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Energy
EnergyProcedia
Procedia148 (2018) 000–000
00 (2017) 289–296
73rd Conference of the Italian Thermal Machines Engineering Association (ATI 2018),
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
12–14 September 2018, Pisa, Italy
73rd Conference of the Italian Thermal Machines Engineering Association (ATI 2018),
Energy consumption 12–14 ofSeptember
a last generation full hybrid vehicle
2018, Pisa, Italy
compared with a conventional vehicle in real drive conditions
EnergyThe consumption
15th International ofSymposium
a last generationon District Heatingfull hybridand Cooling vehicle
compared
F. Orecchini a
with a conventional
, A. Santiangeli a a
, F. Zuccari *, F. vehicle
Ortenzi in b
, A.real
Genovesedrive b
, conditions
G. Spazzafumoc,
Assessing the feasibilityL.ofNardone usingc the heat demand-outdoor
F.temperature
Orecchini a
function
, A. Santiangeli
a CARe - Centeer for
a
,for aEvolution,
F. and
Automotive Research long-term
Zuccari a
*, F. Ortenzi district
b
University guglielmo heat
,Marconi,
A. Genovese
via demand
Plinio
b
44,
,Rome forecast
G. 00193,
Spazzafumo
Italy
c
,
c
L. Nardone
b ENEA - Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development, Via Anguillarese, 301 - 00123
a,b,c a S.Maria dia Galeria (Rome), Italy
b c c
c Department
I. Andrić
a CARe - Centeer
of Civil
*, A. Pina , P. Ferrão , J. Fournier ., B. Lacarrière , O. Le Corre
for Automotive
and Mechanical ResearchUniversity
Engineering, and Evolution, University
of Cassino guglielmoLazio,
and Southern Marconi, viaBiasio,
Via Di Plinio 43
44,03043
Rome 00193, Italy
Cassino (FR), Italy.
ba ENEA - Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development, Via Anguillarese, 301 - 00123
IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research - Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
b S.Maria di Galeria (Rome), Italy
Veolia Recherche & Innovation, 291 Avenue Dreyfous Daniel, 78520 Limay, France
c Departmentc of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Via Di Biasio, 43 03043 Cassino (FR), Italy.
Département Systèmes Énergétiques et Environnement - IMT Atlantique, 4 rue Alfred Kastler, 44300 Nantes, France
Abstract

