).

• The Standard consistency of a cement paste is defined as that consistency

which will permit a Vicat’s apparatus plunger having 10mm dia. and 50mm
length to penetrate to a depth of 33-35 mm from the top of the mould.

3. INITIAL SETTING AND FINAL SETTING TESTS OF CEMENT :

Initial Setting time-

• When the paste will start losing its plasticity, the needle will penetrate only to
some depth.

• The period elapsing between the time when water is added to the cement
and to the time at which the needle penetrates the test block to a depth equal
to 33-35mm from the top is taken as initial time.

• For OPC it is generally taken as 30min.

Final Setting time-

• The cement is considered fully set when the center needle makes an
impression while the annular attachment fails to do so.

• The cement is said to be hard if it does not pierce more than 0.5mm.

• It is generally taken as 10 hrs.

4. SOUNDNESS TEST :

The Cement is said to be unsound if it has

• excess of lime.

• Due to high proportions of magnesium content or Calcium sulphate content.

• Because of inadequate burning of cement.

• Due to insufficiency in fineness of grinding or thorough mixing of raw

materials.

• It causes appreciable change in the volume of cement after the cement has
set causing disruption of the set and hardened mass.

• Le-Chatlier’s Apparatus is used for the test.

• In case the expansion is more than 10mm then the cement is said to be
unsound.

5. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST OF CEMENT :

• It is Laboratory method to determine the strength of cement.

• The size of cube mold is 70.6mm.

• Cement and standard sand mortar is used to make the cube.

• Three cubes are tested for strength.

• The average value is taken for the compressive strength of the three cubes
for each period respectively.
DEFINITION

CONCRETE

Concrete is as much a part of the urban landscape as trees are to a forest. It’s so
ubiquitous that we rarely even give it any regard at all. But underneath that drab grey
exterior is a hidden world of complexity.

Concrete is one of the most versatile and widely-used construction materials on earth. It
has four primary ingredients: Water, sand (also called fine aggregate), gravel (also known
as coarse aggregate), and cement. A recipe that is not quite a paragon of sophistication.
One ingredient falls from the sky, and the rest comes essentially straight out of the ground.
But, from these humble beginnings are born essentially the basis of the entire world’s
infrastructure.

Did you know…

● Concrete is the second most used material on earth after water.

● Concrete production contributes 5% of annual anthropogenic global CO2
production.
● Concrete in the middle of the Hoover Dam, which opened in 1936, is still drying
out!
● The largest ever, unreinforced concrete dome construction is the Pantheon in
Rome, which is over 2000 years old.
● 99% of all ‘cracked’ concrete is associated with other construction factors and not
the material as delivered.
● Concrete sets and hardens underwater.
● Concrete actually has elastic properties.

Classification

CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONCRETE

The most commonly used classification of concrete is according to:

1. The terms of the mixing of concrete

2. Bulk density of the concrete
3. The type of binder
4. The consistency of the fresh concrete
5. Concrete class
6. The purposes of concrete and other.

Classification according to the terms of mixing of concrete

Depending on the conditions under which fresh concrete prepares, there are two different
categories of concrete:

● The first category of concrete (B.I), which can be mixed without the previous
tests, but the amount of cement determined by Article 26 of the Rulebook on
technical norms for concrete and reinforced concrete must be used. The first
category of concrete (B.I) includes the following concrete classes: MB 10, 15, 20,
and 25 and they can be placed only at the construction site where they were mixed
and,
● The second category of concrete (B.II) with concrete class MB 30 or more, as
well as concrete with special properties and transported concrete of all concrete
classes. Concretes over 60 MB are special concrete, which can be used only for
specific purposes. The composition of concrete of category B.II is determined on
the basis of preliminary tests of fresh and hardened concrete, made of the
determined constituents for the intended construction conditions and purpose of
the structure.

Specification for concretes of the first and second categories is determined by Articles 26
- 62 of the above-mentioned Rulebook.

Classification according to the bulk density of concrete

Concrete can be classified according to bulk density, as follows:

● Lightweight concrete, whose bulk density does not exceed 1900 kg/m3. This
type of concrete is prepared with light porous filling, with total or partial use of
quartz sand as fine filling, with a hydraulic binder and water and admixtures in
particular circumstances. The increase of bulk density up to 2,100 kg/m3 is
acceptable only when it comes to the improvement of mechanical characteristics.

Technical norms that must be fulfilled during the designing, construction, and
maintenance of blocks and structures of concrete and reinforced concrete, prepared with
light aggregate filling, are determined by the Rulebook on technical norms for concrete
and reinforced concrete prepared with natural and artificial lightweight aggregate filler.

● Classic (ordinary) concrete with bulk density from 1900 kg/m3 to 2500 kg/m3
and,
● Heavy-weight concrete with a bulk density of higher than 2500 kg/m3. High bulk
density of concrete is achieved by using heavy-weight aggregates, such as barite,
iron ore (magnetite, hematite, and limonite), splinters or specially made balls of
iron and steel. In order to improve the protective characteristics of heavy-weight
concrete, compounds of Boron or Lithium are added to concrete. The compressive
 strengths of heavy-weight concrete are not high and they don't exceed 40 MPa,
and the tensile strength ranges from 1 to 3 MPa.

The provisions of the Rulebook on technical norms for concrete and reinforced concrete
("Official Gazette SFRY", No. 11/87) also apply to special types of concrete and
structures, for hydro-technical structures, concrete pavement structure, and similar,
unless it is indicated otherwise.

Classification of concrete according to the type of binder

Depending on the type of binder used for preparing concrete there are:

● Cement-concretes,
● Asphalt-concretes and
● Polymer concretes

Unlike conventional cement-concrete, where different types and classes of Portland

cement can be used as a binder, the asphalt-concrete bitumen, which is obtained by
processing oil, is used as a binder. Instead of aggregate that has rounded edges (gravel),
for the production of asphalt, it is used aggregate with sharp edges also called gravel
(crushed stone). Asphalt - concrete is used for flexible (elastic) structures, mostly for
asphalting streets and roads. Their purposes are completely different, although there are
areas where they can overlap.

Polymer-concretes are a type of concrete for whose preparation instead of cement

polymers are used as a binder. Concrete in which polymer is used as an admixture -
concrete is called Polymer Cement Concrete - PCC or Polymer Modified Concrete - PMC.

Classification according to the consistency of concrete

According to the Rulebook on technical norms for concrete and reinforced concrete
("Official Gazette SFRY", No. 11/87), there are four types of concrete consistency: solid,
low-plastic, plastic, and liquid.

The consistency of fresh concrete is the set of all fresh concrete properties that affect its
workability and processability. Concrete consistency can also be defined as the degree
of stiffness or mobility of fresh concrete. Concrete consistency can be also defined as the
degree of stiffness, i.e., the agility of fresh concrete.

Classification according to the concrete class

The concrete class (MB) is the normed compressive strength in MPa, based on the
characteristic strength of concrete at the age of 28 days. The characteristic compressive
strength is a value below which can be expected at most 10% of all compressive strengths
of tested concrete (a 10 % fractile).

For the construction of concrete blocks, the following concrete classes (MB) are used:
10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, and 60.

It is not allowed to use concrete class lower than MB 15 for reinforced concrete.

Classification of concrete according to purpose

Depending on the intended use there are:

● Hydro-technical concretes
● Concretes for pavement structure
● Prestressed concretes
● Precast concretes
● Decorative (visible) concretes
● Concretes for radiation protection (heavy-weight concrete)
● The thermal insulating concrete (lightweight concretes)
● The waterproofing concretes
● The soundproofing concretes (lightweight concretes)
● Concretes for fire protection,
● Concrete and mortar for reparation, etc.

HISTORY

Early Use of Concrete (6500 BC)

The first concrete-like structures were built by the Nabataea traders or Bedouins who
occupied and controlled a series of oases and developed a small empire in the regions
of southern Syria and northern Jordan in around 6500 BC. They later discovered the
advantages of hydraulic lime -- that is, cement that hardens underwater -- and by 700 BC,
they were building kilns to supply mortar for the construction of rubble-wall houses,
concrete floors, and underground waterproof cisterns. The cisterns were kept secret and
were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to thrive in the desert.
In making concrete, the Nabataea understood the need to keep the mix as dry or low-
slump as possible, as excess water introduces voids and weaknesses into the concrete.
Their building practices included tamping the freshly placed concrete with special tools.
The tamping process produced more gel, which is the bonding material produced by the
chemical reactions that take place during hydration which bond the particulates and
aggregate together.

Egypt (3000 BC)

Around 3000 BC, the ancient Egyptians used mud mixed with straw to form bricks. Mud
with straw is more similar to adobe than concrete. However, they also used gypsum and
lime mortars in building the pyramids, although most of us think of mortar and concrete
as two different materials. The Great Pyramid at Giza required about 500,000 tons of
mortar, which was used as a bedding material for the casing stones that formed the visible
surface of the finished pyramid. This allowed stone masons to carve and set casing
stones with joints open no wider than 1/50-inch.

China (3000 BC)

About this same time, the northern Chinese used a form of cement in boat-building and
in building the Great Wall. Spectrometer testing has confirmed that a key ingredient in the
mortar used in the Great Wall and other ancient Chinese structures was glutenous, sticky
rice. Some of these structures have withstood the test of time and have resisted even
modern efforts at demolition.

700 B.C.

Around 700 B.C., the Bedouins discovered cement that hardens underwater and created
kilns for producing mortar. They used that mortar to help construct floors, houses and
other structures. During this time, they also began tamping the concrete material and had
an understanding that the substance wouldn’t work as well if it were too saturated.

Rome (600 BC)

By 600 BC, the Greeks had discovered a natural pozzolan material that developed
hydraulic properties when mixed with lime, but the Greeks were nowhere near as prolific
in building with concrete as the Romans. By 200 BC, the Romans were building very
successfully using concrete, but it wasn’t like the concrete we use today. It was not a
plastic, flowing material poured into forms, but more like cemented rubble. The Romans
built most of their structures by stacking stones of different sizes and hand-filling the
spaces between the stones with mortar. Above ground, walls were clad both inside and
out with clay bricks that also served as forms for the concrete. The brick had little or no
structural value and their use was mainly cosmetic. Before this time, and in most places
at that time (including 95% of Rome), the mortars commonly used were a simple
limestone cement that hardened slowly from reacting with airborne carbon dioxide. True
chemical hydration did not take place. These mortars were weak.

200 B.C.
By this time, the Romans had perfected building with concrete, though in a different way
than we use it today. The Romans would create most of a structure with loose rocks and
materials and cement them together by hand with mortar. They even used cosmetic bricks
in combination with their version of cement. Using non-structural blocks established
concrete as a purposeful and aesthetic product.
For their more artistic endeavors — or those that needed enhanced durability — the
Romans created cement from volcanic sand that reacted with lime and water.

1414
The collapse of the Roman Empire made the interest in concrete dormant until
manuscripts explaining the substance resurfaced during this year. Then came a new
appreciation for the building material. This year serves as one of the many turning points
in the history of concrete. It started the chain reaction for the discovery of new ways to
make and use concrete for centuries to come.

1793
John Smeaton created a more efficient method of producing hydraulic lime in 1793. He
used limestone that contained clay and fired it until the substance turned into a clinker.
The clinker could then get ground into powder. The product was used to help cement set,
and the modernized production made it easier to make concrete and have it set quickly.

1824
This year was very vital in the history of concrete because it’s when bricklayer Joseph
Aspdin created Portland cement. Named as such because it was similar to building stones
in Portland, England, Portland cement is very strong. To make the cement, Aspdin burned
chalk and clay in a kiln until there was no more carbon dioxide. He later refined the
portions of limestone and clay that created the clinker. Aspdin helped spur the use of
cement and concrete in modern constructions. In his goal to create a better alternative to
the Romans’ building material, he inspired competition to create even better versions of
his Portland cement.

Concrete change over the years

In the late 1800s, individuals in Germany, France and the United States were
simultaneously developing steel-reinforced concrete. At the time, it was used for industrial
builds, but it would go on to play a role in residential buildings and other structures.

The Portland cement Joseph Aspdin created wasn’t exactly the same as what we produce
today. While Aspdin didn’t include specific ratios or temperatures for making his Portland
cement, we know that he couldn’t have achieved the high temperatures we do today to
heat substances.

Today, we have a standard formula for Portland cement. It was created back in 1917 by
the American Society for Testing and Materials, along with the National Bureau of
Standards. The standard formula created a consistent quality no matter when or where
someone made the substance.

Even before we developed a formula for Portland cement, builders were using concrete
in projects all over the world once again. In the early 1900s, concrete regained public
acceptance as a building material, with these types of structures going up:

● A Paris apartment building in 1902

● The first concrete high-rise in Ohio in 1904
● A 328-foot bridge in Rome in 1911

After these and other buildings, ready-mix concrete was developed. In 1913, the material
was delivered in Baltimore, Maryland. It helped make job sites more efficient since
workers no longer had to mix concrete on-site. Instead, it arrived premixed from a plant
in early versions of what we now consider cement trucks.

Some decades later, we discovered that producing small air bubbles, known as air
entrainment, improved concrete. After the introduction of air-entrainment substances to
concrete in 1930, the building material was easier to work with and less prone to freezing.
Now architects in colder climates could choose the material without worrying about cracks
or breakage.

Around the same time, builders developed thin-shell concrete. Roofs, domes, arches and
other similar structures were made of a thin shell of concrete. Because of the strong,
rounded shapes of these structures, they did not require thick layers of the material. The
lighter weight of thin-shell concrete makes the rest of the building safer from collapse
since it doesn’t need to support a heavy material.

As we worked with concrete, we made it a stronger and more resistant building material.
We discovered easier ways to make it, transport it and use it. Along with those
discoveries, builders and architects constructed buildings in different styles. Brutalist,
modern and other concrete structures include feats and artistic creations such as:

● Yale University’s Paul Rudolph Hall

● The Science Hills museum in Japan
● Jubilee Church outside of Rome
● The Salk Institute research center in California
● The Villa Saitan housing complex in Japan
● The National Museum of Brazil
● The Geisel Library at UC San Diego
These buildings show off concrete’s versatility as a building material. As technology
advanced, builders and architects were able to create curves, cut-outs and other eye-
catching design elements out of concrete. The substance’s style flexibility allowed it to
build churches, museums, housing and more, along with some historical concrete
structures.

TYPES

There are many different types of concrete, some of which can be used for the same
purpose. It depends on the goal you wish to achieve. You can choose the appropriate
form of concrete to accomplish the task.

1. Normal Strength Concrete

Normal strength concrete is made up of a combination of several fundamental ingredients

— aggregate, concrete and sand — in a 1:2:4 ratio. This mixture produces normal
strength concrete that can be used for many applications. It takes about 30 to 90 minutes
to set, but this is dependent on the weather conditions at the concrete site and the
cement’s properties.
It’s normally used for pavements or buildings that don’t need high tensile strength. It is
not very good for many other structures since it doesn’t withstand the stresses created by
wind loading or vibrations very well.

2. Reinforced Concrete

This form of concrete is widely used in industry and modern construction. Reinforced
concrete gets its strength through the help of wires, steel rods or cables that are placed
in the concrete before it sets. A more familiar name for these items is rebar. Lately, people
have used fibers to reinforce this concrete.
These reinforcements resist tensile forces to avoid cracking or breaking. Meanwhile, the
concrete itself resists compressive forces to withstand heavy weight. Together, the two
materials create a strong bond against many applied forces, such as vehicles. In essence,
they become a single structural element.
Invented in the 19th century, it dramatically changed the construction industry. Roadways,
buildings and bridges require reinforced concrete. Next time you visit a construction site,
you’ll likely see reinforced concrete with rebar.

3. Plain or Ordinary Concrete

This is another concrete that uses the common mix design of 1:2:4 with its components
of cement, sand and aggregates. You can employ it to make pavement or buildings where
there is not a high demand for tensile strength. It faces the same challenges as normal
strength concrete — it doesn’t stand up very well to vibrations or wind loading. Plain or
ordinary concrete is also used in dam construction. The durability rating of this kind of
concrete is very satisfactory.

