Exercises Master 1: Distributions

Exercise 1. 1. Let g : [0, +∞[→ R be a continuous function, dierentiable on ]0, +∞[ .

Assume the existence of limy→0+ g ′ (y) = ℓ . With the help of the mean value theorem
on [z, y] with 0 < z < y , prove that g is C 1 sur [0, +∞[ and g ′ (0) = ℓ .

2. Let h be an odd C ∞ function on R. Prove the existence of a C∞ function h1 such

that h(y) = yh1 (y) avec h1 .

3. (a) Let f be an even real valued C ∞ function on R . Set for y ∈ [0, +∞[ , g(y) =
√
f ( y) . Prove that g is C 1 on [0, +∞[ with the help of the rst question.
(b) Prove that g is C∞ .

4. Let f be a C∞ function on R . Prove the existence of two C∞ functions on R , g0 , g1 ,

such that for all x ∈ R , f (x) = g0 (x2 ) + xg1 (x2 ) .

Exercise 2. 1. Let f :R→R be the map dened by f (t) = 0 if t≤0 and f (t) = e−1/t
else. Prove that f is C ∞ .

2. Find a C ∞ ϕ : Rn → R+ function such that ϕ(0) > 0 of which the support is the
closed ball B(0, 1) with center 0 and radius 1 , and another ψ of which the support is
n
included in B(x0 , δ), (x0 ∈ R , δ > 0) and ψ(x0 ) > 0.

3. Let f n
be a continuous map from the open set Ω ⊂ R to R . Assume that for all
∞
R
function ϕ ∈ C0 (Ω; R), f (x)ϕ(x)dx = 0 . Prove that f is the null function.

4. Same question if f ∈ L1loc (Ω, dx; R) .

Exercise 3. Let ϕ : R → R be C ∞ function with support in [−2, 2], and equal to 1 on

n (k)
[−1, 1] . Set for n in N, ϕn (y) = yn! ϕ(y) and An = supk≤n supy∈R |ϕn (y)|.

1. Let (cn )n
be any real sequence. Prove that there exists a real sequence (tn )n in [1, +∞[
P+∞ dk −n
such that for all xed integer k the series n=0 cn dxk ϕn (tn x)tn converges uniformly.
P+∞ xn
2. Prove that the function f (x) = n=0 cn ϕ(tn x) n! is C∞ with n, f (n) (0) = cn (Borel
Theorem).

Exercise 4. For A = {f ∈ C 0 (R)  |f (x)| ≤ 1 for all x ∈ Ω} :
0
1. Prove that A is a closed bounded set in C (R) .
2. For fn (x) = sin(nx) , n ∈ N , prove that fn ∈ A for all n ∈ N , but that the sequence
{fn } has no convergent subsequence in C 0 (Ω) . Remember that if (gn )n converges unifomly
on the compact set K to the limit g , then for all sequence (xn )n in K converging to a limit
ℓ , gn (xn ) converge to g(ℓ) .

Exercise 5. In this exercise the convergence of sequences in C0∞ (Ω) with seminorms de-
ned in the course, is characterized. A exhaustive sequence of compacts subsets of
S Ω will
be denoted by (Kn )n with Kn ⊂ K̊n+1 and Kn = Ω .

1. Let (uk )k be a sequence in C0∞ (Ω) . Assume that there exists a compact subset K
of Ω (independent of k ) such that for all k , supp uk is contained in K and such
that (uk )k converges uniformly to zero as well as all its derivatives. Prove that for
any xed continuous function ϵ from Ω to R , positive on Ω , the seminorm pϵ (uk ) =
supx∈Ω,|α|≤ϵ(x)−1 |∂ α uk (x)|ϵ(x)−1 converges to 0 as k goes to innity.

1
 2. (a) For all n∈N let ϕn be a C 0 function, equal to 1 on Kn ,
K̊n+1 ,
with support in
with values in sequence of integers with nj+1 ≥ nj + 1 ,
[0, 1] . Let (nj )j∈N be a
and let (rj )j be a real positive decreasing sequence converging to 0 . Set a0 = r0
P+∞
and for j ≥ 1 , aj = rj−1 − rj . Prove that ϵ(x) = j=0 aj ϕnj (x) is a continuous
function on Ω , positive on Ω and such that ϵ(x) ≤ rj−1 on Knj+1 − Knj .