Hybrid vehicles are one of the most important choices to improve efficiency and reduce CO2 production of vehicles.
Abstract
Abstract
Benefits in using hybrid powertrains are generally found in urban environment where lower average speeds, higher
accelerations make the internal combustion engine run at lower efficiency points.
Hybridheating
District vehicles are one of
networks arethe most important
commonly addressed choices to improve
in the literatureefficiency
as one and
of thereduce
most CO2 production
effective of vehicles.
solutions for decreasing the
The originality of the present paper consists in the data elaboration and analysis collected in a measurement campaign on road
Benefits
greenhouse in
gas using hybrid
emissions from powertrains
the building are generally
sector. These found
systems in urban
require environment
high investments wherewhichlower
are average
returned speeds, the
through higher
heat
in real driving conditions, on an ad hoc path planned according to the average national daily mileage in metropolitan urban
accelerations
sales. Due tomake the the internalclimate
changed combustion engineand
conditions run building
at lower efficiency
renovationpoints. policies, heat demand in the future could decrease,
context, which thus acquires a significance generalizable in that specific context, which led to the consumption quantification and
The originality
prolonging of the present
the investment returnpaper consists in the data elaboration and analysis collected in a measurement campaign on road
period.
an analysis of the main factors that determine the reduction in consumption of full-hybrid vs conventional vehicles. Another
inThe
realmain
driving
scopeconditions,
of this paper on isantoad hoc the
assess pathfeasibility
planned of according
using thetoheat the demand
average –national
outdoor daily mileagefunction
temperature in metropolitan urban
for heat demand
important and
Theoriginal
forecast.which district aspect of this paper
of Alvalade, locatedis in
theLisbon
analysis(Portugal),
of the operating times
wascontext,
used ina ZEV
aswhich caseledmode
study. of hybrid vehicles, which shows
context, thus acquires a significance generalizable in that specific to theThe district
consumption isquantification
consisted of and
665
how this solutionvary
buildings leadsintoboth
a significant reduction
periodof pollutant emissions in urban contest.
an analysisthatof the main factorsconstruction
that determine and
the typology.
reduction in Three weather
consumption ofscenarios
full-hybrid(low, vs medium,
conventionalhigh)vehicles.
and threeAnother
district
An on-road
renovation experimentaldeveloped
scenarios campaign (shallow,
has been intermediate,
done by comparing two differentthe versions of the same model (Toyota Yaris
important and original were
aspect of this paper is the analysis of thedeep). To estimate
operating times in ZEV error,
modeobtained
of hybrid heat demand
vehicles, values
which were
shows
Hybrid
comparedand with
a conventional
results from one,
a Toyota heat
dynamic Yarisdemand
1.5 gasoline)
model, and a hybriddeveloped
previously vehicle with and different
validated characteristics
by the authors. (the hybrid born -
how this solution leads to a significant reduction of pollutant emissions in urban contest.
Toyota Prius),
The results like size,
showed thattraction
when only battery capacity,
weather change generator/motor
is considered, electric
the margin power. Thirty
of error drivers
could on a fixed for
be acceptable pathsome
haveapplications
done this
An on-road experimental campaign has been done by comparing two different versions of the same model (Toyota Yaris
(the error incampaign
experimental annual demand was paper,
and in this lower the
thanresults
20% are for reported.
all weather scenarios considered). However, after introducing renovation
Hybrid and a conventional one, Toyota Yaris 1.5 gasoline) and a hybrid vehicle with different characteristics (the hybrid born -
scenarios,
The results the show
error that
valuea strong
increased up to 59.5%
influence (dependingison
on consumption duethenotweather
only toand the renovation scenarios
type of vehicle, combination
but also to drivingconsidered).
style and
Toyota
The Prius),
value of like
slope size, traction increased
coefficient battery capacity,
on generator/motor
average within the electric
range of power.
3.8% Thirty
up to 8%drivers
per on a fixed
decade, thatpath have donetothis
corresponds the
speed.
experimental
decrease in campaign
the number and
of in this paper,
heating hours the
of results
22-139h areduring
reported.the heating season (depending on the combination of weather and
The comparison between the two versions of Yaris, shows a strong reduction in consumption using hybrid vehicle for low and
The results
renovation show that
scenarios a strong influence
considered). on consumption
On the other hand, function is due not only
intercept to the type
increased of vehicle,per
for 7.8-12.7% but decade
also to (depending
driving styleonand
the
medium speeds (for 20 km/h about 50%), such benefit decreases with the increasing speed and for values higher than 90 km/h
speed.
coupled scenarios). The values suggested could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and
both the vehicles have the same consumption. The reduced consumption of the hybrid vehicle at low speeds is due, on the one
The comparison
improve the accuracy between
of heatthe two versions
demand of Yaris, shows a strong reduction in consumption using hybrid vehicle for low and
estimations.
medium speeds (for 20 km/h about 50%), such benefit decreases with the increasing speed and for values higher than 90 km/h
© 2017
1876-6102
both the The
© 2018Authors.
vehicles The
have Published
Authors.
the same by
Published Elsevier Ltd.
by Elsevier
consumption. TheLtd.reduced consumption of the hybrid vehicle at low speeds is due, on the one
This is an open under
Peer-review access article under theof
responsibility CCthe
BY-NC-ND
Scientificlicense (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and
rd
Cooling.and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 73 Conference of the Italian Thermal Machines Engineering
Selection
1876-6102 ©
Association 2018
(ATI The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
2018).
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Keywords: Heat demand; Forecast; Climate change rd
Selection and peer-review
* Corresponding under+39-328-328-2215
author. Tel.: ; scientific committee of the 73 Conference of the Italian Thermal Machines Engineering
responsibility of the
Association (ATI 2018).
E-mail address: f.zuccari@unimarconi.it

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +39-328-328-2215 ;