4. Prestressed Concrete

Prestressed concrete units are used for many large concrete projects. To create
prestressed concrete, you must use a special technique. Like reinforced concrete, it
includes bars or tendons. But these bars or tendons are stressed before the actual
application of the concrete.
When the concrete is mixed and placed, these bars are placed at each end of the
structural unit where they are used. When the concrete sets, this unit is put into
compression.
This compression enhances the strength of the lower section of the unit and improves its
resistance against tensile forces. However, this process requires skilled labor and heavy
equipment. Normally, prestressed units are created and assembled on-site. Prestressed
concrete is used to build bridges, heavy-loaded structures or roofs that have long spans.

5. Precast Concrete

As with most classes of concrete, precast concrete must be made and cast according to
specific measurements. These concrete units are eventually transported to the
application site and assembled for use.
You frequently see these units transported to worksites as you drive on highways. Precast
concrete is used for:
● Concrete blocks
● Precast walls
● Staircase units
● Poles

The advantage of using precast concrete is its speedy assembly. Since the units are
manufactured in a factory, they are of very high quality.

6. Lightweight Concrete

Lightweight concrete is any kind of concrete that has a density of less than 1920kg/m3.
Lightweight concrete is created by using lightweight aggregates. Aggregates are
ingredients that add to the density of the style of concrete. These lightweight aggregates
are made up of various natural, artificial and processed materials, which include:
● Clays
 ● Expanded shales
● Scoria
● Pumice
● Perlite
● Vermiculite

The most important property of lightweight concrete is that it has very low thermal
conductivity. Common uses for lightweight concrete include creating long-spanning
bridge decks and building blocks. It can also be used to protect steel structures.

7. High-Density Concrete

High-density concrete has a very specific purpose. It is frequently used in the construction
of atomic power plants. The heavyweight aggregates used in the creation of high-density
concrete help the structure resist radiation.
Crushed rocks are normally used. Barytes, a colorless or white material that consists of
barium sulfate and is the principal ingredient in barium, is the crushed rock most often
employed.

8. Stamped Concrete

Also known as imprinted or textured concrete, stamped concrete is designed to

realistically replicate the look and pattern of natural stones, tiles, brick and granites.
Stamped concrete is often used to construct patios, pool decks, interior floors and
driveways.
This style is achieved by using professional stamping pads to create an impression on
the surface of the concrete. To get a natural finish, you can also use various texture work
and coloring stains.
Some of the advantages of stamped concrete include:
● Affordability compared to natural pavers and stone
● Easy maintenance once sealed
● Becomes slip-resistant with a non-skid additive
● Enhances outdoor space and adds value
● Durable and long-lasting
● Extensive pattern and color choices

9. Air-Entrained Concrete

Some types of concrete hold billions of microscopic air cells in every cubic foot. These
tiny air pockets relieve the internal pressure on the concrete. They provide tiny chambers
where water can expand when it freezes.
The air is entrained in the concrete by adding several foaming agents during the mixing
process, including:
● Fatty acids
● Resins
● Alcohols

Because this concrete is mixed at the site of application, the mixing and entraining
process requires careful engineering supervision. The entrained air adds up to about 3%
to 6% of the volume of the concrete. Almost all concrete used in a freezing environment
or where there are freeze-thaw cycles is air-entrained.

10. Ready-Mix Concrete

Concrete prepared and bathed in a centrally located plant is known as ready-mix

concrete. This concrete is mixed as it is transported to the site in the familiar cement
trucks seen often on roads and highways. Once the trucks reach the worksite, the cement
can be used immediately because it does not need further treatment. Ready-mix concrete
is a specialty concrete that is mixed based on specifications developed with great
precision.
Creating ready-mix concrete requires a centralized location where the concrete can be
prepared. These locations need to be placed at an adjustable distance from the worksite.
If the concrete takes too long to reach the worksite, it will be of no use. In most cases, the
worksite is too far from the preparation plant. Retarding agents are sometimes used to
delay how long the concrete takes to set.
Ready-mix concrete is preferred to concrete mixed on-site because the mixture has
higher precision and having the concrete ready to pour reduces confusion on the worksite.
Ready-mix concrete can be used for buildings, roadways, walls and more.

11. Self-Consolidated Concrete

Self-consolidating concrete will compact on its own due to its weight when put in place.
This non-segregating, highly flowable concrete will fill the formwork and spread easily into
place to encapsulate the reinforcement without the need for vibration or mechanical
consolidation. This highly workable concrete is best used for applications and areas
where there is thick reinforcement.
Some benefits of self-consolidated concrete include the following:
● Self-leveling
● Enhanced hardened properties
● Improved consolidation in congested areas
● Safer work environment
● Reduced equipment and labor
● Increased detailing flexibility
 ● Smoother surfaces
● Reduced noise

12. Polymer Concrete

Polymer concrete aggregates, compared to those in other concrete types, are bound
together in a matrix with polymer instead of cement. This type of concrete is made of
limestone gravels, silica, quartz, granite pebbles and other high-compressive strength
materials. If these materials are not dry, clean and dust-free, it can have a negative impact
on the concrete’s binding ability.
The polymer resin serves as the binder and the aggregate is the compressive stress
material. Polymer concrete composites contain a distinct combination of properties in their
formulation. Some of these properties include:
● Rapid curing ambient temperatures
● Good adhesion to surfaces
● Long-term durability
● High flexural, tensile and compressive strengths
● Low permeability to water and some solution
● Lightweight formula
● Strong chemical resistance

Polymer concrete also has a few distinct categories, including:

● Polymer impregnated concrete
● Polymer cement concrete
● Partially impregnated

13. Rapid-Set Concrete

In a hurry? Then you need rapid-set concrete. It’s ideal when you’re short on time to
complete a project. It has faster set times and is very resistant to low temperatures, so it
can be used any time of the year. It’s especially useful in winters when the cold weather
does not allow you to use many other kinds of concrete.

14. Pervious Concrete

This is one of the most common kinds of concrete used to build roads and pavements. It
is designed to deal with the problems of stormwater runoff and pools of water and puddles
on roadways or airport runways.
Other concrete absorbs water. Roadways that use previous concrete have fewer
problems with hydroplaning, tire spray and snow buildup. It also reduces the need for
curbing and storm sewers.
It is composed of a mixture of cement, water and coarse aggregates. It contains no sand,
which creates an open-scale, porous structure. This allows water to pass through the
layers more easily. Some kinds of previous concrete will pass several gallons of water
through its surface per minute.

15. Vacuum Concrete

In certain applications, such as deck slabs, parking lots and industrial floors, concrete will
have a higher water content than necessary when poured into the formwork. In these
cases, the excess water must be removed with a vacuum pump before the concrete
begins to set. Compared to a normal construction method, the vacuum technique can
help make the concrete platform or structure ready to use sooner.

16. Pumped Concrete

If you’ve ever wondered what types of cement mixtures used in the flooring of a very tall
building are, the answer is probably pumped concrete. The secret to pumped concrete is
that it is very workable, so it can be conveyed easily via a pipe to an upper floor. This pipe
will be a flexible or rigid hose that discharges the concrete to the required area.
Pumped concrete can also be used:
● To create superflat floors on lower structures
● In construction projects like roadways and bridges
● For more personal items, like swimming pools

It is a reliable, efficient and economical way to apply concrete and is often the only way
that concrete can be placed in certain locations. Very fine aggregates are used in pumped
concrete. The finer the aggregate used in the mix, the freer the concrete flows from the
pipe.

17. Limecrete

This concrete uses lime instead of cement, along with lightweight aggregates like glass
fiber or sharp sand. It’s mainly used for the construction of floors, vaults and domes.
Limecrete has many environmental benefits because it is so easily cleaned and is
renewable. It can also be used with radiant floor heating.

18. Roll Compacted Concrete

It’s a familiar sight on many American highways — a heavy roller compacting a layer of
concrete. Roll-compacted concrete is a strong, dense concrete used on heavily trafficked
highways with vehicles that carry large loads. This concrete emits fewer emissions during
the production process, which benefits the environment.
Roll compacted concrete can be found in roadworks, airport runways, car parks,
pavements and industrial servicing.

19. Glass Concrete

Another, more modern form of concrete, glass concrete features the use of recycled
glass. This form of concrete is used when aesthetic appeal is an important element in the
design of the concrete.
Commonly used in the large-format slabs found in flooring or on decorative façades, this
concrete can have shining or colored glass embedded during the mixing process to give
it a distinctive splash of color or sparkle.

20. Asphalt Concrete

More commonly known as “asphalt” or “blacktop,” this is a form of concrete often used for
constructing sidewalks, roads, parking lots, airport runways and highways— almost
anywhere pavement is needed. Asphalt is a dark mineral composed of bitumens, which
are a form of hydrocarbons.
The desire for asphalt grew along with the automobile industry. Known for its durability,
workability, skid resistance, stability, fatigue resistance, flexibility and permeability, it still
requires a properly designed mixture. It is a composite mixture of aggregates and asphalt.
The different mixtures of asphalt are used for different purposes.

21. Shotcrete Concrete

Shotcrete differs from other forms of concrete primarily in the way it is applied. Shotcrete
is shot through a nozzle onto a frame or formwork. Since this application requires higher
air pressure, the compaction process takes place at the same time as the placing.
Shotcrete can be used to repair damaged wood, concrete or steel structures. It is also
commonly used when access to a work area is difficult or when formwork is impractical
or cost-prohibitive.

22. High-Strength Concrete

High-strength concrete is any concrete mix that is greater than 40 megapascal (40MPa),
which is the tensile strength of concrete. High-strength concrete that meets this
determinant can handle much more stress and pressure compared to concrete at 20MPa
or 30MPa.
This type of concrete can withstand strenuous conditions before it shears, cracks or
breaks. The increased strength in this concrete is accomplished by reducing the water-
cement ratio to a low rate.
High-strength concrete above 40MPa is often used for civil and commercial construction,
which includes buildings and infrastructure projects, structural beams, columns, load
bearing walls and any other application where increased capacity and durability are
required.

23. High-Performance Concrete

Though all high-strength concrete can be labeled as high-performance, not all high-
performance concrete (HPC) will be in the high-strength category. HPC meets particular
efficiency standards, such as:
● Easy placement
● Heat of hydration
● Environmental standards
● Longevity and durability
● Life-term mechanical properties
● Strength gain in early age
● Toughness
● Permeability and density factors

However, HPC may be limited in strength in some cases, depending on the application
you plan to use it in.

COMPOSITION

Major ingredients of concrete are:

1. Binding material (like cement, lime, polymer)
2. Fine aggregate (sand)
3. Coarse aggregates (crushed stone, jelly)
4. Water.

A small quantity of admixtures like air entraining agents, water proofing agents,
workability agents etc. may also be added to impart special properties to the plain
concrete mixture.
In the proportioning of concrete it is kept in mind that voids in coarse aggregates are filled
with sand and the voids in sand are filled with cement paste.

Cement is the binding material. After addition of water it hydrates and binds aggregates
and the surrounding surfaces like stone and bricks. Generally richer mix (with more
cement) gives more strength. Setting time starts after 30 minutes and ends after 6 hours.
Hence concrete should be laid in its mould before 30 minutes of mixing of water and
should not be subjected to any external forces till final setting takes place.
Coarse aggregate consists of crushed stones. It should be well graded and the stones
should be of igneous origin. They should be clean, sharp, angular and hard. They give
mass to the concrete and prevent shrinkage of cement. Fine aggregate consists of river
sand. It prevents shrinkage of cement. When surrounded by cement it gains mobility,
enters the voids in coarse aggregates and binding of ingredients takes place. It adds
density to concrete, since it fills the voids. Denser the concrete higher is its strength.

Water used for making concrete should be clean. It activates the hydration of cement and
forms plastic mass. As it sets completely, concrete becomes hard mass. Water gives
workability to concrete which means water makes it possible to mix the concrete with
ease and place it in the final position. More the water the better the workability. However
excess water reduces the strength of concrete. Figure 3.1 shows the variation of strength
of concrete with water cement ratio. To achieve required workability and at the same time
good strength a water cement ratio of 0.4 to 0.45 is used, in case of machine mixing and
water cement ratio of 0.5 to 0.6 is used for hand mixing.

WATER
● AGGREGATE
● BINDING MATERIAL
● CEMENT
● ADMIXTURE

● WATER
● AGGREGATE
● AIR
● CEMENT

● WATER
● AGGREGATE
● AIR
● BINDING MATERIAL

Composition of Basic Concrete Mix

If we evaluate the concrete composition to see what concrete is made of, we can see
there are four basic ingredients within the concrete material mix:

● Binding materials like cement or lime

● Aggregates or Inert Materials
○ Fine aggregate (sand)
○ Coarse aggregate (stone chips, brick chips)
 ● Water
● Admixture (e.g. Pozzolana)

A brief description of the concrete ingredients is given below.

Binding Materials
Binding material is the main element of a concrete material mix. Cement is the most
commonly used binding material. Lime could also be used. When water is mixed with the
cement, a paste is created that coats the aggregates within the mix. The paste hardens,
binds the aggregates, and forms a stone-like substance.
Aggregates
Sand is a fine mixture. Gravel or crushed stone is the coarse mixture in most mixes.
Water
Water is required to react with the cement (hydration) and to supply workability with the
concrete. The number of water combined in pounds compared with the number of cement
is named the water/cement quantitative relation. The lower the w/c quantitative relation,
the stronger the concrete. (Higher strength, less permeability).

Concrete is a mixture of cement, water, fine aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate
(gravel or crushed rocks) in which the cement and water have hardened by a chemical
reaction – hydration – to bind the nearly (non-reacting) aggregate.

• Other materials in addition to the above are often incorporated, such as fine powders
that can substitute some of the cement, known as additions, and small quantities of
chemicals, known as admixtures, which can alter and improve some
properties.
• The use of additions, most of which are fine powders like the cement and which
participate in the hydration reactions, requires the definition of the binder as the mixture
of cement and addition(s).

Major ingredients of concrete are:

1. Binding material (like cement, lime, polymer)
2. Fine aggregate (sand)
3. Coarse aggregates (crushed stone, jelly)
4. Water.
A small quantity of admixtures like air entraining agents, water proofing agents,
workability agents etc. may also be added to impart special properties to the plain
concrete mixture.

Cement is the binding material. After addition of water it hydrates and binds aggregates
and the surrounding surfaces like stone and bricks. Generally richer mix (with more
cement) gives more strength.

Aggregates are essential components of concrete. They act as inert material in concrete.
Fine aggregate and coarse aggregate are two main types of aggregate for concrete. As
the name indicates, they are basically classified depending on the sizes of aggregate
particles. Coarse aggregate consists of crushed stones. It should be well graded and the
stones should be of igneous origin. They should be clean, sharp, angular and hard. They
give mass to the concrete and prevent shrinkage of cement. Fine aggregate consists of
river sand. It prevents shrinkage of cement.
When surrounded by cement it gains mobility, enters the voids in coarse aggregates and
binding of ingredients takes place. It adds density to concrete, since it fills the voids.
Denser the concrete higher is its strength.

Water used for making concrete should be clean. It activates the hydration of cement and
forms plastic mass. As it sets completely, concrete becomes hard mass. Water gives
workability to concrete which means water makes it possible to mix the concrete with
ease and place it in the final position. More the water the better the workability. However
excess water reduces the strength of concrete.

PROCESS

Concrete Manufacturing Processes Overview

1. Batching
The first step involves gathering the ingredients necessary to produce the
particular type of concrete. The type of batching, volume or weighted, is contingent
on the amount of concrete being produced. Volume batching, typically involved in
producing smaller batches, requires a tedious amount of manual gauge box
measuring and lifting. Due to the strenuous environment, this stage of the
manufacturing process requires critical care in selecting the right safety gear to
safeguard against cuts, blisters and other environmental hazards.
2. Mixing
 Depending on the type and quantity needed for a particular job, concrete
can be mixed by hand, by stationary mixer, or during transport. Regardless of how
it is mixed, the critical point is to ensure the concrete is uniform in color and
consistency for optimal setting. Hand mixing cement, using shovels, and other
mixing tools takes its toll on workers’ hands, again requiring a strong durable glove
for enhanced protection.
3. Transporting and Placing
Methods of transporting concrete vary widely from wheelbarrow and manual
hauling to conveyor belt operations, to more advanced projects involving cranes
and pumps. All of these methods require some level of manual operating
demanding advanced safety wear. From physically hauling wheelbarrows to
operating and securing larger machines and equipment hauling the concrete,
companies have an obligation to ensure their gloves meet safety requirements.