(b) Let (uk )k be a sequence of C0∞ (Ω) such that for all ϵ (pϵ (uk ))k con-
like above,
verges to 0. Assume that there is no compact set K
Ω containing supp uk for
in
all k. Prove the existence of a subsequence (ukj )j of(uk )k , a sequence (nj )j like
above and a sequence of points xj ∈ Knj+1 − Knj such that |ukj (xj )| = rj−1 > 0.
(c) Prove that (pϵ (uk ))k cannot converge to 0 and conclude.

Exercise 6. Let ϕ ∈ C0∞ (Rn ) , and h ∈ Rn − {0} . For t ∈ R − {0} set

ϕ(x + th) − ϕ(x)

ϕt (x) =
t
1. Prove that ϕt ∈ C0∞ (Rn ) .

2. Prove that as t → 0 , ϕt converges in C0∞ to a limit to be specied.

Exercise 7. Let f :R→R be a locally bounded function which satises:

(H)(∀N ∈ N, ∃CN > 0 , ∀z ∈ [0, 1] , |f (z)| ≤ CN z N )


and f R− ≡ 0 .
 
1. Take φ ∈ C0∞ (R) and set F (z, x) = f (z)φ −1 + xz . Prove that for all R > 0 , and

all k ∈ N, there exists an integrable function z → Hk,R (z) such that for all real z and
k
all x ∈ [−R, R] , |∂x F (z, x)| ≤ Hk,R (z) .
Z
2. Set G(x) = f (x(1 + y))φ(y) dy . Prove that G is a C ∞ function on R .

3. Assume that f ≥0 is increasing. Check that φ can be chosen such that G satises
f (x) ≤ G(x) for all x and G(x) = 0 when x < 0.

4. Prove that for all f which fullls the hypothesis (H) , there exists a C∞ function,
vanishing on R− and such that f (x) ≤ G(x) for all x ∈ R .

Exercise 8. Let θ ∈ C0∞ (Rn ) be such thatθ ≡ 1 in a neighborhood of 0 . Prove that for
β
any φ ∈ C0∞ (Rn ) and any m ∈ N there ∞ n
exists ψm ∈ C0 (R ) with ∂x ψm (0) = 0 for |β| ≤ m
such that
X ∂ α φ(0)
x
φ(x) = θ(x) + ψm (x) .
α!
|α|≤m

n
(resp. an open) subset of R with K ⊂ Ω . For
Exercise 9. Let
K (resp.
N
Ω) be a compact

ε > 0 set Kε = x ∈ R , d(x, K) ≤ ε and consider ε < εK,Ω , εK,ω > 0 small enough so
that Kε is a compact subset of Ω .

1. Construct a function θε = ϱε ∗ 1K2ε in C0∞ (Rn ; [0, 1]) such that supp θε ⊂ K3ε , θε ≡ 1
on Kε and supx∈Ω |∂xα θε (x)| ≤ Cα ε−α .

2. Assume that φ ∈ C0∞ (Ω) vanishes at order k − 1 on the compact set K (namely
∂xα φ(x) = 0 for x ∈ K and |α| ≤ k − 1).

(a) Prove that for any β , |β| ≤ k , supx∈K2ε |∂xβ φ(x)| ≤ Ck εk−|β| sup|α|≤k,x∈Ω |∂xα φ(x)|

2
 (b) Prove that for any ℓ ∈ {0, . . . , k} ,

sup |∂xα (θε φ)(x)| ≤ Ck εk−ℓ sup |∂xα φ(x)|

|α|≤ℓ,x∈Ω |α|≤k,x∈Ω

Exercise 10. We recall that the set S(Rn ) is the Schwartz space of rapidly decaying func-
tion  
n ∞ n n
S(R ) = f ∈ C (R ), ∀α, β ∈ N , sup |xα ∂xβ f (x)| < +∞
x

and that the space of tempered distributions S ′ (Rn ) is its dual

!
T ∈ S ′ (Rn ) ⇔ ∃N ∈ N, ∃CN > 0, |⟨T , ∀φ ∈ S(Rn ) , φ⟩| ≤ CN |xα ∂xβ φ(x)|


sup .
|α+β|≤N,x∈Rn

1. Check that S ′ (Rn ) ⊂ D′ (Rn ) , that an element of S ′ (Rn ) must have a nite order.
Give an example of a C
∞ function which belongs to D ′ (Rn ) and ′ n
not in S (R ) .