E-mail address:
1876-6102 © 2017f.zuccari@unimarconi.it
The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1876-6102 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 73rd Conference of the Italian Thermal Machines
Engineering Association (ATI 2018).
10.1016/j.egypro.2018.08.080
2 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
290 F. Orecchini et al. / Energy Procedia 148 (2018) 289–296
2 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
hand, to the greater efficiency of the hybrid vehicle engine compared to the conventional one and on the other hand to the high
hand, to the in
functioning greater efficiency
ZEV mode, withofthethe hybrid
engine vehicle
off, (63% engine
of time)compared
thanks to tothethe
useconventional one
of the electric and on the other hand to the high
motor.
functioning in ZEV mode,
The comparison with the
between the engine off, (63%
two hybrid of time)
vehicles thanks
with to the characteristics
different use of the electric motor. and Prius) shows that the
(YarisHy
The comparison
consumption trend vs.between
speeds isthe two but
similar hybrid vehicles
the Prius with different
has lower consumption characteristics (YarisHy
due above all andefficiency
to the high Prius) shows
of the that the
braking
consumption
energy recoverytrend vs. speeds
system, is the
despite similar but the
greatest mass.Prius has lower consumption due above all to the high efficiency of the braking
energy
Thisrecovery
lead then system, despite the
to significant greatest mass.
consumption reduction, but also lower emissions in places where such parameters have an
This lead
important role:then to significant
the urban consumption reduction, but also lower emissions in places where such parameters have an
environment.
important role: the urban environment.
© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
© 2018
This The
is an Authors.
open accessPublished by Elsevier
article under Ltd.
the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Selection
This is an and peer-review
open access articleunder
under responsibility
the CC BY-NC-ND of thelicense
scientific committee of the 73rd Conference of the Italian Thermal
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 73rd Conference of the Italian Thermal Machines
Machines
Selection Engineering
and Association
peer-review under
Engineering Association (ATI 2018). (ATI 2018).
responsibility of the scientific committee of the 73rd Conference of the Italian Thermal
Machines Engineering Association (ATI 2018).
Keywords: Hybrid vehicle, real drive conditions, energy analysis
Keywords: Hybrid vehicle, real drive conditions, energy analysis

Nomenclature
Nomenclature
BEV Battery Electric Vehicle
BEV
FCEV Battery
Fuel CellElectric Vehicle
Electric Vehicle
FCEV
HEV Fuel Cell
Hybrid Electric
Electric Vehicle
Vehicles
HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicles
HEV
PHEV Hybrid
Plug-in Electric VehiclesVehicles
Hybrid Electric
PHEV On
OBD Plug-in
BoardHybrid Electric Vehicles
Diagnostic
OBD Zero
ZEV On Board Diagnostic
Emission Vehicle
ZEV
MG1 Zero Emission
Motor Generator Vehicle
1 of Toyota Hybrid System
MG1
MG2 Motor Generator 21 of Toyota Hybrid System
MG2
ICE Motor Generator
Internal Combustion2 ofEngine
Toyota Hybrid System
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
1. Introduction
1. Introduction
As stated in the report issued by the European Commission, Directorate-General for Communication, Citizens'
As stated on
Information in Transport
the reportPolicies
issued by[1],the
in European Commission,
order to achieve the EU'sDirectorate-General
climate change goals forit Communication, Citizens'
is necessary to drastically
Information on Transport
reduce transport emissions, Policies
whose[1], in order
carbon to achieve
dioxide the EU's
production climate for
accounts change goals20%
at least it is of
necessary to drastically
EU greenhouse gas
reduce transport emissions, whose carbon dioxide production accounts for at least 20% of EU greenhouse gas
emissions.
emissions.
To reduce global greenhouse gas emissions by 80% and thus reduce climate change within safety limits, the
To reduce
transport sectorglobal
has togreenhouse
cut emissions gas byemissions
60% by by 80%Road
2050. and traffic,
thus reduce climatethe
representing change
main within
form ofsafety limits,
transport, is the
transport
major sourcesector
of has to cut according
pollution: emissions to by the
60% by 2050.
latest data, itRoad traffic,about
produces representing the main
71% of total CO2 form of transport,
emissions is the
(two thirds of
major source
which of pollution:
are generated by cars).according to the latest data, it produces about 71% of total CO2 emissions (two thirds of
which are generated
A quarter by cars). emissions are produced in urban areas; small and large cities play therefore a key role
of EU transport
A quarter of
in mitigating EU transport
climate change. emissions
Many of them are produced
also haveintourban areas;
struggle withsmall and large
congestion cities play
problems and therefore
improve aira key role
quality,
in mitigating
which climate
is currently change. Many of them also have to struggle with congestion problems and improve air quality,
unsatisfactory.
which is currently
Solutions unsatisfactory.
to reduce fuel consumption and emissions include fuel and traction systems: the use of cleaner fossil
Solutions
fuels to reduce
is a reality in thefuel consumption
Italian working parkand emissions
for severalinclude fuel and
years now, traction
biofuels cansystems:
be mixed thewith
use traditional
of cleaner fossil
fuels,
fuels is aclimate
reducing reality emissions
in the Italian workingcombustion
of internal park for several
vehiclesyears
[2]. now, biofuels biomethane
In particular, can be mixed haswith traditional
a particular fuels,
potential
reducing climate
for reducing emissions of and
fuel consumption internal combustionimpact
environmental vehicles
[2],[2].
[3].In particular, biomethane has a particular potential
for As
reducing
far asfuel consumption
traction systems and are environmental
concerned, short,impact [2], [3].and long-term solutions go towards a progressive
medium
As far as traction
electrification vehiclessystems
into fullyareelectric
concerned, short,
vehicles medium
(BEV), andtoday
which long-term
mark solutions
a significantgo growth
towards ina Europe
progressive
and
electrification
worldwide (in vehicles
Europe, into+101% fullybetween
electric 2014
vehicles
and(BEV),
2015 andwhich todayinmark
+7.2% the afirst
significant
half of growth in Europe
2016), with a marketand
worldwide
penetration (in Europe, the
exceeding +101% betweenunit
percentage 2014 and 2015
in many and +7.2%
European in theand
Countries, firstFCEV,
half ofthis 2016), with toa date
solution market is
penetration
technologicallyexceeding
availabletheandpercentage
can be aunit in many European
medium-term opportunity. Countries, and FCEV,
HEV represent this solution
an evolution to date is
of conventional
technologically available and can be a medium-term opportunity. HEV represent an evolution of conventional
 F. Orecchini et al. / Energy Procedia 148 (2018) 289–296 291
Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 3