4. Compacting and Placing

During mixing and transport air is often entrapped, greatly reducing the
quality and strength. One of the final stages of production involves compacting the
product to eliminate the air pockets and ensure durability. This can be done by
involving machinery that temporarily liquefies the concrete, instantly expelling
trapped air, or by hand tooling.

5. Curing and Finishing

This process takes place immediately after concrete is compressed and
involves close attention to detail regarding moisture levels and contracting as it
dries. This process is crucial in preventing cracking and durability issues. Many
types of curation involve potent chemicals to seal the slab that can be incredibly
hazardous to workers if exposed.

Properties

● GRADE
● COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
● CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH
● TENSILE STRENGTH
● CREEP
● SHRINKAGE
● MODULAR RATIO
● POISSON’S RATIO
● DURABILITY
● UNIT WEIGHT
 ● DURABILITY
● GOOD WORKABILITY
● IMPERMEABILITY
● COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
● POROSITY
● DRYING SHRINKAGE AND CREEP
● MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

● STRENGTH
● WORKABILITY
● ELASTIC PROPERTIES
● IMPERMEABILITY
● SURABILITY
● SEGREGATION
● BLEEDING
● FATIGUE

Concrete has completely different properties when it is the plastic stage and when
hardened. Concrete in the plastic stage is also known as green concrete. Concrete is a
mixture of several materials. At the hardened state, this heterogeneous material becomes
a stone-like mass. The extensive use of concrete in the construction field has made it a
material of huge concern for engineers. To participate in the vast uses of concrete an
engineer must know its properties. Here in this article, we have provided a glimpse of the
properties of concrete.
Strength
Strength of concrete are of the following types:

a. Compressive strength
b. Tensile strength
c. Flexural strength
d. Shear strength

Compressive Strength
Two types of test specimens are used in Bangladesh -(1) Cube and (2) Cylinder.
The cube specimens of concrete of the desired proportion are cast in steel or cast iron
molds, normally 6-inch cube. The standard cylinder specimen of concrete is 6 inch in
diameter and 12 inches in height and cast in a mold generally made of cast iron;
Standard cubes and cylinders are tested at prescribed ages, generally, 28 days, with
additional tests often made at 1, 3, and 7 days. The specimens are tested for crushing
strength under a testing machine. The cube tests give much greater values of crushing
strength, usually 20 to 30 % more than those given by cylinders.
According to British standards, the strength of a cylinder specimen is equal to three-
quarters of the strength of the cube specimen.
 Figure: Cube and Cylinder
Specimens for Compression Strength Testing.

Effect of age on concrete strength:

Concrete attains strength with time. Ordinary cement concrete gains above 70 to 75% of
its final strength within 28 days and about 90 to 95 % in the course of one year. It is often
desirable to check the suitability of a concrete long before the results of the 28-day test
are available. When no specific data on the materials used in making concrete are
available, the 28-day strength may be assumed to be 1.5 times of the 7 days’ strength.
Tests have shown that for concrete made with ordinary Portland cement the ratio of the
28 days to 7 days’ strength generally lies between 1.3 to 1.7, and the majority of the
results fall above 1.5. The extrapolation of 28 days’ strength from the 7 days’ strength is,
therefore quite reliable;
The rate of gain of strength of the different type of cement concretes are shown in the
figure below
Tensile strength
Concrete is very weak in tension. The tensile strength of ordinary concrete ranges from
about 7 to 10 percent of the compressive strength.
Flexural strength
The flexural strength of plain concrete is almost wholly dependent upon the tensile
strength. However, experiments show that the modulus of rupture is considerably greater
than the strength in tension.
Shear strength
It is the real determining factor in the compressive strength of short columns. The average
strength of concrete in direct shear varies from about half of the compressive strength for
rich mixtures to about 0.8 of the compressive strength for lean mixtures.

Workability
The strength of concrete of a given mix proportion is very seriously affected by the degree
of its compaction. It is therefore vital that the consistency of the mix be such that the
concrete can be transported, placed and finished sufficiently easily and without
segregation. A concrete satisfying these conditions is said to be workable.
Factors affecting the workability of concrete are:

■ Water Content
■ Mix Proportions
■ Size of Aggregates
■ Shape of Aggregates
■ Grading of Aggregates
 ■ Surface Texture of Aggregates
■ Use of Admixtures
■ Use of Supplementary Cementitious Materials
■ Time
■ Temperature

Usually, a Slump test is done to indirectly determine the workability of a concrete mix.

Elastic Properties
Concrete is not perfectly elastic for any range of loading, an appreciable permanent
setting taking place for even low loads. The deformation is not proportional to the stress
at any stage of loading. The elastic properties of concrete vary with the richness of the
mixture and with the intensity of the stress. They also vary with the age of concrete.

Durability
Durability is the property of concrete to withstand the condition for which it has been
designed, without deterioration over a period of years. Lack of durability can be caused
by external agents arising from the environment or by internal agents within the concrete.
Causes can be categorized as physical, mechanical and chemical.
Physical cause arises from the action of frost and from differences between the thermal
properties of aggregate and of the cement paste, while mechanical causes are associated
mainly with abortion.

Impermeability
Penetration of concrete by materials in solution may adversely affect its durability, for
instance, when Ca(OH)2 is being leached out or an attack by aggressive liquids (acids)
takes place. Permeability has an important bearing on the vulnerability of concrete to
water and frost. In the case of reinforced cement concrete, the penetration of moisture
and air will result in the corrosion of steel. This leads to an increase in the volume of the
steel, resulting in cracking and spalling of the concrete. Permeability of concrete is also
of importance for liquid retaining and hydraulic structures;

Segregation
The tendency of separation of coarse aggregate grains from the concrete mass is called
segregation. It increases when the concrete mixture is lean and too wet. It also increases
when a rather large and rough-textured aggregate is used. The phenomenon of
segregation can be avoided as follows.
 i. Addition of little air-entraining agents in the mix.
ii. Restricting the amount of water to the smallest possible amount.
iii. All the operations like handling, placing and consolidation must be carefully
conducted.
iv. Concrete should not be allowed to fall from large heights.

Bleeding
The tendency of water to rise to the surface of freshly laid concrete is known as bleeding.
The water rising to the surface carries with it, particles of sand and cement, which on
hardening form a scum layer is popularly known as laitance. Concrete bleeding can be
checked by adopting the following measures.

i. By adding more cement

ii. By using more finely ground cement
iii. By properly designing the mix and using the minimum quantity of water
iv. By using little air entraining agent
v. By increasing the finer part of fine aggregate

Fatigue
Plain concrete when subjected to flexure, exhibits fatigue. The flexure resisting ability of
concrete of a given quality is indicated by an endurance limit whose value depends upon
the number of repetitions of stress. In concrete pavement design, the allowable flexural
working stress is limited to 55% of the modulus of rupture.

Desirable Properties of Concrete

Durability: Ability of hardened concrete to resist deterioration caused by weathering,

chemicals, and abrasion
Workability: Ease of placing, handling, and finishing
Weather Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused by freezing and thawing, wetting
and drying, and heating and cooling
Erosion Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused by water flow, traffic, and wind
blasting
Chemical Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused by de-icing salts, salt water,
sulfate salts
Water Tightness: Resistance to water infiltration
Strength
Economy
Uses of Concrete
The major uses of concrete are:

1. Concrete Dams
Concrete's qualities, namely its strong strength and low density, make it a
better choice as a building material for dams. Water and power are both stored
and generated by dams. Concrete is a good choice for dam building because of
the heavy weights that water pressure places on the structure.

2. Residential Buildings
Concrete is used to construct the skeleton of modest structures, villas, and
even high-rise buildings. This includes the foundation, slabs, and, of course,
columns and beams. Formwork can be classic or modern.

3. Commercial Buildings
Commercial buildings are safer to use than most other types of construction
materials since they are made of concrete. Compared to steel buildings, it is often
more affordable and requires less upkeep. Heat flow from inside to outside and
vice versa may be easily managed, which lowers the amount of energy used.

4. Roads or Driveways
Concrete streets, pavements, and driveways are more durable and stronger
than asphalt roadways. The long-lasting service time and the less maintenance
required for concrete roads make it the first choice of material for the construction
of roads and driveways.

5. Marine Construction
Concrete has had extensive use as a construction material for seawalls,
jetties, groins, breakwaters, bulkheads, and other structures exposed to seawater.
The performance record has generally been good.

6. Culverts and Sewers

Sewers and underground construction works need strong and durable
building materials and concrete is the ideal one. Culverts, piers, foundation,
abutments are constructed using a special concrete mix.

7. Foundations
Reinforced cement concrete is typically used to create the foundation of
both high-rise and low-rise structures because it is strong and has a large load
bearing capability.
 8. Fences
The precast concrete industry's growth has benefited the concrete fencing
sector. Precast construction speeds up the production and installation of fence
components compared to conventional concrete fence building. Additionally, it is
gorgeous and more charming.

9. Concrete Bridges
Reinforced concrete strength, durability, ductility, weather resistance, fire
resistance, and long-lasting life cycle makes the concrete the finest alternative for
constructing the bridges. Several forms of concrete, including self-compacted,
post-stressed, and prestressed concrete, may be used in the building of bridges.

CONCRETE TESTING

7 Methods for Testing Concrete Strength

There are many different practices aside from cylinder break tests that can be
used. Here are seven different approaches to consider when choosing a method of
strength testing.

Methods for Testing Compressive Strength of Concrete

1. Rebound Hammer or Schmidt Hammer (ASTM C805)

Method: A spring release mechanism is used to activate a hammer which impacts

a plunger to drive into the surface of the concrete. The rebound distance from the
hammer to the surface of the concrete is given a value from 10 to 100. This
measurement is then correlated to the concretes’ strength.

Pros: Relatively easy to use and can be done directly onsite.

Cons: Pre-calibration using cored samples is required for accurate

measurements. Test results can be skewed by surface conditions and the
presence of large aggregates or rebar below the testing location.

2. Penetration Resistance Test (ASTM C803)

 Method: To complete a penetration resistance test, a device drives a small pin or
probe into the surface of the concrete. The force used to penetrate the surface,
and the depth of the hole, is correlated to the strength of the in-place concrete.

Pros: Relatively easy to use and can be done directly onsite.

Cons: Data is significantly affected by surface conditions as well as the type of

form and aggregates used. Requires pre-calibration using multiple concrete
samples for accurate strength measurements.

3. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (ASTM C597)

Method: This technique determines the velocity of a pulse of vibrational energy

through a slab. The ease at which this energy makes its way through the slab
provides measurements regarding the concrete’s elasticity, resistance to
deformation or stress, and density. This data is then correlated to the slab’s
strength.

Pros: This is a non-destructive testing technique which can also be used to detect
flaws within the concrete, such as cracks and honeycombing.

Cons: This technique is highly influenced by the presence of reinforcements,

aggregates, and moisture in the concrete element. It also requires calibration with
multiple samples for accurate testing.

4. Pullout Test (ASTM C900)

Method: The main principle behind this test is to pull the concrete using a metal
rod that is cast-in-place or post-installed in the concrete. The pulled conical shape,
in combination with the force required to pull the concrete, is correlated to
compressive strength.

Pros: Easy to use and can be performed on both new and old constructions.

Cons: This test involves crushing or damaging the concrete. A large number of
test samples are needed at different locations of the slab for accurate results.

5. Drilled Core (ASTM C42)

 Method: A core drill is used to extract hardened concrete from the slab. These
samples are then compressed in a machine to monitor the strength of the in-situ
concrete.

Pros: These samples are considered more accurate than field-cured specimens
because the concrete that is tested for strength has been subjected to the actual
thermal history and curing conditions of the in-place slab.

Cons: This is a destructive technique that requires damaging the structural

integrity of the slab. The locations of the cores need to be repaired afterwards. A
lab must be used to obtain strength data.

6. Cast-in-place Cylinders (ASTM C873)

Method: Cylinder molds are placed in the location of the pour. Fresh concrete is
poured into these molds which remain in the slab. Once hardened, these
specimens are removed and compressed for strength.

Pros: Is considered more accurate than field-cured specimens because the

concrete is subjected to the same curing conditions of the in-place slab, unlike
field-cured specimens.

Cons: This is a destructive technique that requires damaging the structural

integrity of the slab. The locations of the holes need to be repaired afterwards. A
lab must be used to obtain strength data.

7. Wireless Maturity Sensors (ASTM C1074)

Method: This technique is based on the principle that concrete strength is directly
related to its hydration temperature history. Wireless sensors are placed within the
concrete formwork, secured on the rebar, before pouring. Temperature data is
collected by the sensor and uploaded to any smart device within an app using a
wireless connection. This information is used to calculate the compressive strength
of the in-situ concrete element based on the maturity equation that is set up in the
app.

Pros: Compressive strength data is given in real-time and updated every 15

minutes. As a result, the data is considered more accurate and reliable as the
sensors are embedded directly in the formwork, meaning they are subject to the
 same curing conditions as the in-situ concrete element. This also means no time
is wasted onsite waiting for results from a third-party lab.

Cons: Requires a one-time calibration for each concrete mix to establish a maturity
curve using cylinder break tests.

Other relevant information

Concrete is a mix of several different materials: water, fine aggregates (or sand),
coarse aggregates (or gravel), chemical additives, and, most importantly, cement.
Cement is what binds all of these ingredients together to give concrete its durability and
distinctive, grey appearance. It’s widely used especially in the field of engineering and
construction. The reason for this is its advantages over other materials. However, there
are also disadvantages.

Advantages of Concrete
● Ingredients of concrete are readily available in most places.
● Unlike natural stones, concrete is free from defects and flaws.
● Concrete can be manufactured to the desired strength with an economy.
● The durability of concrete is very high.
● It can be cast to any desired shape.
● The casting of concrete can be done on the working site which makes it
economical.
● The maintenance cost of concrete is almost negligible.
● The deterioration of concrete is not appreciable with age.
● Concrete makes a building fire-safe due to its non-combustible nature.
● Concrete can withstand high temperatures.
● Concrete is resistant to wind and water. Therefore, it is very useful in storm
shelters.
● As a soundproofing material cinder concrete could be used.
Disadvantages of Concrete
● Compared to other binding materials, the tensile strength of concrete is relatively
low.
● Concrete is less ductile.
● The weight of concrete is high compared to its strength.
● Concrete may contain soluble salts. Soluble salts cause efflorescence.

References
Heams, A. (2019). 7 Methods for Testing Concrete Strength. Retrieved from:
https://www.forconstructionpros.com/concrete/article/21072546/giatec-scientific-
inc-7-methods-for-testing-concrete-
strength#:~:text=The%20most%20common%20method%20for,party%20lab%20
at%20various%20stages.
Rahman, F. (2020). 10+ Uses of Concrete in Civil Engineering. Retrieved from:
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/uses-concrete-civil-
engineering/35992/?amp=1&fbclid=IwAR3Uzir5MoMBcufDB2cEk9zJHj6uFvQnIrl
J6DukB-W5CDMmfvuhxGh15Lk.

https://practical.engineering/blog/2018/8/1/what-is-concrete

https://basiccivilengineering.com/2019/06/what-is-concrete.html

https://www.hanson.co.uk/en/ready-mixed-concrete/technical-information/what-is-
concrete

https://bis.org.rs/en/about-concrete/classification-of-concrete

https://civiltoday.com/civil-engineering-materials/concrete/15-advantages-and-
disadvantages-of-concrete

https://www.virginiadot.org/VDOT/Business/asset_upload_file313_3529.pdf

https://www.dcpu1.com/blog/history-of-concrete/

https://www.dcpu1.com/blog/history-of-concrete/

https://www.dcpu1.com/blog/different-types-of-concrete/
(Source:https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/structures/06103/
chapt3.cfm)
https://civiltoday.com/civil-engineering-materials/concrete/338-properties-of-concrete
 Additional Lecture for Concrete
CE 406 – Construction Materials and Testing

• Definition of Concrete
Concrete is a construction material composed of cement, fine aggregates (sand)
and coarse aggregates mixed with water which hardens with time. Portland cement is
the commonly used type of cement for production of concrete. Concrete technology
deals with study of properties of concrete and its practical applications.