2. In all the following exercises on will discuss when the identities or convergences in
D′ (Rn ) hold in S ′ (Rn ) .

Exercise 11.
Z 1. Let T be the linear form on C0∞ (R) given for all φ in C0∞ (R) by

⟨T, φ⟩ = φ(x + x2 ) dx . Prove that T is a distribution on R and specify its order.

R
Z
2
2. Same question for ⟨T, φ⟩ = φ′ (x)ex dx .
R
Z +∞
3. (a) Prove that T dened by ⟨T, φ⟩ = φ′ (x) log x dx is a distribution on R.
0
(b) Determine the order of T . (Hint : Take χ in C0∞ (R)with values in [0, 1], equal to
1 on [−1, 1] and supported in [−2, 2] , and consider for n ∈ N∗ , the test functions
φn (x) = χ(x)(1 − χ)(nx)).
Z +∞
dx
4. Let 1 < γ < 2. Prove that T dened by ⟨T, φ⟩ = φ(x) − φ(0) γ is a
0 x
distribution or order 1 on R. (Hint : use the same test functions φn (x) as in the
previous question.)

Exercise 12. 1. Let T be the linear form on C0∞ (R2 ) given by

Z
φ(t−2 , sin t) − φ(0, sin t) dt.


⟨T, φ⟩ =
R

(a) Prove that T is a distribution on R2 .

(b) Prove that T is of order 1. Use the last question of the previous exercise.

2. Same questions for

Z  ∂φ ∂φ 
⟨T, φ⟩ = (x2 + y 2 )−α x +y dxdy
x2 +y 2 ≤1 ∂x ∂y
1 3
when 2 <α< 2 . (Hint : use polar coordinates).

Exercise 13. We recall that when f : ]0, a] → R is continuous for a > 0 , the in-
Ra
tegral 0 f (x) dx is said semi-convergent if limx→0+ F (x) exists and is nite, F (x) =
Ra
− x f (y) dy .

3
 1. For φ in C0∞ (R). Prove that
Z a
déf
⟨T, φ⟩ = lim f (x)φ(x) dx
ϵ→0+ ϵ
Ra
exists if 0 f (x) dx is semi-convergent. (Hint: Use an integration by parts).

2. Prove that T denes a distribution of order ≤ 1.

3. (a) Let χ be a step function , 0 ≤ χ ≤ 1 , supported in [c, a] with 0 < c < a . Check
that there exists a sequence (χn )n of continuous functions supported in [c, a] ,
n→∞
such that 0 ≤ χn ≤ 1 and χn (x) → χ(x) for a.e. x .
(b) Assume that T is of order 0. Prove that there exists C > 0 such that for all
c ∈]0, a], and all χ like before, ⟨T, χn ⟩ ≤ C .
Ra
(c) With the same assumptions, prove that 0 |f (x)| dx < +∞ .
Z +∞ √
2
Exercise 14. We recall e−x dx = π.
−∞

1. For φ in C0∞ (R) , prove that

Z
1 x2
⟨T, φ⟩ = lim √ e− ϵ φ(x) dx
ϵ→0+ πϵ R

denes a distribution that will be computed.