motorization that is becoming increasingly widespread on the market, with a growth rate of 50% per annum and a
steady increase in the standard models offered by car manufacturers [2].
Hybrid traction systems are set to become more and more electrical, passing from Micro, Mild, and Full Hybrid
to Plug-in Hybrid (PHEV) [4] [5], without the constraint of the charging infrastructures needed for fully electric
technologies such as BEV (charging columns) and FCEV (hydrogen distributors).
In this paper, an on-road experimental campaign has been done with a full hybrid vehicle, the Toyota Yaris
Hybrid and a conventional one, the Toyota Yaris 1.5 gasoline on two fixed paths (Urban and Extra-Urban area, and
the second in Extra-Urban and Motorway area) and the results are analyzed.
Tests were conducted in roads of Rome with both vehicles on urban, mixed, extra-urban and highway test path
designed to evaluate them in a wide operating range. During the tests, the instantaneous data were acquired by the
thermal engine control unit of both vehicles through the OBD diagnostic socket using the instrumentation supplied
by Toyota Motor Italia. The acquired data were processed and analyzed for the comparative evaluation of
consumption in function of the speed of the vehicle [6]. The speed range analyzed is 0÷130 km/h in accordance with
the limits imposed by the highway code in the various sections of test paths.

2. Tests

The tests were conducted on two versions of the same model of the Toyota (the Yaris, in the Hybrid version and
in the 1.5 Petrol version) and a different size hybrid model (Prius). The following are their main technical
characteristics.

2.1. Technical characteristics of vehicles

The technical characteristics of the three vehicles are shown in the Table 1.