• Grade of Concrete
Grade of concrete is defined as the minimum strength the concrete must possess
after 28 days of construction with proper quality control. Grade of concrete is denoted
by prefixing M to the desired strength in MPa. For example, for a grade of concrete
with 20 MPa strength, it will be denoted by M20, where M stands for Mix. This grade
of concrete is converted into various mix proportions.
o Two Types of Concrete Mixes
▪ Nominal Mix – These are those which are generally used for small scale
construction and small residential buildings where concrete consumption is
not high. Nominal mixes for grades of concrete such as M15, M20, and M25
are generally used for small scale construction.
▪ Design Mix – These concrete are those for which mix proportions are
obtained from various lab tests. Large structures have high strength
requirements, thus they go for higher grades of concrete such as M30 and
above. The mix proportions of these concretes are based on mix design.

This is the quantity we need for every 1 cubic meter of concrete.

 o Uses of Different Concrete Mixes

• Making and Curing of Concrete Test Specimen

This practice covers procedure for making and curing concrete test specimen of
concrete in the laboratory under accurate control of materials and test conditions
using concrete that can be consolidated by rodding or vibration.
This practice provides standardized requirements for preparation of materials,
mixing concrete, and making and curing concrete test specimens under laboratory
conditions. If the specimen preparation is controlled, the specimen may be used to
develop information for following purposes:
1. Mixture proportioning for concrete project
2. Evaluation of different mixtures and materials
3. Correlation with nondestructive tests
4. Providing specimens for research purposes

The number of specimen and the number of test batches are dependent on the
established practice and the nature of the test program. Usually three or more
specimens should be prepared for each test age and test conditions unless otherwise
specified.
 • What happens if concrete is not cured properly?
When concrete is not cured properly, its durability, strength and abrasive resistance
are affected. Due to inadequate curing, concrete develops plastic shrinkage cracks,
thermal cracks, along with a considerable loss in the strength of the surface layer. When
the surface of the concrete is not kept moist within the first 24 hours after the casting, the
evaporation from the exposed horizontal surface results in plastic shrinkage cracks and
a weak and dusty surface.

• Slump Test of a Concrete

Concrete slump test or slump cone test is to determine the workability or
consistency of concrete mix prepared at the laboratory or the construction site during
the progress of the work. It has been widely used for workability tests since 1922. The
slump is carried out as per procedures mentioned in ASTM C143 in the United States,
IS: 1199 – 1959 in India and EN 12350-2 in Europe. Generally, concrete slump value
is used to find the workability, which indicates water-cement ratio, but there are various
factors including properties of materials, mixing methods, dosage, admixtures etc. also
affect the concrete slump value.
• Factors which influence the concrete slump test
1. Material properties like chemistry, fineness, particle size distribution, moisture
content and temperature of cementitious materials. Size, texture, combined
grading, cleanliness and moisture content of the aggregates,
2. Chemical admixtures dosage, type, combination, interaction, sequence of
addition and its effectiveness,
3. Air content of concrete,
4. Concrete batching, mixing and transporting methods and equipment,
5. Temperature of the concrete,
 6. Sampling of concrete, slump-testing technique and the condition of test
equipment,
7. The amount of free water in the concrete, and
8. Time since mixing of concrete at the time of testing.

• Types of Concrete Slump Test Results

o True Slump – True slump is the only slump that can be measured in the
test. The measurement is taken between the top of the cone and the top of
the concrete after the cone has been removed as shown in the figure.
o Zero Slump – Zero slump is the indication of very low water-cement ratio,
which results in dry mixes. This type of concrete is generally used for road
construction.
o Collapsed Slump – This is an indication that the water-cement ratio is too
high, i.e. concrete mix is too wet or it is a high workability mix, for which a
slump test is not appropriate.
o Shear Slump – The shear slump indicates that the result is incomplete, and
concrete to be retested.
Additional reference videos for clearer understanding of the topic:
• Slump Test of a Concrete: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7kgir9mMsqY
• Concrete Sample Preparation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ShIPt36TEQo
• Calculations for Quantity of Cement, Sand, and Aggregates:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLekIyLJX4Q

REFERENCES:
• https://theconstructor.org/concrete/
• https://theconstructor.org/concrete/inadequate-concrete-curing/30895/
• https://theconstructor.org/concrete/concrete-slump-test/1558/
• CPC Laboratory Manual
UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
Introduction
A Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is a versatile
piece of equipment that is used to test the mechanical
properties of materials such as tensile strength,
compression strength, and bending strength. It can be
used to test a wide range of materials including metals,
plastics, composites, and ceramics. The UTM applies a
controlled force to a specimen and measures the
response, allowing researchers and engineers to
accurately determine the mechanical properties of the
material being tested. This information is crucial in the
development of new materials, the design of products
and structures, and in ensuring the quality and safety of
manufactured products. The UTM is an essential tool in
material science and engineering, and is used extensively
in industries such as aerospace, automotive,
construction, and manufacturing.
There are generally two types of Universal Testing
Machines (UTMs), electromechanical and hydraulic.
Electromechanical UTMs use an electric motor
to drive a lead screw, which moves the crosshead up and
down. The load is applied using a load cell and the
extension is measured using an encoder. These machines
typically have a lower load capacity than hydraulic
machines but offer higher precision and accuracy.
Hydraulic UTMs use hydraulic fluid to apply the
load to the specimen, and the load is measured by a load
cell or pressure transducer. The movement of the
crosshead is controlled by a servo valve, which regulates
the flow of hydraulic fluid. These machines can apply
much higher loads than electromechanical machines,
making them suitable for testing high-strength materials
such as metals and concrete.
In addition to these two basic types, there are
also hybrid UTMs that combine elements of both
electromechanical and hydraulic systems. Hybrid UTMs
can offer the benefits of both types, such as high
accuracy and high load capacity.
History of UTM
HISTORY OF UTM
● Universal Testing Machines have existed in
various forms since the 1800’s. One of the
original applications was for testing the strength
of steel used in steam power boilers. These
boilers would encapsulate large amounts of
steam pressure, and explosions were both
catastrophic and fairly common.
● Universal Testing Machine – a machine used to
test specimens for tensile strength, compressive
strength, shear strength and to perform bend
test along other important laboratory tests.
● Shortly after the end of the Civil War (April
9,1865), with industrialization gaining
momentum in the United States and new
construction sprouting up everywhere, there
was an increasing need for better ways to test
the materials used in machinery, in buildings,
and elsewhere.
● While many versions of testing systems were
developed from 1850-1880, the design was not
standardized (not consistent) and most
manufacturing companies were tasked with
building their own tester.
● From the 1850’s on, various devices for testing
materials had been developed, but the goal of a
truly universal testing machine proved elusive
until 1880, when an unemployed Norwegian
immigrant, Tinius Olsen, devised and patented
the now famous Little Giant.
● Galdabini (est. 1890) entered the market in the
early 1900s with a series of deadweight testing
machines and developed their own universal
testing machine in 1934.
TINIUS OLSEN
● An unemployed Norwegian immigrant who
devised and patented the now famous Little
Giant.
● Olsen met the Riehlés brothers, proprietors of a
small workshop. The Riehlés had received an
urgent request for a machine to test the strength
of boiler-plate. Weak plate materials caused
frequent boiler explosions, especially on steam
boats that were traveling up and down the
Mississippi. The brothers asked him to produce
engineering drawings for such an instrument and
in his spare time Olsen designed and drew
precise plans for the first boiler-plate tensile
testing machine, with a capacity of 40,000 lbf.
● The new device, manufactured by the Riehlé
brothers, proved a success and Olsen was invited
to take over the workshop, becoming a director
of the Riehlés plant in 1872.
● His pioneering contributions to the emerging
field of materials testing included vertical and
horizontal machines for materials used in bridge
construction, locomotive boilers and other
industrial goods.
● Olsen won many awards for his work and he
asked the Riehlés to make him a partner. They
refused and in late 1879 he was informed that
his position would terminate at the end of the
year.
● Olsen was full of ideas for a revolutionary device:
a universal testing machine.
● With the support of his wife Charlotta, one of the
first Scandinavian-American women to earn a
degree in medicine, he set about making the
drawings for his new machine.
● On February 2, 1880, Olsen submitted an
application for a patent for a “new and useful
improvement in testing machines” and patent
no. 228,214 was granted on June 1, 1880.
 ● He was awarded the Elliott Cresson Medal of The
Franklin Institute in 1891 for his autographic
testing machine.
● Tinius Olsen (December 7, 1845 – October 20,
1932) was a Norwegian-born American engineer
and inventor. He was the founder of the Tinius
Olsen Material Testing Machine Company, a
maker of material testing machines.
● Olsen retired from the company in 1929 and died
in 1933. The company that he started in 1880 is
still run by his descendants and continues to
provide innovative solutions to testing problems.
LITTLE GIANT
● (1850S-1880S) In those days, most tests on
materials required separate machines, each
MACHINE IS dedicated ONLY to a single testing
function.
● The first material testing system to unite both
compression and tensile testing.
● This machine could accurately perform tensile,
transverse and compression tests in one
instrument, housed in a single frame.
● The device was compact, simple to operate and
not expensive.
● The Little Giant won gold medals at industrial
expositions in Cincinnati and Atlanta in 1881.
● By the next year Olsen had an order for the first
200,000lbf testing machine ever made and, as an
example of his diversity, he also built a machine
to test the tensile strength of feathers. Olsen
continued to innovate in the testing machine
field for decades thereafter.
● Olsen’s mechanism was to become the ancestor
of all testing machines subsequently produced
around the world.
● Tinius gained his inspiration after working as a
chief designer for the Riehle Brothers’
Philadelphia Scale and Testing Machine Works.
GALDABINI AND TENSILE TESTERS IN ITALY
● Galdabini (est. 1890) entered the market in the
early 1900s with a series of deadweight testing
machines and developed their own universal
testing machine in 1934.
● During this time Galdabini also developed some
of the largest metal straightening machines and
hydraulic presses in the world.
● The company is the 2nd oldest continuously
operating manufacturer of these types of UTM
materials testing systems.
● The company was founded by Emilia Crespi and
Cesare Galdabini in Gallarate, Italy which is near
Milan in the northern part of the country. The
town of Gallarate was vital to Italy's textile
industry during the early 1900's.
● The picture above shows the historical Galdabini
manufacturing plant during the second world
war in the 1940's.
● The Galdabini factory originally supported this
textile manufacturing and quickly expanded into
building machine tools such as hydraulic
stamping machines and metal tube bending
machines.
Parts and Functions of UTM
There are two parts of the UTM, it is the Loading Unit
and the Control Unit.
Loading Unit
- Where the actual loading and testing of the
specimen takes place.
Three Main Parts of Loading Unit
1. Load Frame - A universal testing machine’s load
frame may be designed with either a single or
double support.
2. Upper and Lower Crosshead - The upper
crosshead in the machine is utilized to clamp
the one end of the test specimen. The lower
crosshead of the load frame part is the movable
crosshead which its screws can be loosen up
with regard to the height adjustment as well as
in terms of tightening.
3. Elongation Scale - An elongation scale that
comes with a loading unit is used to assess
overall relative displacement of the upper and
lower tables.
Control Unit
- The variations in the application of the load and
the corresponding test result is recorded by this
unit.
Three Main Parts of Control Unit
1. Hydraulic Power Unit - t is designed to control
the machine and processing of data from load-
cell and displacement transducers which are
fitted to the machine.
2. Control Devices - These devices can be used in
moving the crossheads, and applying or
releasing load, and turning on/off the machine.
The control devices can be electric or hydraulic.
3. Load Measuring Unit - The range of load
application can be adjusted in this unit by
means of a knob. The accuracy of the measuring
unit controls the overall accuracy of the
machine.
Function of Universal Testing Machine
1. Tensile Test - The most basic and popular types
of mechanical testing are performed by a
tensile testing machine.
2. Compression Test - Along with tensile and
flexion tests, compression testing is one of the
most fundamental types of mechanical testing.
3. Adhesion Test - It's a sort of test that
encompasses a wide range of tension and
compression testing for a variety of materials in
a variety of industries.
4. Pull - Out Test - A pullout test determines the
strength of a particular specimen by injecting
 dedicated tension jacks into the specimen being
tested.
5. Bending Test - A bend test is a technique for
determining a material's stiffness and yield
qualities.
6. Hysteresis Testing - Hysteresis tests are
compression tests that measure the firmness
and homogeneity of a material.
Uses of UTM
USES OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
● to assess the strength of materials
● to provide enhanced control and stability during
a materials’ testing process
● to help ensure accuracy and repeatability.
There are different terms which are used for
mentioning the UTM which can be commonly heard in
the industries. Nevertheless, among all these, the most
popular tests done by the Universal Testing Machine are
a tensile testing machine, bend testing machine and
compression testing machine.
UTM can be used to test a wide variety of materials
like concrete, steel, cables, springs, steel wires and
chains, slings, links, rope, winches, steel ropes, etc.
Materials testing conducted with the help of a universal
testing machine should be carried out in compliance with
standards established by entities such as DIN, ISO and
ASTM. In addition, proper safety precautions should be
taken to prevent accident and injury.
COMMON TESTS IN UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
● TENSILE STRENGTH TEST - Tensile strength refers
to the ability of a structure to resist loads
without failure because of excessive stress or
deformation. Tensile strength is often referred
to as ultimate tensile strength and is calculated
by dividing the peak tension force the sample
withstands by its cross sectional area.
● COMPRESSION STRENGTH TEST - Compressive
strength test, mechanical test measuring the
maximum amount of compressive load a
material can bear before fracturing. The material
is compressed between the platens of a
compression-testing machine by a gradually
applied load.
● BENDING TEST - A bending test is a method of
testing materials for their bending strength and
other important properties.
● PEELING TEST - Peel strength testing determines
the adhesive strength of materials that have
been bonded together. The materials are peeled
apart at a constant speed and the strength of the
force needed to separate the materials is
calculated along with the width of the bond
surface to determine the peel strength.
● PUNCTURE TEST - This is generally a compressive
test where a material is compressed by a probe
or other type of device until the material
ruptures or until an elongation limit is achieved.
Puncture testing is commonly used to determine
the strength of a material such as film, rubber or
membrane.
Tests Conducted
1. Tensile Test
2. Compression Test
3. Adhesion Test
4. Bending Test
5. Seal Strength Test
Tensile testing
Tensile testing is an electromechanical test
system that applies a tensile (or pull) force to a material
to determine the tensile strength and deformation
behavior until break.
Why is the tensile test important?
It is important to know how a material will
behave in certain conditions, or under certain stressors.
The results of a tensile test help engineers decide how
and when to use a material when they are designing a
project.
The data produced in a tensile test can be used in many
ways including:
1. To determine batch quality
2. To determine consistency in manufacture
3. To aid in the design process
4. To reduce material costs and achieve lean
manufacturing goals
5. To ensure compliance with international and
industry standards
Compression test
Compressive testing shows how the material will
react when it is being compressed. Compression testing
is able to determine the material's behavior or response
under crushing loads and to measure the plastic flow
behavior and ductile fracture limits of a material.
What Is the Purpose of a Compression Test?
The goal of compression testing is to determine
the behavior or response of a material while it
experiences a compressive load by measuring
fundamental variables, such as strain, stress, and
deformation.
By testing a material in compression, the
compressive strength, yield strength, ultimate strength,
elastic limit, and the elastic modulus among other
parameters may all be determined. With the
understanding of these different parameters and the
values associated with a specific material, it may be
determined whether or not the material is suited for
specific applications or if it will fail under the specified
stresses.
Types of Compression Testing
1. Flexure/Bend
Flexural testing measures the force required to
bend a beam of plastic material and determines the
resistance to flexing or stiffness of a material.
2. Spring testing
The testing method helps to categorize the
quality of the springs on the basis of its performance.
This test is performed on the specimens to enhance the
performance of the product.
3. Top Load Crush
Also known as column-crush, vertical load
resistance, and axial force resistance, top-load testing
involves applying a downwards compressive force to a
packaging container and measuring its resistance to
deformation.
The data produced in a tensile test can be used in many
ways including:
1. To determine batch quality
2. To determine consistency in manufacture
3. To aid in the design process
4. To reduce material costs and achieve lean
manufacturing goals
5. To ensure compliance with international and
industry standards
Adhesion test
Adhesion is the force that resists the separation
of two bodies in contact. An adhesion test measures the
adhesive characteristics of a product by measuring the
forces to separate the product from the test surface
which it comes into contact with.
Why perform an adhesion test?
Adhesive properties can be the most desirable
characteristic of a product e.g. adhesive pastes or tapes,
confectionery products and thereby their salient feature
or can be a major issue for a product, and can cause
production stoppages and product failures. The ability to
measure this property will allow manufacturers to
control the quality of a product or assess stages in
production so as to avoid downtime.
Adhesion Testing in the Field of Engineering
It is a requirement that coating systems adhere
well to their substrates. Determination of the failure
point can be critical for the final use of a coating system
or adhesive. Adhesion testing provides insight into the
quality of the bond and the force required to cause
fracture. UTM provides adhesion testing for paints,
adhesives, thermal sprays, varnishes and lacquers.
Coating systems are tested on a variety of substrates,
such as metals, polymers, ceramics, and concrete.
Bend Testing
Bending tests are conducted by placing a length
of material across a span and pushing down along the
span to bend the material until failure. Bend testing (also
flex or flexural testing) is commonly performed to
measure the flexural strength and modulus of all types of
materials and products. This test is performed on a
universal testing machine (tensile testing machine or
tensile tester) with a 3 point or 4 point bend fixture.
In bending tests, standardized, mostly cylindrical
specimens are placed in the center of the checking
fixture. The rounded support rollers (bearings) are
arranged parallel to each other at a certain distance
(support width). The diameter of the cylindrical
specimen is proportional to the support width of the
bearings. The test punch, which moves down slowly and
at a constant speed, loads the sample with increasing
force until it breaks or reaches the previously
determined deformation. The maximum load exerted
during the bending test is called breaking force.Slide 15:
What is the Purpose of Bend Testing?
Bend testing a material allows for the
determination of that material's ductility, bend strength,
fracture strength, and resistance to fracture. These
characteristics can be used to determine whether a
material will fail under pressure and are especially
important in any construction process involving ductile
materials loaded with bending forces. If a material begins
to fracture or completely fractures during a three or four
point bend test it is valid to assume that the material will
fail under a similar in any application, which may lead to
catastrophic failure.
Types of Bending Tests