2. Let f :R→R be a C1 function such thatf (0) = 0, f ′ (0) ̸= 0.

(a) Set for δ ≥ 0 , ϵ > 0 , φ ∈ C0∞ (R) ,
Z
1 (f (x))2
Iδ,ϵ = √ e− ϵ φ(x) dx.
πϵ |f (x)|>δ
Prove that for δ > 0 , limϵ→0+ Iδ,ϵ = 0 .
(b) Assume f (x) ̸= 0 if x ̸= 0 . Prove that ⟨T, φ⟩ = limϵ→0+ I0,ϵ denes a distribution
which will be computed (Hint: x → y = f (x) is a change of variable around 0 ).
3. Assume that f is C1 function with simple zeroes (i.e. f (x) = 0 ⇒ f ′ (x) ̸= 0).
(a) Prove that f has a nite number of zeroes on any compact subset of R.
(f (x))2
− ϵ
R
(b) Prove that ⟨T, φ⟩ = limϵ→0+
Re φ(x) dx denes a distribution which will
be computed in terms of the zeroes of f.
Exercise 15. 1. For φ ∈ C0∞ (R) , prove that

n
X (−1)p−1 1

lim √ φ
n→+∞ p p
p=1

1 1



exists and denes a distribution on R. (Hint: Write φ p = φ(0) + [φ p − φ(0)]).
2. Determine the order and the support of this distribution.

Exercise 16. Set Ω = R − {0}.

1. Let f be a locally integrable function on Ω,
such that there exists m in N∗ such that
for all x in Ω with |x| < 1 , |f (x)| < |x| −m ∞
. If θ ∈ C0 (R) , we set for φ ∈ C0∞ (R),
k ∈ N∗ ,
1
xk
Z Z
⟨Tθ , φ⟩ = θ(x)f (x) φ(k) (tx)(1 − t)k−1 dtdx.
R (k − 1)! 0
Prove that for a large enough integer k , Tθ is a distribution in R.

4
 2. Prove that T is a distribution on R such that T |ω = f .

3. Let S
be the distribution on Ω dened by the locally integrable function exp(1/x2 ). Is
′
there T ∈ D (R) such that T |Ω = S ? Explain.

Exercise 17. 1. Let φ belong to C0∞ (R) . Compute

1−x x2 − ϵ 2 i
Z h
1+x
lim + − 2 φ(x) dx.
ϵ→0+ (x + iϵ)2 (x − iϵ)2 (x2 + ϵ2 )2

2. Prove that for all φC0∞ (R) , the limit

in

ex e−x x2 − ϵ2 i
Z h
L(φ) = lim + − 2 φ(x) dx
ϵ→0 (x + iϵ)2 (x − iϵ)2 (x2 + ϵ2 )2

exists and thatφ → L(φ) is a distribution which will be computed from the function
ch x−1
and another explicit distribution.
x2

Exercise 18. 1. Let λ ∈ C , ℜλ > 0 . Prove that the expression

Z +∞
(1) ⟨Tλ , ϕ⟩ = xλ−1 ϕ(x) dx
0

denes a distribution Tλ on R of which you will specify the order and the support.

2. For all k ∈ N, check

k−1 Z 1 Z ∞
ϕ(j) (0)
(2)
X
λ+k−1
⟨Tλ , ϕ⟩ = + x ψk (x) dx + xλ−1 ϕ(x) dx ,
j!(j + λ) 0 1
j=0

X ϕ(j) (0)  k−1

1
where ψk (x) = k ϕ(x) − xj .
x j!
j=0

3. Prove that (2) denes a distribution Tλ for all λ ∈ C such that ℜλ > −k and
λ ̸= 0, −1, . . . , −k + 1. Determine the order of Tλ with respect to λ.

4. For all ϕ ∈ C0∞ (R) , prove that the map λ 7→ ⟨Tλ , ϕ⟩ dened by (1) has an analytic
extension into a meromorphic function on whole C . Study the poles and residues of
this analytic extension.

Exercise 19. Let T ∈ D′ (Ω) , Ω open subset of Rn , have a compact support.

1. Explain why T has a nite order N.

2. Prove that for any φ ∈ C0∞ (Ω) which vanishes at order N +1 on supp T , ⟨T , φ⟩ = 0 .
(Hint: use ⟨T, θε φ⟩ where θε is the cut-o introduced in Exercise 9.)
(α)
Exercise 20. Remember ⟨δ0 , φ⟩ = (−1)α ∂xα φ(0) . We prove here that any distribution
(α)
T ∈ D′ (Rn ) such that supp T = {0} is a linear combination of the δ0 's.