Table 1. Data sheet of the two Yaris models and the Prius one.
Characteristic Yaris Hybrid Yaris 1.5 Petrol Prius
Empty mass (kg) 1,090 1,065 1,375
Total mass (kg) 1,565 1,545 1,790
Tires 175/65 R15 175/65 R15 215/45 R17
Engine displacement (cm3) 1,497 1,496 1,798
Engine compression ratio 13,4:1 13,5:1 13,0:1
Engine maximum power (kW) 54 at 4,800 rpm 82 at 6,000 rpm 72 (5,200 rpm)
Engine maximum torque (Nm) 111 at 3,600 – 4,400 rpm 136 at 4,400 rpm 142 (3,600 rpm)
Emission class EURO 6 EURO 6 EURO 6
Electric motor permanent magnet synchronous n.a. permanent magnet synchronous
Electric motor maximum power (kW) 45 n.a. 53
Electric motor maximum torque (Nm) 169 n.a. 163
Traction battery Nickel-Metal Hydride n.a. Nickel-Metal Hydride
Traction battery nominal voltage (V) 144 n.a. 201.6
Traction battery capacity (Ah) 6.5 n.a. 6.5
Energy traction battery capacity (Wh) 936.0 n.a. 1,310.4
Powertrain maximum power (kW) 74 82 90
As can be seen from Table 1, the differences between the two Yaris (hybrid and conventional) concern those that
are the capacity of the tank, which is justifiably greater for the model with petrol only, and what is the total mass
that, in the hybrid, a mainly due to the batteries, it is a few kilograms greater. From Table 1 you can see how the real
power developed by the Hybrid Synergy Drive is very close to the one made available by the Yaris thermal engine
powered exclusively by petrol (respectively 82 and 74 kW) thus ensuring a realistic comparison of performance.
292 F. Orecchini et al. / Energy Procedia 148 (2018) 289–296
4 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

Instead the differences between the two Hybrid vehicles (YarisHy and Prius) concern those that are vehicle mass,
engine maximum power, Electric motor maximum power and energy traction battery capacity.

2.2. The test paths

The test paths are two: the first one is Urban (with low and high traffic density) and Extra-Urban area, and the
second is Extra-Urban and Motorway area.
In the Urban/Extra-Urban path, the test run (Fig. 1, a), planned in line with average per capita daily travel, as
reported by the "ISFORT mobility report" [7] has a total length of 37 km, and was divided into three sections:
• 1st section: Urban with low traffic density and extra-urban. This section is about 17.4 km long; it starts at
the city outskirts and ends at the city center with speed limits up to 130 km/h;
• 2nd section: Urban with high traffic density. This section is approximately 6 km long, entirely at the city
center (inside the ring railway), with maximum speed limits of 50 km/h;
• 3rd section: Urban with low traffic density and extra-urban. This section is about 16.3 km long; it starts at
the city center and ends at the city outskirts with speed limits up to 130 km/h.
In the Extra-Urban and Motorway path, the test run (Fig. 1, b), has a total length of 44.9 km, and was divided into
five sections:
• 1st section: Extra-Urban. This section is about 4 km long;
• 2nd section: Highway. This section is approximately 10,5 km long;
• 3rd section: Extra-Urban. This section is about 16.3 km long;
• 4th section: Highway. This section is approximately 11.4 km long;
• 5th section: Extra-Urban. This section is about 2.7 km long.
Overall the Extra-Urban stretch is about 23 km while the Motorway stretch is about 21.9 km.

Fig. 1. Urban and extra urban (a) and extra urban Motorway (b) test path.

In the definition of the test conditions, all the variables that may affect the energy performance of the vehicle
were taken into account, such as driving style, traffic conditions and energy consumption of auxiliaries [6, 8, 9, 10,
11].
The test drives were carried out by using the two Yaris models described above with hybrid version set on the
ECO MODE, and both models with no air conditioning, and traveling speed complying with the road traffic speed
limits for each type of road.

3. Result analysis

In order to show the benefit of hybrid vehicles in comparison with conventional ones, an aggregation of the
collected data with the average speed has been made. Such parameter can be a good one to characterize the
environment in which the vehicle moves, so for lower average speeds the vehicle in urban environment, for very low
ones the vehicle is in congested traffic environment, while at increasing values in rural and motorway. Curves for
consumption are then been built from values of average speed of 10 km/h to 120 km/h.
 F. Orecchini et al. / Energy Procedia 148 (2018) 289–296 293
Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 5