1. 3-point bending test

The 3-point bending test bears this name

because there are three pressure points in this test
setup: Two supports and a centrally loaded test punch.
The specimen lies crosswise on the supports and
protrudes at the sides. The 3-point bending test is the
most frequently performed bending test.

2. 4-point bending test

In the 4-point bending test, the checking fixture

differs from the 3-point bending test only in its test
punch. Instead of the single punch applying force in the
center, a double punch is used. There is a constant
bending moment in the area between the two upper
pressure points.

Seal Strength Testing

Tests for seal strength are basically tensile tests

performed by a universal testing machine. A section of
the package seal is gripped between jaws (one movable
and one fixed) and pulled apart at a controlled rate. The
force or energy required to separate the two sealed
surfaces gives an indication of the seal strength.
Timber, Lumber, Wood

Definition and Distinction

WOOD
● Wood is an organic substance derived from the living tree and has a fibrous,
heterogeneous, and anisotropic texture.
● Wood has been one of the most used building materials since the beginning of
history.
● In addition to being utilized as a load-bearing or aesthetic material in models and
scaffolds, wood is also employed as roof fittings, woodwork, and coating material.
Furthermore, man-made construction materials made from by-products of the
wood industry, such as woodchips, sawdust, and dust, include chipboard, MDF,
and plywood.

TIMBER
● produced from the trees that have already been cut down but not yet processed
into planks and other forms to build with.
● Timber is a great insulating material. This means it helps to maintain a more
constant temperature
● The word Timber derived from Timberian which mean to build
● Despite being one of the oldest and most basic construction materials available,
architects continue to favor timber as their preferred building material worldwide.

LUMBER
● lumber, collective term for harvested wood, whether cut into logs, heavy timbers,
or members used in light-frame construction.
● Conversion of logs to sawed lumber involves debarking, sawing into boards or
slabs, resawing into thinner boards of varying sizes, edging, crosscutting to square
the ends and remove defects, grading according to strength and appearance, and
drying in the open air or in kilns.
● Lumber is mainly used for construction framing, as well as finishing (floors, wall
panels, window frames).
● may be either rough sawn or finished,

DIFFERENCE OF TIMBER AND LUMBER

Timber refers to sawn wood as well as processed wood products used for purposes such
as home construction, cladding, decking and furniture making. It’s available in a range of
softwoods and hardwood species, each with their own aesthetic and technical properties.
The word timber is also commonly used to describe timber-frame construction — the use
of wooden beams and posts to create buildings.

Lumber is used to describe felled trees. It’s something much more crude than timber;
usually, lumber will still have its bark. An easy way to understand the broad difference
between timber and lumber is that lumber is less processed than timber.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF LUMBER
Based on Finish
Based on Use Based on Durability
Based on Mode of Growth Based on Grading
Based on Modulus of Elasticity Based on Availability

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FINISHING

ROUGH LUMBER - refers to lumber that has been sawn, edged, and trimmed but with
unfinished or rough surface

DRESSED LUMBER - refers to lumber that has been planed on one or more sides to
attain smoothness and uniformity.

SEASONED LUMBER - refers to lumber that has gone into seasoning to remove and
regulate its moisture content.

TYPES OF FINISHES IN LUMBER

AESTHETIC FINISHES - this type of finishes make change or modify the appearance of
the lumber or the properties of the lumber.

FUNCTIONAL FINISHES - this type of finish changes the internal performance properties
of the lumber.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON USE

YARD LUMBER
Lumber intended for ordinary construction and building purposes. Yard lumber is broken
down into two further categories:
● COMMON YARD LUMBER. Common lumber is suitable for construction and utility
purposes.
● SELECT YARD LUMBER. Select yard lumber looks much nicer than common lumber
because it has no or very few knots.

STRUCTURAL LUMBER
Structural lumber follows a standard dimension for thickness and width. In America, the
“two-bys” (2x4s, 2x6s, 2x8s, 2x10s) and the 4×4 are the most common structural lumber
sizes. The standard pre-cut sizes allows carpenters and house framers to buy lumber
without having to do as much cutting when they get it to the construction site.

SHOP AND FACTORY LUMBER

This is a lumber that is selected for “remanufacturing purposes and intended for non-
structural applications.” This is used primarily for building cabinets and interior finish work.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MODE OF GROWTH

ENDOGENOUS
- These trees grow inwards and fibrous mass can be seen in the longitudinal sections.
These trees are too flexible & has very limited engineering applications.
EXOGENOUS
- These trees grow outward and have distinct consecutive annular rings in their horizontal
section. It is possible to determine the age of the timber through counting the annual rings.
Timber which is used for building engineering
works.

CATEGORIES OF EXOGENOUS TREES:

CONIFERS
- are evergreen trees having needle-like or scale-like leaves which do not fall till new ones
are grown.
- They have cone shaped leaves
and fruits.
- The leaves do not fall till new
ones are grown.
- Yield softwood

DECIDUOUS
- are trees having broad leaves which falls in autumn and new ones appear in springs
- They are commonly used in building construction as they yield strong and close grained
wood.
- They are heavy and dark in color.
- They are useful for important engineering works.

STRUCTURE OF EXOGENOUS TREE

• Outer Bark - outer skin of the tree and consists of wood fibers
• Sap Wood - also known as alburnum. It denotes recent growth and contains sap.
• Medullary Rays - are thin radial fibers extending from pith to cambium layer. They hold
annular rings together.
• Heart Wood - it is the dead part of wood and it is the portion that surrounds the pith.
• Pith - it is the most inner part of the tree and the oldest part of the exogenous tree.
• Growth rings - can tell us how old the tree is, and what the weather was like during each
year of the tree's life. The light-colored rings represent wood that grew in the spring and
early summer, while the dark rings represent wood that grew in the late summer and fall.
• Inner Bark - inner skin of tree protecting the cambium layer.

• Cambium Layer - a thin layer of fresh sap lying between sap wood and the inner bark.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Youngs modulus is determined by conducting bending test. On this basis timber is

classified as:
• Group A: E = 12.5 kN/mm²
• Group B: E = 9.8 kN/mm² to 12.5 kN/mm²
• Group C: E = 5.6 kN/mm² to 9.8 kN/mm²

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON DURABILITY

Durability tests are conducted by the forest research establishment. They bury test
specimen of size in the ground to half their length and observe their conditions regularly
over several years. Timbers are classified as:
• High durability: If average life is more than 10 years.
• Moderate durability: Average life between 5 to 10 years.
• Low durability: Average life less than 5 years.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON GRADING

Grading is simple sorting a production run into groups that have similar properties which
can be any mixture of appearance and structural properties, to have uniformity across the
industry. Lumber is graded using a classification by letter or by number.

MAIN GRADING METHODS:

• Visual Grading - An assessment of the piece's form and straightness, as well as the
quality of the wood in the piece. Involves a trained grader inspecting each piece and
evaluating its characteristics against the criteria in the great definition.

• Machine Grading - A quick, reliable and more consistent than visual grading, it uses test
machines or sensors to assess several timber’s characteristics against particular criteria
in the grade definition.

• Proof Grading - used after material has been graded by other methods. Mainly used for
testing the timber structurally and only assess the structural strength and stiffness.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON AVAILABILITY

Forest departments classify timbers based on the availability as:

• X–Most common. 1415 m³ or more per year
• Y–Common. 355 m³ to 1415 m³ per year
• Z–Less common. Less than 355 m³ per year

PROPERTIES OF GOOD TIMBERS ARE:

Color: It should be uniform.

Odor: It should be pleasant when cut freshly.

Soundness: A clear ringing sound when struck indicates the timber is good.

Texture: Texture of good timber is fine and even.

Grains: In good timber grains are close.

Density: Higher the density stronger is the timber.

Hardness: Harder timbers are strong and durable.

Warping: Good timber does not warp under changing environmental conditions.

Toughness: Timber should be capable of resisting shock loads.

Abrasion: Good timber does not deteriorate due to wear. This property should be looked
into, if timber is to be used for flooring.

Strength: Timber should have high strength in bending, shear and direct compression.
Modulus of Elasticity: Timber with higher modulus of elasticity are preferred in
construction.

Fire resistance: A good timber should have high resistance to fire.

Permeability: Good timber has low water permeability.

Workability: Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the saw.

Durability: Good timber is one which is capable of resisting the action of fungi and insects
attack

Defects: Good timber is free from defects like dead knots, shakes and cracks.

Shrinkage and Swelling: Good quality timbers swell less. Timbers having thicker walls
swell more than a thinner one.

PROCESSING OF TIMBER
Timber has played a key role in the construction industry for many years. And while it’s
always been a popular material, the process of how and where it arrives from is often
overlooked.

In this guide, we’ll take you through the journey of timber – how it travels from the forest
and arrives in your builders merchant, ready for you to embark on your next project.

Stage One: Felling

The first stage of preparing the timber for commercial use is called ‘felling’ – the process
of downing individual trees. In this case, the person cutting the tree is called the ‘feller’ –
while the harvesting machine is referred to as a ‘feller buncher’.

A forestry worker will determine when and which trees should be cut down, depending on
when they reach their economically ‘mature’ stages. Trees can range from 40 to 150
years old before they stop growing vigorously and are ready to be cut down. The
differences in age at felling can depend on the tree species. For example, conifers grow
at a much quicker rate than broad-leaved species. Environmental factors, such as soil
nutrients, can also affect their growth.

Felling is normally carried out in winter, because the trees usually have less moisture
content in them, compared to summer months, where they can have more than fifty
percent water content.
Finally, felled trees should be replaced with saplings so that the forest has a chance to
grow once again, providing a sustainable resource for future generations.

Stage Two: Storing/ Transporting

Next, the logs are stored in a clearing or in the forest until they are needed at the sawmill.
This also allows some of the ‘free’ water content to evaporate, reducing the weight of the
tree/log, which will result in lowering the cost of transporting and handling.

The trees are usually cut into smaller lengths on-site and then picked up by a timber lorry,
which transports the timber to a processing site, such as a sawmill, paper mill, pallet,
fencing or construction producer.

Stage Three: On Site

At the chosen site, the logs are debarked and bucked, or cut to the required length. Then
they are cut into boards, using equipment such as circular saws and bandsaws. This is
called ‘conversion’. The first stage of conversion is a process called ‘breaking down’ –
which means rough sawing. The second stage is called ‘re-sawing’ and refers to more
precise cutting and finishing, such as planing and further machining.

Two types of rough sawing can be used in the breaking down process – through sawn
and quarter sawn.

The ends of each log is trimmed to ensure they are straight and cut into boards. Large
circular saws are then used to further-process the boards, removing the curved edges.
Each processed piece of wood now looks like a board.

Stage Four: Seasoning

Seasoning of natural wood is the process of removing excess water/moisture content.

When a tree is felled, it still contains a large proportion of water/moisture – usually
between forty to fifty per cent water content.

Water is held inside a tree in two ways:

Free Water: Water that is held in the vessels and cells in order to distribute nutrients
inside the tree.
Cell water: Also known as ‘bound’ water, is an essential part of the tree’s cell walls.
During the seasoning process, a tree loses its free water and a high proportion of its cell
water and as a result, is less likely to warp or deform.

Wood that has not been seasoned and still has a high water content is called ‘green wood’
and can be more difficult to work with because it has a tendency to change shape.

Stage Five: Preparing for Market

After turning trees into timber through saw milling, covered in stage three – also referred
to as primary processing, the market value of timber can be further increased through
manufacturing sawn timber products – called secondary processing. This involves the
wood being made (either by man or machine) into a more refined product, such as a door,
window or furniture, made to the specific size and dimensions

At this stage any preferred treatments to timber such as fire or rot resistance is added.
Treated timber in sawn form is used either directly in construction or to prepare
construction components, such as timber frame panels. Planned joinery components, on
the other hand, are usually treated after assembly.

Finally, once all modifications are made, the timber is ready to be shipped to market.

DEFECTS IN TIMBER
Various defects which are likely to occur in timber may be grouped into the following three:
(i) Due to natural forces
(ii) Due to defective seasoning and conversions.
(iii) Due to attacks by fungi and insects.
(i) Defects due to Natural Forces
The following defects are caused by natural forces:
(a) Knots- When a tree grows, many of its branches fall and the stump of these branches
in the
the trunk is covered. In the sawn pieces of timber the stump of fallen branches appear as
knots. Knots are dark and hard pieces. Grains are distorted in this portion. Figure 1.9
shows some varieties of knots. If the knot is intact with surrounding wood, it is called a
live knot. If it is not held firmly it is a dead knot.
 (b) Shakes-The shakes are cracks in the timber which appear due to excessive heat,
frost or twisting due to wind during the growth of a tree. Depending upon the shape and
the positions shakes can be classified as star shake, cup shake, ring shakes and heart
shakes [Ref. Fig. 1.10]

(c) Wind cracks- These are the cracks on the outside of a log due to the shrinkage of the
exterior surface. They appear as shown in Fig. 1.11.