1. Apply Exercise 19 in order to say that ⟨T , φ⟩ = 0 for any φ ∈ C0∞ (Rn ) vanishing at
order N + 1, N ∈ N.

2. Apply Exercise 8 with m=N +1 and conclude.

Exercise 21. Consider the function f :R→R given by f (x) = 1Q∩R− (x) + 1(R\Q)∩R+ (x) .
What is its distributional derivative ?

5
Exercise 22. 1. Prove that the integral

x2 − y 2
ZZ
A= dxdy
|x|>1,|y|<1 (x2 + y 2 )2
converges.

2. Let (x, y) → φ(x, y) be a C0∞ (R2 ) function and let θ be a C0∞ (R) function such that
ZZ 2 2
x −y
φ(x, y)θ(x)θ(y) = φ(x, y) . Set Iϵ1 = φ(x, y) dxdy . Prove that
|x|>ϵ (x2 + y 2 )2
x2 − y 2 
ZZ
1
Iϵ1

= 2 2 2
1|x|>ϵ φ(x, y) − 1|y|>ϵ φ(y, x) dxdy.
2 (x + y )
Deduce

x2 − y 2 h
ZZ
φ(0, 0) i
Iϵ1 = 1 − 1 |x|<ϵ θ(x)θ(y) dxdy + Rϵ
2 (x2 + y 2 )2 |x|>ϵ
|y|<ϵ |y|>ϵ

with
x2 − y 2 
ZZ
1 
lim Rϵ = 2 2 2
φ(x, y) − φ(y, x) dxdy.
ϵ→0 2 (x + y )
3. Prove that limϵ→0+ Iϵ1 exists and denes a distribution on R2 .
x2 − y 2
ZZ
4.
2
Set Iϵ = φ(x, y) dxdy . Determine explicitely the distribution limϵ→0+ (Iϵ1 −
(x 2 + y 2 )2
|y|>ϵ
I2ϵ ) in terms of the constant A of the rst question.
Exercise 23. Let S be a distribution on R. Let θ in C0∞ (R) be equal to 1 around 0 and
∗ ′ ∞
let k in N . For S ∈ D (R) , dene for all φ ∈ C0 (R)

φ(j) (0) j
φ(x) − k−1
P
j=0 j! x θ(x)
⟨T, φ⟩ = ⟨S, k
⟩.
x
1. Prove that TS,k is a distribution on R . (Use Exercise 8)

2. Prove that TS,k satises xk TS,k = S .

3. Determine all the distributions solutions to xk T = S . (Use Exercise 20.)

Exercise 24. 1. Let T T = (H(x) log x)′ , where H

be the distribution is the Heaviside
function H(x) = 1[0,+∞[ (x) . Prove that T is given by
Z 1 Z +∞
φ(x) − φ(0) φ(x)
⟨T, φ⟩ = dx + dx.
0 x 1 x

2. Compute the distributional derivative of log|x| .

Exercise 25. For all λ in C − {−k; k ∈ N} , call xλ−1
+ the distribution Tλ dened in the
Exercise 18.

1. Compute the derivative of xλ−1

+ .

2. Deduce in particular that for −k < ℜλ < −k + 1 , k ∈ N ,

+∞
xλ+k−1
Z
λ−1
⟨x+ , φ⟩ = lim (−1)k φ(k) (x) dx
ε→0+ ε (λ) · · · (λ + k − 1)
+∞ k−1
φ(j) (ε)
Z X
λ+k−1
= lim φ(x)x dx + (−1)j ελ+j
ε→0+ ε (λ) . . . (λ + j)
j=0

from which comes the name nite part and the other used notation Pf (xa+ ) .

6
 3. Compute xxλ−1
+ .

4. When −k < ℜλ < −k + 1 does the relation xk xλ−1

+ = xk+λ−1
+ ∈ L1loc (R) suce for
λ−1
the determination of x+ .

Exercise 26. 1. Prove that the nite part of 1[0,+∞[ x1 , 1

denoted by x (or
+
Pf( x1+ )) and
dened by
Z +∞
1 φ(x)
⟨ , φ⟩ = lim + φ(0) ln(ε)
x+
ε ε→0+ x
′
belongs to D (R) . Check that it is the distribution derivative of 1]0,+∞[ log(x) .

2. Prove that x−1

+ coincides with the distribution T of Exercise 23.