In Fig. 2 the consumption is plotted with the average speed of the vehicle for the Toyota Yaris Hybrid, the Yaris
conventional and Prius.
There is a big consumption reduction for the major part of the average speed values of the hybrid technology
compared to the conventional one: at the lowest values (10 km/h) is about 65%, decreasing increasing the speed.
The reasons are mainly three: the thermal engine efficiency (Atkinson cycle that works at operating points with
higher efficiency), the hybrid subsystem that allows to run ZEV mode for a big part of the time and the regenerative
braking of the Hybrid Synergy Drive.
This is confirmed by the fact that the Prius and YarisHy consumptions trend vs. average speeds are similar but
the Prius has lower consumption values due above all to the high efficiency of the braking energy recovery system,
despite the greatest mass. This high efficiency of the Prius braking energy recovery system is due to the increased
power of the electric motor/generator and to the greater capacity of the traction batteries (see paragraph 3.1).
At these low speed values, where there are many accelerations and decelerations, the ability of the drivers is not
negligible and when conventional vehicles are driven [11], additional negative results can be obtained; clearly, this
fact is not present in hybrid vehicles or it is smoothed thanks to its powertrain.
Increasing the speed, the role of the electric subsystem decreases and for high values, representative of
motorway, the consumption of hybrid and conventional is similar.
However, the great advantage of hybrid powertrains is in urban environments and together with a lower
consumption, there is the advantage of “electric like” behavior for a big part of the time.

Fig. 2. Consumption values vs average speed for the two Toyota Yaris (Hybrid and conventional) and Toyota Prius.

Fig. 3. Percentage in ZEV mode for the Toyota Yaris Hybrid and Prius in function of the average speed.

In Fig. 3, it can be observed that when the traffic is congested, or for lowest average speeds, the hybrid vehicle
run in ZEV mode most of the time (70% Yaris and 79.4% Prius); for values of 30 km/h these values are reduced to
56% for Yaris and 70.1% for Prius. It is interesting to note that for higher average speeds (around 60 km/h) the
294 F. Orecchini et al. / Energy Procedia 148 (2018) 289–296
6 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

operation in ZEV mode is drastically reduced for Yaris (23%) while for Prius it is higher than 50%, thanks to the
greater “electrification” of powertrain (greater power of the electric motor and greater capacity of the traction
batteries). This will lead to significant reduction also of the local emissions, much important for air pollution of
cities.

3.1. Analysis of the reduction in fuel consumption of the hybrid vehicle compared to the conventional one at low
average speeds (Yaris hybrid vs Yaris conventional)

The lower consumption of the hybrid vehicle at low average speeds (Urban and Extra-Urban tests) illustrated in
the Fig. 2, are due to three factors:
 Energy recovery braking system
 Powertrain management of the Hybrid Synergy Drive System
o improvement of the engine operating conditions: management of the transients with the aid of
the electric motor and reduction of operation at low power (the engine in the hybrid system
never works at idle) [12].
o engine shutdown in the absence of power supply to the wheels
 Higher efficiency of the Atkinson cycle compared to the Otto cycle [12].
In Fig. 4, average energy flows are shown for the Urban and Extra-Urban tests carried out versus the distance
covered (kJ/km).

Fig. 4. Chart of energy flows (average values in Urban and Extra-Urban tests) of the traction system of the Yaris Hybrid (a) and Prius (b).

The analysis of the energy flows of Yaris Hybrid shown in Fig. 4 a highlights that out of 571.6 kJ/km to the
wheels, 180.6 kJ/km (31.6%) are supplied by the MG2 electric motor against a power consumption of 244.0 kJ/km.
The braking energy recovery system is particularly efficient as it can produce about 139.3 kJ/km of electricity (about
48% of total energy produced by the system during the test). It should be pointed out that in the test conditions
analyzed, 14.3% (81.9 kJ/km) of the power used in the wheels derives from "inertial braking regeneration"
(renewable energy), additional 17.3% (98.7 kJ/km) from electricity produced by MG1 and 68.4% (391.0 kJ/km)
directly from ICE as shown in Fig. 5 a.
Thanks to the energy recovery braking system, in the Yaris hybrid system the engine delivers less energy than
that supplied to the wheels which (94.1%), in the conventional vehicle, must be supplied entirely by the engine.
Furthermore, the conventional vehicle engine operates with substantially lower efficiency than the hybrid vehicle for
the following reasons:
 the engine of full hybrid vehicle operates with Atkinson cycle with higher efficiency; the use of this
cycle is possible thanks to the presence of an electric motor which "compensates" the power loss due to
the Atkinson cycle (see Table 1)
 as already mentioned, in the hybrid vehicle the engine works in better conditions thanks to the
contribution of the electric motor in the transients and in the operation at low power regimes
 F. Orecchini et al. / Energy Procedia 148 (2018) 289–296 295
Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 7

Fig. 5. Distribution of energy to the wheels (kJ/km) of the Yaris Hybrid (a) and Prius (b).