(d) Upsets- Figure 1.12 shows a typical upset in a timber. This type of defect is due to
excessive compression in the tree when it was young. Upset is an injury by crushing. This
is also known as rupture.
(ii) Defects due to Defective Seasoning and Conversion: If seasoning is not uniform, the
converted timber may warp and twist in various directions. Sometimes honey combining
and even cracks appear. This type of defects are more susceptible in case of kiln
seasoning.
In the process of converting timber to commercial sizes and shapes the following types
of defects are likely to airse: chip marks, torn grain etc.
(iii) Defects due to Fungi and Insects Attack: Fungi are minute microscopic plant
organism.
They grow in wood if moisture content is more than 20°C and exposed to air. Due to fungi
attack rotting of wood, takes place. Wood becomes weak and stains appear on it. Beetles,
marine borers and termites (white ants) are the insects which eat wood and weaken the
timber. Some woods like teak have chemicals in their compositions and resist such
attacks. Other woods
are to be protected by chemical treatment.

Preservation of Timber- Panganiban

Preservation of timber means protecting timber from fungi and insects attack so
that its life is increased. Timber is to be seasoned well before application of preservatives.
The following are the widely used preservatives:
1. Tar: Hot coal tar is applied to timber with brush. The coating of tar protects the timber
from
the attack of fungi and insects. It is a cheapest way of protecting timber. Main
disadvantage of this method of preservation is that appearance is not good after tar is
applied it is not possible to apply other attractive paints. Hence tarring is made only for
the unimportant structures like fence poles.
2. Paints: Two to three coats of oil paints are applied on clean surface of wood. The paint
protects the timber from moisture. The paint is to be applied from time to time. Paint
improves the appearance of the timber. Solignum paint is a special paint which protects
the timber from the attack of termites.
3. Chemical salt: These are the preservatives made by dissolving salts in water. The salts
used
are copper sulphate, masonry chloride, zinc chloride and sodium fluoride. After treating
the timber with these chemical salt paints and varnishes can be applied to get good
appearance.
4. Creosote: Creosote oil is obtained by distillation of coal tar. The seasoned timber is
kept in
an air tight chamber and air is exhausted. Then creosote oil is pumped into the chamber
at a pressure of 0.8 to 1.0 N/mm2 at a temperature of 50°C. After 1 to 2 hours timber is
taken out of the chamber.
5. ASCO: This preservative is developed by the Forest Research Institute, Dehradun. It
consists
of 1 part by weight of hydrated arsenic pentoxide (As2O5b, 2 H2O), 3 parts by weight of
copper sulphate (CuSO4⋅5 H2O) and 4 parts by weight of potassium dichromate
(K2Cr2O7) or sodium dichromate (Na2Cr2O7⋅2 H2O). This preservative is available in
powder form. By the solution is prepared. The solution is then sprayed over the surface
of timber. This treatment prevents attack from termites. The surface may be painted to
get the desired appearance.

Types

SOFTWOOD
In broad timber terms, there are two different categories of woods — softwood and
hardwood.
Softwood comes from coniferous species such as cedar, fir and pine. They grow quickly
and the wood is lighter, has coarser grain and is not as strong as most hardwoods.

While in general softwoods are considered inferior to hardwoods for many purposes, they
do have their place in the woodworking world for specific jobs — and because they grow
quickly they are very economical. In building, they are commonly used for the framework
of houses and areas such as lining boards and cladding.

HARDWOOD
Hardwoods by comparison are heavy, strong and stable. They are used predominantly
for piers, flooring, decking and in most timber furniture.

Hardwood comes from angiosperm — or flowering plants — such as oak, maple, or

walnut, that are not monocots. Softwood comes from gymnosperm trees, usually
evergreen conifers, like pine or spruce.

Hardwoods are generally more expensive due to their slower rate of growth and durable
properties, but can be worthwhile in the long-run as they are low maintenance and long
lasting.

ENGINEERED WOOD
Engineered wood, while manmade, is made entirely of genuine wood. Its main difference
from solid wood is simply that engineered wood is made of layers rather than being a
single, solid piece.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TIMBER

CEDAR
The most common type of cedar is western red. As this name implies, it is pinky, red in
colour. It is relatively soft but straight grained and is mostly used for outdoors for furniture,
deck handrails, wall cladding and window frames because it resists rotting in moist
environments. Relatively inexpensive.

Cedar is a type of coniferous wood, meaning that it is classified as a softwood and its
cones/needles remain all year round. Cedar trees fall under the Cedrus genus and the
Pinaceae family, which is the family of trees that is coniferous.

EUCALYPTUS

The most common species in Australia is eucalyptus. Within the species there are a huge
variety of sub-species that have vary different properties, including colour and grain
patterns. Common ones include Tasmanian Oak (cream), blackbutt (pale brown), spotted
gum (mid brown) and Jarrah (red). Prices vary from inexpensive to moderately expensive.

Eucalyptus is a hardwood that is considered one of the sustainable woods that are both
useful and environmentally friendly. Because Eucalyptus wood comes from a species of
fast-growing trees, it is easily available at a cheaper price than other hardwood options.

MAHOGANY

One of the great furniture woods, mahogany is reddish-brown-to-deep red in colour. While
very common in antique furniture, it is not common today as it is not sustainably grown.
It has a straight grain and is of medium hardness, so it's easy for joiners to work.

Mahogany is used commercially for a wide variety of goods, due to its coloring and
durable nature.furniture joinery, flooring veneers and musical instruments.

Ash is used for furniture, flooring, doors, cabinetry, architectural moulding and millwork,
tool handles, baseball bats, hockey sticks, oars, turnings, and is also sliced for veneer. It
is a popular species for food containers due to the wood having no taste.
USES OF TIMBER

1. For heavy construction works like columns, trusses, piles.

2. For light construction works like doors, windows, flooring and roofing.

3. For other permanent works like for railway sleepers, fencing poles, electric poles and
gates.

4. For temporary works in construction like scaffolding, centering, shoring and strutting,
packing of materials.

5. For decorative works like showcases and furniture.

6. For body works of buses, lorries, trains and boats

7. For industrial uses like pulps (used in making papers), card boards, wallpapers

8. For making sports goods and musical instruments.

WOOD TESTS
MOISTURE CONTENT TEST
This test determines the moisture content in wood. However, wood contains a small
amount of moisture content. A weighing machine and a drying oven are important
apparatus for the water absorption test.

% of moisture content = Weight of moisture in sample / Dry weight of sample = (W1 –

W2)/ W2

PROCEDURE:
• Initially, Take the specimen with a size of 5cm x 5cm x 2.4cm.
• Then using a weighing machine weigh the specimen. Mark it as W1.
• Oven-dry the timber at a temperature of 103-degree celsius.
• Take out the specimen when becomes dry.
• Again, weigh and mark the weight of the dry specimen as W2.
• Finally, calculate the percentage of moisture content by % of moisture content

TENSILE STRENGTH TEST

The tensile strength test defines the strength and ability to withstand breaking. Also, we
can determine the load-carrying capacity of the wood.

Tensile strength = Maximum load applied / Cross sectional area

PROCEDURE:
• Firstly, take a specimen with 5cm x 5cm and 20cm in length.
• Then place the specimen on the base plate of the instrument.
• Apply load either parallel or perpendicular to the grains.
• Mark the load at which the wood breaks.
• Finally, calculate the tensile strength of the wood.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

The compressive strength test defines the crushing strength of the timber. Furthermore,
this test determines the load which the wood can support over a period.

Compressive strength = Load at which the specimen breaks / Total area of the specimen

PROCEDURE:
• Initially, take a specimen with a size of 5cm x 5cm x 20cm.
• Then place the specimen in the compressive testing machine.
• Following, apply load parallel to the grains. The specimen should be free from defects.
• Gradually increase the load.
• Then note down the load at which the timber breaks.
• Lastly, calculate the compressive strength.

SHEAR STRENGTH TEST

The shear strength is important when timber is used as slabs. The load should be applied
parallel to the grains.

PROCEDURE:
• The size of the specimen for shear strength is 5cm x 5cm x6.25 cm.
• Cut the corner of the specimen.
• Thus it produces failure on 5cm x 5cm surface.
• However, this failure occurs tangentially or radially.

BENDING STRENGTH TEST

The Bending strength test is necessary when we use timber as a beam. Through this test,
we can find the modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity.

PROCEDURE:
• Take a specimen of 5cm x 5cm x 7.5 cm in size. The specimen should be free from
defects and deterioration.
• Drop a hammer with specific weight from a certain height.
• Thus we get the impact bending.
• Lastly, using the load and deflection, calculate bending strength.

Other information and Trivias

● Wood is a material that is believed to burn easily. The larger the profile the longer
it takes to burn. Due to its heatproof and carbonization properties, it is more durable
than steel and concrete that loses its endurance at 600-800 degrees.
● Trees trap 50% of all the sun's energy caught by living organisms. All wood is
biodegradable.
● Wood is easily understood as the structure that makes up a tree. Also, people often
use the word wood loosely to refer to both lumber and timber; or even more
generally to refer to things like ‘wood flooring’, ‘wood cladding’.
● Wood has high bearing capacity. 1 kg of wood bears more load than 1 kg concrete
or steel.
● If a city is structured in the right way using wooden supports, it can be completely
freed from the earthquake risk within 20 years.
● World’s most dangerous tree- Manchineel tree in the Caribbean and Gulf Mexico
is said to be the most dangerous tree in the world. The tree’s bark has sap all over
it and when the sap gets on your skin, it causes blisters.
LESSON 6:
STEEL
Steel
- most commonly used materials in civil engineering
(productions exceeding about 1.3 billion tons a
year).
- an alloy of iron and carbon (2%) with 1%
manganese, and a slight but appreciable amount of
silicon, phosphorous, sulfur and oxygen.
- highly elastic, ductile, malleable, and weldable
HISTORY OF STEEL
Pre-100 AD
- Steel has been produced on a small scale for
thousands of years and its earliest known kind is
about 4000 years old and was excavated in Turkey.
300 BC–1700 AD
- era of the legendary Damaskus Steel.
1855 AD
- creation of the Bessemer Process
1950
- Introduction of basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS)
which limits impurities and can even increase
efficiency.
1967
- World Steel Association was founded as the first
International Iron and Steel Institute (IISI) in Brussels,
Belgium on 19th of October, 1967.
IRON VS STEEL
STEEL ≠ IRON
- Iron is a metal element that occurs naturally on
Earth while steel is a man-made alloy that’s made
by mixing iron and carbon together.
CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL
1. Plain Carbon Steel
- world’s most used and produced steel
- iron that is made-up of less than one
percent carbon with a few amounts of
manganese and silicon from the deoxidation
procedure conducted in the ladle.
- grouped into Low-Carbon Steel with lower
than 0.30% carbon, Medium-Carbon Steel
with 0.30 to 0.45% carbon, High-Carbon Steel
with 0.45 to 0.75% carbon, and Ultra-High
Carbon Steel that contains up to 1.50%
carbon.
2. Low-Carbon Steel
- has low tensile strength but it has high
malleability and ductility
- commonly used in the production of metal
sheets, pipes, chains, box, wires, cases, rivets,
vehicle frames
3. Medium-Carbon Steel
-increased carbon indicates greater
resistance and tensile strength, reduced
ductility, and less malleability
- mostly used for gears, axles, crankshafts,
couplings, forgings, machinery parts,
railways, and structural steel.
4. High-Carbon Steel
- strong, brittle, and hard steel
- utilized for high strength wires and springs,
and a practical material for producing
shock-absorbing Machinery.
5. Ultra-High-Carbon Steel
- have great strength and good tensile
ductility
- utilized in manufacturing non-industrial
equipment such as knives, axles or punches.
6. Low-Alloy Steel
- contains up to 8% of alloying elements
composed of carbon, manganese, silicon,
aluminum, nickel, chromium, cobalt,
molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, titanium,
niobium, zirconium, nitrogen, sulfur, copper,
boron, lead, tellurium and selenium. The alloy
was made to increase its durability and
toughness after the heat treatment.
7. High-Alloy Steel
- has chromium that allows the material to
exhibit resistance to corrosion because of its
formation of a thin layer of chromium oxide
on the surface and high nickel content.
-stainless steel is a high-alloy steel that
contains at least 12% chromium.
- three basic types of stainless steel, the
austenitic, ferritic and martensitic.
• Austenitic
-provides excellent weldability but is
not stable at room temperature
• Ferritic
-has 12-17% chromium content, up to
0.1% carbon, and with small amounts
of aluminum, molybdenum and
titanium.
 -known for its tough, strong, and
magnetic characteristics.
• Martensitic
- contain 11.5 to 18% chromium and
1.2% carbon
- type of steel is not only receptive to
heat treatments but also contains
magnetic properties.
OTHER TYPES OF STEEL
1. Nickel Steel
- most used steel alloy in the world
- contains 3.5% of nickel and 0.35% carbon.
- known for the strength of its structural steel
without its ductility.
2. Manganese Steel
- steel contains 11-14% of manganese which
is used in manufacturing of complex railways
track due to its outstanding hardening
characteristic and wear resistance.
3. Molybdenum Steel
- important alloying agent for steel since it
improves the steel’s toughness, weldability,
and corrosion resistance
- use in structural steel, marine environment
applications, oil and gas pipelines, and ball
bearings.
4. Tungsten Steel
- known as wolfram, is primarily made up of
silver metal that possesses the highest melting
point among other metal types.
- can withstand high temperature and it is
resistant to corrosion and wear.
5. Silicon Steel
- most important material used when it
comes to magnetic force
- properties: saturation, reduction, resistivity,
magnetostriction, and magneto-crystalline
anisotropy.
6. Vanadium Steel
- known for its corrosion-resistant
characteristic and its capability to absorb
shocks
- used for chemical-carrying pipes, tubes,
and in the form of a fine layer to affix titanium
to steel for aerospace and automobile
applications.
7. Chromium-Vanadium Steel
- utilizes both chromium and vanadium
properties that makes it extremely high
tensile strength which can be easily cut but is
not brittle.
PROPERTIES OF STEEL
1. Tensile Strength
- maximum stress that steel can withstand
before failing.
- used to describe the change in steel from
elastic to plastic deformation.
-Its standard unit of measurement is force
units per cross-sectional area
2. Yield Strength
- magnitude of stress that makes steel lose its
elastic behavior.
3. Conductivity
- rate at which thermal energy is transferred
through a substance
- Watts per meter per degree Kelvin (W/mK)
is the unit used to express this rate.
- A substance with high thermal conductivity
can move heat more effectively and quickly
than one with poor thermal conductivity.
4. Corrosion Resistance
- ability of a metal to retain its binding energy
and withstand degradation and chemical
breakdown that would otherwise take place
when exposed to such an environment
5. Hardness
- resistance to surface indentation (localized
plastic deformation) and scratches
6. Weldability
- referred to as joinability, relates to its
capacity for welding
- used to choose the welding procedure and
evaluate the final weld quality against other
materials.
7. Hardenability
- ability of a material to become harder
through heat treatment
- Quenching and tempering refer to the
thermal treatment that steel undergoes.
8. Machineability
- ease with which a material can be
machined in terms of specific energy,
specific horsepower, or shear stress
9. Workability
 - used to shape sheet metal or steel plate into
a variety of shapes, ranging from automobile
panels to enormous rolled steel tubes.
- High-workability metals can be easily
molded into a variety of shapes with a small
bending radius without the use of expensive
servo presses.
10. Wear Resistance
- Steels that have been quenched to
produce a hard martensitic microstructure
- Abrasion-resistant steels can be bent,
welded, cut, and machined despite their
high hardness.
PROCESSES OF STEEL
Bessemer process
- first used to produce steel in 1856.
- first method utilized to make steel in significant
quantities
- Historians claim that two separate inventors, one in
Pittsburgh and the other in the UK, simultaneously
created a method for producing steel that entailed
blasting impurities from iron using air.
The manufacturing of steel is done by using one of
these two methods:
1. Blast furnace
- often referred to as the basic oxygen
process (BOP), to combine raw iron ore
and tiny amounts of steel scrap.
- the furnace is then heated by the
introduction of pure oxygen. At this
temperature, the scrap metal not only melts
into a liquid, but the impurities in the iron are
also oxidized, entirely evaporating. As a result
of the high temperature and reduction of the
carbon content to its optimal ratio, liquid
steel is produced.
2. Electric arc furnaces
- Large amounts of steel scrap is melted into
liquid using the electric arc furnace (EAF)
technology, which uses high-current electric
arcs from electrodes.
• Steel is the ideal material to utilize in a variety
of production capabilities since it is adaptable,
inexpensive, and abundant.
• Steel is a valuable resource that original
equipment manufacturers and other fabrication
businesses rely on to create their unique parts and
goods.
USES OF STEEL
1. Structural Sections
- use to create frames for buildings
- frames are part of the structural skeleton
forming a solid foundation for the home.
2. Reinforcing Bars
- one of the most common uses of steel in
construction
- helps strengthen the concentrate allowing
it to better withstand tension
- binds with concrete and has similar
properties.
3. Sheet Products
- formed by an industrial process that turns
metal, such as steel, into flat pieces.
- used for many construction purposes, such
as internal ducts or roof flashings.
4. Non-Structural Appliances
- Some heating and cooling systems have
steel features
- heat exchanger, refrigerant pipes, and
ductwork often contain steel.
5. Internal Fixtures
- rails, stairs and shelving. Since stairs receive
lots of foot traffic throughout the day the
durable material is key.
6. Transportation Networks
- used in building bridges, tunnels, rail tracks.
- used to construct properties, such as train
stations, shipping ports, and airports. Most of
this steel utilized is from reinforced bars.
7. Utilities
- fuel, water, or power because it makes up
some of the pipelines used to carry water
and gas.
- older homes and commercial properties
typically have galvanized pipes, which
people treat with a zinc coating.
8. Architectural Wall Cladding
- apply one material over another, forming a
layer of skin. This provides thermal insulation
and weather resistance.
9. Wall Support Products
- brackets and mounting plates. Stainless
steel brackets can help hold items, such as
photographs, in place.
10. Kitchen Appliances
- washers and refrigerators, contain some
steel. In fact, 75% of the weight of typical
household appliances comes from steel.
 Stainless steel products don’t corrode or rust, - performed at different temperatures to
making them last longer. reveal any consequences on impact energy