1
3. Check that the principal value of x , vp( x1 ) dened by
Z
1 φ(x)
⟨vp( ) , φ⟩ = lim dx
x ε→0 R\[−ε,ε] x
′
belongs to D (R) . Check that it is the derivative of log |x| .
1
4. In view of Exercise 20 does the notation x make sense in D′ (R) ?
1
5. Check that x±iε , ε > 0 has a limit as ε → 0+ in D′ (R) which will be denoted by
1
x±i0 . Check  
1 1
= vp ∓ iπδ0 .
x ± i0 x
Exercise 27. Let θ : R → R be an increasing C ∞ function, equal to 0 on ] − ∞, 0[ and to
d
1 on [1, +∞[ . Besides let f : R → R be a C
∞ function such that Ω = {x ∈ Rd ; f (x) > 0}
d
is not empty. Assume moreover that for all point in Σ = {x ∈ R ; f (x) = 0}, ∇f (x) ̸= 0 .
∇f (x)
We then set N (x) the outer normal vector to Ω at the point x in Σ i.e. the vector −
|∇f (x)| .
Finally let χ be the characteristic function of Ω .
Pd ∂f ∂χ
1. Prove that S = i=1 ∂xi ∂xi is a distribution supported in Σ .

2. For n in N∗ , set θn (t) = θ(nt) . Prove that θn ◦ f ⇀ χ in D′ (Rd ) . Deduce that S is

a non negative measure.

3. (a) Prove for all 1 ≤ j ≤ d,

d
X ∂j f ∂i f ∂ ∂
θn (f (x)) = θn (f (x)).
|∇f |2 ∂xi ∂xj
i=1

(b) Set σ = |∇f |−1 S . Prove for all j , −Nj σ = ∂

∂xj χ.

4. Let F = (f1 , . . . , fd ) ∈ C0∞ (Rd , Rd ) . Check the Gauss-Green formula

⟨χ, div F ⟩ = ⟨σ, F · N ⟩.

Exercise 28. Consider the locally integrable function on R2 , E(t, x) = 1|x|<t . Compute
 
∂2 ∂2
in D′ (R2 ) , ∂t2
− ∂x2
E(t, x) .

Exercise 29. 1. Let x → A(x) be a C∞

Mn (C) (the space of n × n
map from R to
complex matrices). Remember that the Wronskian matrix x → W (x) is the unique
C ∞ function from R to Mn (C) solution to W ′ (x) = A(x)W (x) , W ′ (0) = In .
Prove that if S is a Cn -valued distribution solution to S ′ = AS , then S = W (x)Y0
for some vector Y0 in Cn . (In particular, S is a C ∞ function).

7
 2. Let x → a(x), b(x) be two C ∞ C-valued functions. Let T be a C-valued distribution
on R solution to T ′′ + a(x)T ′ + b(x)T = 0 . Prove that T is a C ∞ function.

3. Let f± be two C∞ functions on R solutions to the equation f±′′ +a(x)f±′ +b(x)f± = 0 ,

with the boundary
′ ′
conditions f+ (0) − f− (0) = 0, f+ (0) − f− (0) = 1 . Set F =
f+ 1x>0 + f− 1x<0 . ′′ ′
Compute the distribution F + a(x)F + b(x)F .

4. Determine all the distributional solutions to the equation T ′′ − T ′ − 2T = δ .

Exercise 30.
Pn−1 1. Compute the limit of the sequence of distributions given by Tn =
1
n p=0 δp .
n


2. Compute the limit of the sequence of distributions given by Tn = n δ 1 − δ− 1 .
n n

Exercise 31. Let (an )n be a complex sequence.

P+∞ ′
1. Prove that n=1 an δ 1 converges in D (]0, +∞[).
n
P+∞
2. Assume that the above series converges in D′ (R) and prove that n=1 an converges.
P+∞
⟨ +∞
P
3. Reciprocally assume now that n=1 an converges and prove that n=1 an δ 1 , φ⟩ con-
n
verges for all φ in C0∞ (R) vanishing at second order at 0.