Another factor contributing to the reduction in consumption of the hybrid vehicle at low average speeds (Urban
and Extra-Urban tests) is the shutdown of the engine in the absence of power delivery to the wheels. In the Urban
and Extra-Urban tests, it was found that for 48.8% of the total duration of the test the engine is switched off due to
the absence of power supplied to the wheels (15.4% with stationary vehicle and 33.4% with advancement without
power delivery). Considering the data shown in Table 2, engine idling would result in an 11.8% increase in
consumption compared to those actually measured.

Table 2. Parameters for calculating fuel consumption with the engine idling in urban context.
Parameter Yaris Hybrid Prius
Average travel time of 1 kilometer (s/km) 162.7 155.1
Time with power delivery to the wheels (s/km) 83.2 85.7
Time with stationary vehicle (s/km) 25.1 11.6
Time with vehicle advancement without power delivery (s/km) 54.4 57.8

3.2. Analysis of the reduction in fuel consumption between the two hybrid vehicles with different characteristics
(YarisHy and Prius) at low average speeds

Energy flows of the two hybrid systems (YarisHy and Prius) comparison (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5) shows that the lower
consumption of Prius is essentially due to the greater efficiency of the braking energy recovery system obtained
thanks to the greater "Electrification" of the hybrid powertrain: increased power of the electric motor/generator and
greater capacity of the traction batteries (Table 1). In fact, the avoided consumption (compared to the conventional
vehicle) due to the engine shutdown in the absence of power to the wheels (Table 2) are essentially the same: 11.8%
of the Yaris and 12.7% of the Prius (in fact this avoided consumption depends on the traffic conditions more than
from the characteristics of the hybrid powertrain). Also the reduction of fuel consumption (compared to the
conventional vehicle) due to the adoption of the Atkinson cycle and the best working conditions are similar.
Therefore, the main factor for the Prius reduction of fuel consumption (compared to Yaris Hybrid) is the greater
efficiency of the braking energy recovery system: as shown in Fig. 5, 27.6% of energy to wheels derives from
energy recovery braking (against 14.3% of the Yaris). Thanks to this recovery, the Prius engine supplies only 80.4%
of the total energy to the wheels, compared to 94.1% of the Yaris one (Fig. 4).

4. Conclusion

The results show that a strong influence on consumption is due not only to the type of vehicle, but also to driving
style and speed. The comparison between the two versions of Yaris shows that there is a strong reduction in
consumption using hybrid vehicles for lower and medium speeds (for 20 km/h about 50%), such benefit decreases
296 F. Orecchini et al. / Energy Procedia 148 (2018) 289–296
8 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

with the increasing speed and for values higher than 90 km/h both the vehicles have the same consumption. the
reduced consumption of the hybrid vehicle at low speeds is due, on the one hand, to the greater efficiency of the
hybrid vehicle engine compared to the conventional and on the other hand to the high functioning with the engine
off (63% of time) thanks to the use of the electric motor.
The comparison between the two hybrid vehicles with different characteristics (YarisHy and Prius) shows that
the Prius has lower consumption (around 17% overall) due above all to the high efficiency of the braking energy
recovery system, despite the greatest mass, which turns out to be the main factor for the greater efficiency of the
hybrid powertrain compared to the conventional one. High efficiency of the braking energy recovery system is
linked to the "electrification" of the hybrid powertrain, (greater power of the electric motor and greater capacity of
the traction batteries). These characteristics are also decisive for the operating times in ZEV mode of the hybrid
vehicles which is significantly higher for the Prius than the Yaris Hybrid (Fig. 3). This lead then to significant
consumption reduction, but also lower pollutant emissions in places where such parameters have an important role:
the urban environment.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank TMI (Toyota Motor Italia), who has collaborated in the realization of the study
underlying this work by providing Full Hybrid Yaris and conventional Yaris 1.5 Petrol vehicles for tests, software
and hardware for data acquisition.

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