MATERIAL TESTING ON STEEL 7. Torsion Test

1. Tension Test
- provides information for the sample’s
elasticity, tensile strength and yield strength.
- used to determine how a material reacts
when a force is applied to it
2. Compression test
- determines the compressive strength of the
materials by the degree of bending during
testing.
- Since the application of steel deals with a
great magnitude of forces, the compression
test is the best test to do.
3. Bending testing
- Bend testing on steel takes into
consideration the materials’ resistance to
fracture, ductility, fracture strength, and
bend strength. These qualities can be utilized
to decide if a piece of equipment will fail
under pressure and are essential in any
construction procedure, including plastic
materials loaded with bending forces.
- done to decide the behavior a material or
analysis shows when turned or under torsional
forces because of applied moments that
cause shear stress about the axis.
ADVANTAGES OF STEEL
• extremely strong and durable
• One of the most versatile building materials
easy to work with
• environmental friendly
• Aesthetics
DISADVANTGES OF STEEL
• Weighs More Than Other Materials
• Susceptibility To Corrosion and rust
• Susceptibility To buckling
• Requires More Maintenance
• High cost

4. Brinell’s steel hardness test

- coined after engineer Johan August Brinell.
-first broadly utilized standardized steel
hardness test.
- requires a large test piece and leaves
considerable space; hence, it is constrained
in its usefulness. Brinelling has come to mean
the permanent indentation of any hard
surface.
- involves a large, heavy ball, which is pushed
against steel at a predetermined level of
force.

5. Rockwell hardness test

- simpler to perform, and more accurate than
different kinds of hardness testing techniques
- All types of metals can be tested with the
Rockwell steel bar test strategy, except in
conditions where the test metal or surface
conditions will present excessive varieties;
where the indentations would be
unreasonable for the application; or where
the sample size or test shape forbids using.