4. We recall Abel's criterion : if (an )n is a sequence with uniformaly bounded partial

PN P
sums AN =
P n=1 an and if (bn )n is a sequence such that n |bn+1 − bn | < +∞ then
a b
n n n converges.
P+∞
Prove that the assumption of the previous question implies that n=1 an δ n
1 converges
′
in D (R).

Exercise 32. 1. Compute the limit

einx
Z
lim lim dx
n→+∞ r→0+ r<|x|<1 x
sin x
R
in terms of I= R x dx (Recall why this integral semi-convergent).

inx ψ(x) dx
R
2. Prove that for all R > 0, limn→+∞ |x|<R e = 0 for every function ψ in
C ∞ (R) .
 
3. Compute the distributional limit of einx vp x1 in terms of I.

Exercise 33. 1. Let P (x, y) be a degree d polynomial of two variables. Prove that if
Z 2π
k∈Z satises |k| > d , P (r cos θ, r sin θ)e−ikθ dθ = 0 for all r > 0 .
0

2. Let m belong to N∗ . Consider the sequence of distributions (Tnm )n∈N∗ given by Tnm =
1x2 +y2 >n−2
. Prove that as n goes to innity, the sequence converges in D′ (R2 ) to
(x + iy)m
a distribution of which the order will be specied. (Hint : If φ ∈ C0∞ (R2 ) , write
φ(x, y) = φ(x, y)ψ(x, y) for a suitable function ψ and use the Taylor expansion of φ
at the origin).

Exercise 34. Let (an )n∈Z be a complex sequence. Assume that there exists C > 0 and
α≥0 such that
|an | ≤ C(1 + |n|)α , for all n ∈ N..

8
 1. Consider for N ∈N the C∞ function

N
X
TN (x) = an einx , x ∈ R.
n=−N
X
Prove that (TN )N ∈N converges in D′ (R) as N → +∞ . Let an einx denote its
n∈Z
limit.

2. Consider the 2π -periodic function f :R→R given on [0, 2π[ by

π−x
f (x) = , x ∈ [0, 2π[ .
2
With its Fourier series expansion prove

N
X sin(nx) π−x
lim = lin L2 ([0, 2π]) .
N →+∞ n 2
n=1

∞
X sin(nx)
Deduce = f (x) in D′ (R).
n
n=1

3. By computing in two dierent ways the distributional derivative of f prove the equality
′
in D (R)
X X
einx = 2π δ2πn
n∈Z n∈Z

where δz is the Dirac mass at z given by δz : ϕ 7→ ϕ(z) .

ϕ ∈ C0∞ (R) . ϕ̂(n) = R e−inx ϕ(x)dx

R
4. Let For n ∈ Z, write and prove

X X
ϕ̂(n) = 2π ϕ(2πn) Poisson formula.
n∈Z n∈Z

Exercise 35. 1. Let Tn = n2 xeinx . Prove that(Tn )n converges in D′ (R) to a limit to

be specied.

2. Same question with Sn = n2 |x|einx . (Compute ⟨Sn , φ⟩ for a test function φ and use
einx = −in−1 ∂x einx ).

Exercise 36. Let x → A(x) be a C∞ function on R, such that for all integer k there exists
Ck such that

(1) |∂ k A(x)| ≤ Ck (1 + |x|)−k .

Z R
sin x
Set IR (A) = A(x) dx.
−R x
1. Prove that limR→+∞ IR (A) exists and call this limit I(A) .

2. Let (An )n be a sequence of functions such that for all n, all k , An fulls (1) with
constants Ck independent of n and such that there exists a constant B with

∀x ∈ R, lim An (x) = B, ∀x ∈ R, ∀k ∈ N∗ , lim ∂xk An (x) = 0.

n→+∞ n→+∞

Prove lim I(An ) = BI(1) .

n→+∞

9
 sin(nx)
3. Determine the limit in D′ (R) of the sequence Tn = x . (Consider ⟨Tn , φ⟩ for a
test function φ and apply the previous results.)