6. Impact Test
- determine the active opposition or
durability of materials by figuring the
measure of energy absorbed during fracture.
DEFINITION OF BITUMEN • Around 3600 BC, the Mesopotamian civilization
had established an intercontinental trading system
• is a black viscous mixture of hydrocarbons obtained
that connected various regions of the world. One of
naturally or as a residue from petroleum distillation
the commodities that was traded was bitumen,
or purification.
which was highly valued for its various uses.
• Naturally occurring bitumen deposits can be found
• Mesopotamia and the Near East were rich sources
at the bottom of ancient lakes.
of bitumen, and there were several known locations
• Refined bitumen is principally obtained as a where it could be found, including the Hit seepage
residual product in petroleum refineries after higher on the Euphrates River in southern Iraq. This
fractions like gas, kerosene, and diesel are removed. location was particularly important as it was the
• Bitumen or a mixture of bitumen and aggregates, largest known source of bitumen in the region and
such as concrete, make up the majority of roads. was strategically located along the trade routes that
• It is a common liquid binder that holds asphalt connected Mesopotamia with other regions.
together. • Bronze age Syrian sites have yielded significant
• Bitumen is one of the most recycled products. amounts of bitumen, and much of it has been found
to have originated from the Hit seepage in southern
Iraq. This suggests that the Mesopotamians were
HISTORY OF BITUMEN actively mining and exporting bitumen from this
location, and it was likely a valuable commodity
• *The earliest known use of bitumen was by Middle
that helped to fuel their trade networks.
Paleolithic Neanderthals in Romania and Syria, who
• Around 3000 BC, the Indus Valley civilization,
used it to attach stone tools to wooden or ivory
located in what is now Pakistan, had developed an
handles. Archaeological evidence suggests that
advanced water management system that included
Neanderthals heated the bitumen, which made it
the construction of large water tanks or reservoirs.
more adhesive, and then used it as a glue to attach
One of the most well-preserved examples of these
the handles to the stone tools. This technique is
tanks is the Mohenjo-daro water tank, which dates
believed to have been used as early as 40,000 years
back to around 3,000 BC.
ago.
• The Mohenjo-daro water tank is a large rectangular
• Around 6000 BC, the Sumerian civilization in
structure that measures approximately 12 meters by
Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) had a thriving ship-
7 meters and has a depth of around 2.5 meters. The
building industry, and they used naturally occurring
tank's walls are made of sandstone blocks that are
bitumen for various purposes, including
bonded together with natural bitumen. Bitumen was
waterproofing their boats. Bitumen was readily
used to seal the joints between the sandstone blocks,
available in the region as it could be found in surface
making the walls watertight and preventing water
seepages in the form of tar pits or asphalt lakes.
from leaking out.
• One of the earliest-known examples of the use of
• In addition to the use of bitumen to seal the joints
bitumen in boat-building was discovered at the site
between the sandstone blocks, there is also a vertical
of H3 at As-Sabiyah in Kuwait. A reed boat that
bituminous core in the center of the tank's walls.
dates back to around 5000 BC was found at this site,
This bituminous core is believed to have served as
and it was coated with bitumen to make it
an additional barrier to prevent water from leaking
waterproof. This boat is considered to be one of the
out of the tank.
earliest seafaring vessels in the world.
• The use of bitumen in the construction of the
• The use of bitumen for boat-building allowed the
Mohenjo-daro water tank highlights the advanced
Sumerians to develop a thriving trade network,
engineering and technological knowledge of the
which helped to spread their influence and culture
Indus Valley civilization as it also demonstrates
throughout the region. Bitumen was also used for
their ability to make use of natural resources to
other purposes by the Sumerians, such as in
create innovative solutions for water management
construction and medicine.
and infrastructure development.
• Overall, the discovery of the use of bitumen by the
• Around 1100 BC, the ancient Egyptians began
Sumerians in boat-building highlights the
using bitumen in their embalming techniques for
importance of this substance in the development of
mummification. The use of bitumen in embalming
early civilizations and the role it played in enabling
was likely due to its preservative properties, which
the growth of trade and commerce.
helped to prevent decomposition and decay of the
body.
• The Arabic word "mumiyyah," which means
bitumen, is the root word from which "mummy" is
derived. For many years, it was believed that the
bitumen used in ancient Egyptian mummification
came only from the Dead Sea in Palestine.
However, recent studies have shown that the
Egyptians likely used a variety of bitumens from
different sources, including those found in the
eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea region.
• The use of bitumen in ancient Egyptian
mummification is a fascinating example of the
many innovative and resourceful ways in which
early civilizations utilized natural resources.
Bitumen's preservative properties made it an ideal
substance for use in embalming, and its widespread
use in mummification highlights its importance in
ancient cultures. The fact that the Arabic word for
bitumen is the root word for "mummy" underscores
the critical role that this substance played in the
preservation of these ancient Egyptian artifacts.
• The Chumash people, who were native to the central
and southern coastal regions of California, used
bitumen (also known as asphalt or tar) as body paint
during various ceremonies.
• In Europe, the first use of bitumen as a construction
material for road pavement did indeed appear in the
1830s. The French engineer Pierre-Marie-Jérôme
Trésaguet is often credited with inventing the
modern road, as he developed a method for building
a solid foundation of large stones covered by
smaller stones and topped with a layer of crushed
stone and bitumen. This method was widely
adopted throughout Europe, including in England,
where John Loudon McAdam developed his own
road-building method that also used crushed stone
and bitumen.
• The Plaza de la Concorde in Paris was one of the
early locations where bitumen was used for road
paving. The project was completed in 1835 and used
a layer of compressed stones covered by a layer of
hot bitumen, followed by another layer of
compressed stones. This method proved to be
durable and effective, and paved the way for the
widespread use of bitumen in road construction.
• Actually, the 19th century saw significant
developments in the use of materials for
construction and other applications. One major
development was the widespread use of iron and
steel, which revolutionized building construction
and transportation.
• Regarding the use of bitumen, while it is true that
the refining of bitumen from crude petroleum oils
began in the 19th century, it was not a major
development in the use of materials at the time.
Instead, it was primarily used for waterproofing and
other industrial applications.
• The process of refining bitumen was actually
pioneered much earlier than the early 1900s. The
first modern oil refinery was built in Ploiești,
Romania in 1856, and the refining of crude oil and
bitumen quickly became a major industry in the
United States, with the first American oil refinery
opening in 1861. By the early 20th century, refining
techniques had become much more sophisticated,
and the production of gasoline and other petroleum
products had become a major global industry.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF BITUMEN
Penetration bitumen is a type of bitumen that is
commonly used in the construction industry for a variety of
purposes, such as road paving, roofing, and waterproofing.
The term "penetration" refers to the consistency or hardness
of the bitumen, which is measured using a standard
penetration test.
The penetration value of bitumen is determined by
the depth, in tenths of a millimeter, that a standard needle
will penetrate the bitumen sample under specific conditions
of time, temperature, and applied force. The penetration
value is an important factor in determining the quality and
suitability of the bitumen for different applications.
80/100 penetration bitumen is a type of bitumen that has a
penetration value of 80 to 100 decimeters (dmm) at 25°C.
This means that the bitumen is relatively softer than 60/70
penetration bitumen and is suitable for use in areas with
lower traffic loads, such as residential streets and parking
lots.
60/70 penetration bitumen is a type of bitumen that has a
penetration value of 60 to 70 decimeters (dmm) at 25°C.
This means that the bitumen is relatively hard and is suitable
for use in areas with high traffic loads, such as highways and
airports.
30/40 penetration grade bitumen is a type of bitumen or
asphalt that has a penetration depth of 3-4 tenths of a
millimeter when tested under specific conditions. This grade
of bitumen is commonly used in road construction and is
suitable for use in areas with moderate to high traffic.
Viscosity grade bitumen is a type of bitumen that is
classified based on its viscosity or thickness at a particular
temperature. It is commonly used in the construction
industry for various applications such as road surfacing,
roofing, waterproofing, and sealing.
The viscosity of bitumen is measured in centistokes (cSt) at
a temperature of 60°C or 135°C, and the grade is designated
by two numbers separated by a hyphen. The first number
represents the viscosity in hundreds of centistokes at 60°C,
and the second number represents the viscosity in tenths of TYPES OF BITUMEN
a centistoke at 135°C. For example, a viscosity grade of 60-
70 means that the bitumen has a viscosity of 6000-7000 cSt 1. Cutback Bitumen
at 60°C and 70 cSt at 135°C. • Cutback bitumen is created by adding a petroleum-
based solvent to conventional bitumen to reduce its
There are several viscosity grades of bitumen available, viscosity. The goal is to reduce viscosity and
including VG-10, VG-20, VG-30, VG-40, and VG-50. The promote bitumen penetration on asphalt surfaces.
higher the viscosity grade, the thicker and more durable the Cutback bitumen is sprayed on different layers of
bitumen is, making it more suitable for high-traffic areas or roads at a significantly lower temperature than
areas with extreme weather conditions. bitumen. A cutback bitumen is said to cure as the
petroleum solvent evaporates.
Viscosity grade bitumen is typically produced from crude
oil through a process called distillation. The crude oil is Three Types of Cutback Bitumen
heated to high temperatures to separate its various • Rapid Curing
components, including bitumen, which is then further o Prepared with a light, fast-
processed to achieve the desired viscosity grade. evaporating diluent like naphtha or
gasoline
o Recommended for patching and
surface dressing of roads in a
Penetration grade and viscosity grade bitumen are two types notably lower temperature
of bitumen that are commonly used in road construction and • Medium Curing
other applications. While both types of bitumen have similar o Combination of Bitumen and
properties and uses, there are some differences between the lighter hydrocarbons such as
two: kerosene
o Recommended for premixes
1. Consistency: The main difference between penetration containing fewer fine aggregates
grade and viscosity grade bitumen is their consistency. • Slow Curing
Penetration grade bitumen is harder and less viscous than o Commonly referred to as “ road
viscosity grade bitumen, which means that it has a higher oils”
resistance to deformation and is more suitable for areas with o Usually a residual material
heavy traffic loads. Viscosity grade bitumen, on the other produced from the fractional
hand, is softer and more viscous, which makes it better distillation of certain crude
suited for areas with lighter traffic loads. petroleums
o Recommended for premixes
2. Testing methods: Penetration grade bitumen is typically containing more fine aggregates
tested using the penetration test, which measures the depth
to which a standard needle will penetrate the bitumen under 2. Bitumen Emulsion
standardized conditions. Viscosity grade bitumen is tested • Bitumen emulsion is a combination of fine bitumen
using the viscosity test, which measures the kinematic particles and water. The bitumen content can be
viscosity of the bitumen at a specific temperature. adjusted to meet specific needs, however it usually
ranges between 30% and 70%. The main goal of
3. Standards: Both penetration grade and viscosity grade emulsifying bitumen is to create a product that can
bitumen are produced to meet specific standards. be used without the need for heating.
Penetration grade bitumen is standardized by the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the European Types of Bitumen Emulsion (Based on Ionic
Charge)
Committee for Standardization (CEN). Viscosity grade
• Anionic Bitumen Emulsion
bitumen is standardized by the American Association of
o Negatively charged
State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and o All components repel each other.
the International Standards Organization (ISO). The only way for the emulsion to
4. Applications: Penetration grade bitumen is typically used break is for the water to evaporate.
As more water evaporates, the
for road construction, waterproofing, and roofing. Viscosity
particles are driven closer and
grade bitumen is also used for these applications, but it is
closer together until they can no
more commonly used for industrial applications such as longer be separated by a thin layer
sealing and insulation. of water.
• Cationic Bitumen Emulsion
5. Availability: Both penetration grade and viscosity grade
o Positively charged
bitumen are widely available in most parts of the world.
o The bitumen drops are immediately
However, the availability of each type may vary depending attracted to the surface and begin to
on the specific region and local market conditions.
 break. Evaporation also causes the
emulsion to lose water.
Since almost all surfaces have a net negative charge,
anionic and cationic emulsions break in different
ways.
3. Modified Bitumen
• Bitumen modifiers are additives or mixtures of
additives that can help bitumen and bituminous
mixes perform better. Bitumen that has been treated
with these chemicals is known as modified bitumen.
Types of Modifiers
• Polymers
o Polymer Modified Bitumen (PMB)
o Polymer modified bitumen (PMB)
is a type of specifically built and
engineered bitumen that is used to
make pavement, heavy-duty roads,
and residential roofing solutions
that can survive extreme weather.
PMB is bitumen with a polymer
added to it, giving it increased
strength, cohesion, and resilience
to fatigue, stripping, and
deformations, making it a good
choice for infrastructure.
o Common Types of PMB
• Rubbers
o Rubber Modified Bitumen (RMB)
o Rubber modifier acts as a
strengthening agent for the binder,
preventing any deformation from
occurring during low temperature,
fatigue, or heat difficulties.
o RMB has certain unique features
that set it apart from other bitumen
binders, such as high adhesion that
decreases cracking and
deformation. It also improves the
material's stability and uniformity
across the supply chain.
o Advantages
▪ The resistance to fatigue is
high
▪ Very cost effective
▪ Strong resistance to
thermal cracking
▪ Aging process slows down
▪ Gives protection from
water damage due to hard
grade of asphalt formed
COMPOSITION OF BITUMEN
Bitumen is a complex colloidal system of hydrocarbons and
their derivatives which is soluble in trichloroethylene.
TCE is found as an ingredient in a number of consumer
products such as
● adhesives
● cleaning fluids for rugs
● paint removers/strippers
● spot removers
● typewriter correction fluids
Main Fractions
• Asphaltenes
o fraction insoluble in light aliphatic
hydrocarbon solvent, e.g. n-heptane.
o The asphaltenes have the highest molecular
weight but their exact nature is dependent
on the type of solvent and the volume ratio
of solvent to bitumen.
o Mainly composed of condensed aromatic
hydrocarbons and include complexes with
nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur and metals such
as nickel and vanadium.
• Maltenes
o fraction soluble in n-heptane.
o Resins
o Oils
▪ Aromatics
▪ Saturates
o Maltenes contain lower molecular weight
versions of asphaltenes, called resins, and a
range of hydrocarbon compounds known as
‘oils’ including olefins,naphthenes and
paraffins.
o Resins are amorphous substances of a dark
brown color with a molecular weight of
from 500 to 1000 g/mol, the density is about
1 g/cm3.
o Oil fraction of bitumen consists of different
hydrocarbons with a molecular weight of
from 100 to 500 g/mol and a density less
than 1 g/cm3
 o The aromatic oils are oily and dark brown
in appearance and include naphtheno-
aromatic type rings.
o The saturated oils are made up mainly of
long straight saturated chains and appear as
highly viscous whitish oil.
PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN
Adhesion
Bitumen binds together all the components without bringing
about any positive or negative changes in their properties.
Resistance To Water
Bitumen is insoluble in water and can serve as an effective
sealant Bitumen is water resistant.
Hardness
The penetration value of bitumen is defined as bitumen
hardness.
Viscosity and Flow
The flow properties of bitumens vary considerably with
temperature and stress conditions.
Softening point
This property make us to know whether given bitumen can
be used at the particular place.
Ductility
Ductility test is conducted to determine the amount bitumen
will stretch at temperature below its softening point.
Durability
Bitumen durability refers to the long-term resistance to
oxidative hardening of the Material in the field.
Versatility
Due to versatility property of Bitumen it is relatively easy to
use it in many applications because of its thermoplastic
property.
Economical
It is available in cheaper rates almost all over the world
which makes it feasible and affordable in many applications.
Strength
Though the coarse aggregates are the main load bearing
component in a pavement, bitumen or asphalt also play a
vital role in distributing the traffic loads to the layers
beneath.
PRODUCTION OF BITUMEN
In addition to being found naturally in seeps and the oil
sands, bitumen can be produced by removing lighter
fractions from crude oil during the refining process.
Fractions that are removed are liquid petroleum gas,
gasoline, and diesel.
Once crude oil has been extracted from the ground, the
production of bitumen can begin. The crude oil is pumped
from the storage tanks and through a system that increases
the temperature of the crude oil to 200°C. The oil then
moves to a furnace, where it is heated even higher to
approximately 300°C where it is vaporized partially into a
distillation column. Here, the separation of the different
components of the crude oil occurs. As lighter components
rise to the top, heavy components—including the bitumen—
fall to the bottom of the column. This process is known as
fractional distillation. Finally, the bitumen is obtained by
further distilling the residue in a vacuum distillation column.
This type of bitumen is known as straight run bitumen. The
grade of the bitumen depends on how much volatile material
remains in the distilled bitumen—with more volatiles
resulting in a less pure, more liquid product.
EXTRACTION OF BITUMEN
There are two ways to extract bitumen from the oil sands —
either through surface mining, where the bitumen is gravity
separated using hot water, or thermal in-situ extraction,
where bitumen is injected with steam and pumped out of the
ground. The method used depends on the depth of the
deposit.
DEEP DEPOSITS SHALLOW DEPOSITS
< 200 METERS > 75 METERS
Steam is injected into the oil Steam is injected into the
sands deposit, reducing the oil sands deposit, reducing
viscosity of the bitumen. The the viscosity of the bitumen.
mixture of bitumen and water The mixture of bitumen and
is pumped to the surface water is pumped to the
where the water is recovered surface where the water is
and recycled. recovered and recycled.
USES OF BITUMEN
Bitumen has several modern uses. It's generally meant for
industrial use and is commonly found in road paving. The
majority of U.S. roads are made of either bitumen or a
combination of bitumen and aggregates, such as concrete.
Bitumen is widely used in road construction, damp-proof
courses, used as waterproofing, used for adhesive, coating,
roofing, as well as for tanking of basements, preservation of
stones, paints, pavements, and protection of structures.
Road construction: In road construction bitumen can be
used in hot mix asphalt and cold mix asphalt on the road
surface. Both of these two types of asphalts are used in
flexible pavement. In hot mix asphalt, paving grades
bitumen which are penetration grade and viscosity grade are
used. All types of bitumen including Penetration Grades,
Viscosity Grades, Oxidized Bitumen and liquid bitumen can
be used in road construction.
Waterproofing: Bitumen is used in the waterproofing
process and rust-proof coating. In the waterproofing process
it can be used in different forms of bituminous paint,
bituminous membrane, and bituminous coating to prevent
water penetration into the surfaces. Another key use for
bitumen is waterproofing. For instance, it was commonly
used to waterproof boats and other marine vessels, as well
as the sides of buildings. It was used in ancient times as
mortar in building construction.
Adhesive: Bitumen is applied on road paving because it is
viscous (or it having a thick, sticky consistency between
solid and liquid) when hot, but solid once it cools down.
Therefore, Bitumen operates as the binder/glue for pieces of
the aggregate. Along with being used as a waterproofing
agent and acting as an adhesive, engineers who replace
asphalt roads can reuse the material for other road projects
Damp-proof courses: Bitumen is used as a thin course on
the building foundation or between the bricks in a building
structure. In the rainy weather, the soil absorbs the water,
and it can damage the building. So madalas po, Damp proof
courses are used on the building foundations para maiwasan
ang attraction of water from the soil, ‘cause it avoids
moisture from entering the inner spaces of the building.
Liquid bitumen like bitumen emulsion and pure bitumen
like bitumen penetration grade are suitable for damp
proofing courses.
For damp proofing, prefabricated mats that are sprayed with
blown bitumen are used. They are also used to prevent
pollution from spreading in the form of small water-
retaining, bituminous walls at refuse disposal sites.
Coating: In many industries like the oil and gas industry, to
protect the pipelines from corrosion, bitumen is applied as a
thin layer on the steel pipes and covers their surfaces.
Generally, bituminous coating is a good way to para maging
resistant to chemical degradation ang mga metal and steel
surfaces at to increase the life of the outer layer of pipes and
surfaces. Cutback bitumen is a good choice for coating.
Roofing: Bitumen is used in insulation of flat roofs, terraces
and balconies. Coverings of Roofs (Shingles) and Roofing
felts are made of fibres or plastics. These are impregnated
with penetration-grade bitumen and coated with blown-
grade bitumen. In many parts of Asia such as Malaysia, the
Philippines and Thailand where the weather is rainy most of
the time, there is a special type of roofing called shingle
roofs. In this type of roofing, oxidized bitumen is commonly
used.
Other uses of concrete include the following:
The Tanking of basements: Bitumen is the usual choice for
waterproofing of Basements like Asphalt.
Preservation of stones: These materials are used for
preservation of stonework from attack by salts and other
substances present in the ground and atmosphere.
For paints: The industrial blown or R grade of bitumen is
mainly used for bituminous paints and other surfaces.
Protection of structures: It is used as a protection by
impregnation for concrete elements such as slabs, piles, etc.
Organic binders of 10-15 mm thickness are also applied
over, para maiwasan na magcorrod ang bitumen.
TESTS ON BITUMEN:
Bitumen is a material with different properties. In order to
choose proper bitumen for road construction and other
industries, bitumen tests are necessary to help us to
determine its properties and examine its quality before using
it, during the application, and after aging. It can also be used
to classify bitumen by its physical properties. This part of
presentation covers several tests on bitumen.
Penetration Test: The penetration test of bitumen measures
the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth
of penetration of standard loaded needle in five seconds
while maintaining bitumen sample temperature at 25°C. The
more viscous the bitumen, the less distance needle is able to
penetrate. Hence, the penetration value for viscous bitumen
is less.
The penetration value is largely influenced by any
inaccuracy with regards to pouring temperature, size of the
needle, weight placed on the needle and the test temperature.
In hot climates, a lower penetration grade is preferred.
Ductility Test: The ductility of bitumen is measured by the
distance in centimeters (cm), to which the bitumen sample
will elongate before breaking when it is pulled by standard
specimen at specified speed and temperature.
Ductility is the property of bitumen that permits it
to undergo great deformation or elongation. It is defined as
the distance in cm, to which a standard sample or briquette
of the material will be elongated without breaking.
Dimension of the briquette thus formed is exactly 1 cm
square. The distance up to the point of breaking of thread is
the ductility value which is reported in cm. The ductility
value gets affected by factors such as pouring temperature,
test temperature, rate of pulling etc. The ductility value of
bitumen usually varies from 5 to over 100 cm's and several
standards have specified minimum ductility values for
various pavement types. However, a ductility value of 100
cm's is specified generally for bituminous construction.
The softening point test shows the temperature at which
the bitumen gains a certain degree of softening under the
specifications of the test. It is also known as the Ring and
ball Test because it is conducted by using Ring and Ball
apparatus. The softening point helps to determine the
temperature up to which bitumen can be heated for different
road use applications. A brass ring containing test sample of
bitumen is suspended in liquid like water or glycerin at a
given temperature. A steel ball is placed upon the bitumen
sample and the liquid medium is heated at a rate of 5C per
minute. Temperature is noted when the softened bitumen
touches the metal plate which is at a specified distance
below. Generally, higher softening point indicates lower
temperature susceptibility and is preferred in hot climates.
Specific Gravity Test: In paving jobs, to classify a binder,
density property is of great use. In most cases bitumen is
weighed, but when used with aggregates, the bitumen is
converted to volume using density values. The density of
bitumen is greatly influenced by its chemical composition.
Increase in aromatic type mineral impurities cause an
increase in specific gravity. The specific gravity of bitumen
is defined as the ratio of mass of given volume of bitumen
of known content to the mass of equal volume of water at
27°C. The specific gravity can be measured using either
pycnometer or preparing a cube specimen of bitumen in
semi solid or solid state. The specific gravity of bitumen
varies from 0.97 to 1.02
Viscosity Test: Viscosity is the property of bitumen which
influences the ability of bitumen to spread, penetrate into the
voids and also coat the aggregates. The viscosity of liquid
binders such as cutbacks and emulsions are measured
indirectly using orifice type viscometers. At the application
temperature, this characteristic greatly influences the
strength of resulting paving mixes. Low or high viscosity
during compaction or mixing has been observed to result in
lower stability values. At high viscosity, it resists the
compactive effort and thereby resulting mix is
heterogeneous, hence low stability values. And at low
viscosity instead of providing a uniform film over
aggregates, it will lubricate the aggregate particles.
Flash and Fire Point: Flash point of bitumen is defined as
the point of lowest temperature at which bitumen catches
vapors of test flame and fires in the form of flash. It is the
point of lowest temperature at which the bitumen ignites and
burns at least for 5 second under specific conditions of test.
Flash and fire point test helps to control fire accidents in
bitumen coated areas. By this test we can decide the bitumen
grade with respect to temperature for areas of high
temperatures. In simple words, flash point and fire point
tests are used to determine the temperature to which
bituminous material can safely be heated.
Float test: Float test is used to determine the consistency of
bitumen. But we generally use penetration test and viscosity
test to find out the consistency of bitumen except for certain
range of consistencies. Normally the consistency of
bituminous material can be measured either by penetration
test or viscosity test. But for certain range of consistencies,
these tests are not applicable and Float test is used. The
apparatus consists of an aluminum float and a brass collar
filled with bitumen to be tested. The specimen in the mould
is cooled to a temperature of 5C and screwed into float. The
total test assembly is floated in the water bath at 5C and the
time required for water to pass its way through the specimen
plug is noted in seconds and is expressed as the float value.
Water Content Test: It is desirable that the bitumen
contains minimum water content to prevent foaming of the
bitumen when it is heated above the boiling point of water.
The weight of the water condensed and collected is
expressed as percentage by weight of the original sample.
The allowable maximum water content should not be more
than 0.2% by weight. To estimate the amount of water in
bitumen, combine a known weight of samples in a pure
petroleum distillate free of water, heating and distilling the
water.
Loss on Heating Test: Bitumen is commonly used as a
binder in pavements. When it is exposed to the atmosphere,
the volatiles present in it evaporates and bitumen hardens.
In the loss of heating of bitumen, the bitumen specimen is
subjected to an accelerated ageing process under the
conditions specified by the standard. When heat is applied,
bitumen loses its fluidity and hardens. Bitumen used in
pavement mixes should not lose more than 1% of its weight,
although bitumen with penetration values of 150-200 can
lose up to 2% of its weight.
ASPHALT VS. BITUMEN
So, asphalt vs. bitumen, the term bitumen is often
mistakenly used to describe asphalt. A bitumen-sealed
road has a layer of bitumen sprayed and then covered with
an aggregate. Asphalt results in a smoother and more
durable asphalt road surface than a bitumen-sealed road.
The word “asphalt” is used to refer to asphalt concrete, a
mixture of construction aggregate and asphalt itself (also
called “tarmac” in common parlance). “Bitumen” refers to
the liquid derived from the heavy residues from crude oil
distillation.
Asphalt Bitumen
Asphalt pavements are Bitumen pavements are less
durable; with a layer durable; with a layer depth
depth of 25-40 mm and of 10-20 mm and lifespan
life span of 20+ years. of 5-10 years.
Surface made of asphalt is The loose fragments on
smoother and more skid- bitumen pavements make
resistant, ensuring the the driving experience
driver’s safety and noisier and can wear down
minimal noise.
 tires, consequently causing
safety issues.
Reduced friction between Higher frictional resistance
tire and car; meaning of a bitumen pavement
better fuel economy and means less efficiency in
minimization of carbon energy utilization.
dioxide emission.
Asphalt is an Exposure to bitumen
impermeable material; leaching may cause
thus, the pavements do deterioration of soil and
not leach. Therefore, they groundwater quality.
have a lesser chance of
infiltrating and polluting
the groundwater
Less sensitive to Pavements are susceptible
temperature compared to to high temperature, which
bitumen pavements. can make it slick and soft.
Negative impacts are seen
only in extremely high or
low temperature.
Installation is Cheap to install compared
comparatively costlier. to asphalt.
Cost effective. An asphalt They require regular
surface doesn’t require maintenance, especially
regular maintenance like when resurfacing a
bitumen surface, rather a pavement with greater
routine check periodically traffic volume. So not cost
is enough. effective in the long run.

Nextslide po, presented on the screen are the references we

used po in our presentation.

Next slidepo. That would be all for our group’s presentation

of bitumen. Thank you all for participating and listening to
7-habilin. You may now ask your questions or raise your
concerns to Rexson “Babaero” De Mesa.