Exercise 37. Use the notation xλ−1

+ introduced in Exercises 18 and 25 for λ ∈ C\
{−k, k ∈ N} .
Pk−1(−1)j (j)
1. Prove that Sλ = xλ−1
+ −
′
j=0 j!(j+λ) δ0 denes a D (R)-valued holomorphic function
(which means that for any test function λ 7→ ⟨Sλ , φ⟩ is holomorphic) on {λ ∈ C , ℜλ > −k} .
−k′ −1
We call x+ = S−k′ for k ′ {0, . . . , k − 1} .

2. Check that x−1

+ coincide with its denitions in Exercises 23 and 26.

λ−1
3. For k ∈ N compute ∂x x+ + (k + 1)xλ−2
+ rstly for λ ∈ C \ (−N) and then take the
′
limit in D (R) as λ → −k .

4. Deduce
(−1)k+1 (k+1)
∂x x−k−1
+
−k−2
= −(k + 1)x+ + δ .
(k + 1)! 0
−k−1
5. Give a formula formulas x+ for k ∈ N in the form of Exercise 23 or 26.

k (k)
P∞ ′
Exercise 38. Prove that the series in D (R) but does not con-
k=1 (−1) δk converges
′
P∞ −k
verge in S (R) . (For the second statement use the test function f (x) = k=1 3 (x −
k)k χ(x − k) with χ ∈ C0∞ (R) and χ ≡ 1 around 0 .)
Exercise 39. Remember that the space Cc0 (R) of compactly supported continuous functions
on R
p
is dense in L (R) when 1 ≤R p < +∞ . Let ρ be a C ∞ function on R, with values
∗
in [0, +∞[ , supp ρ ⊂ [−1, 1] and R ρ(x) dx = 1 . Set for n ∈ N , ρn (x) = nρ(nx) . We
consider here 1 ≤ p < +∞ .

1. Check that when f ∈ Cc0 (R) , the sequence ρn ∗ f converges uniformly to f, and that
supp ρn ∗ f is contained in a xed compact domain.

2. Prove that ∥ρn ∗ f − f ∥Lp goes to 0 as n → ∞.

3. Recover the density of C0∞ (R) in Lp (R) .

4. Prove that C0∞ (R) is dense in E = {f ∈ Lp (R); (1 + |x|)f ′ ∈ Lp (R)} endowed with
the norm
∥f ∥E = ∥f ∥Lp + ∥(1 + |x|)f ′ ∥Lp .

Exercise 40. Let DR′ + (R) = {T ∈ D′ (R); supp T ⊂ [0, +∞[} . The delta function will be
denoted here by δ = δ0 .
1. Prove that DR′ + (R) endowed with the convolution product is a commutative unital
algebra (a convolution algebra).

2. An element T ∈ DR′ + (R) ′

is said invertible if there exist S ∈ DR (R) such that
+
S ∗ T = δ ; and we then write S = T −1 . Prove that T ∈ DR′ + (R) admits at most
′ ′
one inverse in DR (R) . When T1 , T2 ∈ DR (R) are invertible, prove that T1 ∗ T2
+ +
∞
is invertible and specify its inverse. When T ∈ C0 (]0, +∞[) , check that T is not
′
invertible DR (R) .
+

3. Let T ∈ DR′ + (R) . Prove that the convolution equation S ∗ T = R admits a unique
′ ′
solution S ∈ DR (R) for all R ∈ DR (R) if and only if T is invertible.
+ +

4. For all λ ∈ C , prove that δ ′ − λδ is invertible and specify its inverse Eλ . Write the
′ ′ ′
solution S ∈ DR (R) to the dierential equation S − λS = R for all R ∈ DR (R).
′
+ +

10
 5. For m ∈ N∗ , compute Eλ∗m = Eλ ∗ Eλ ∗ · · · ∗ Eλ (m factors).
P+∞ ′
Exercise 41. 1. Prove that the series k=0 δk ∗(δ1 −δ0 ) converges in D (R) and express
its sum.
P+∞ ′
2. Compute k=0 δk ∗ 1[0,1] .

3. Deduce from the previous question that there exist a distribution E such that supp E ⊂
[0, +∞] and E ∗ 1[0,1] = δ0 .

Exercise 42. For a complex number ℜλ > −1 , call xλ+ = 1[0,+∞[ xλ the locally
λ such that
λ µ λ+µ+1
integrable function. When ℜλ > −1 and ℜµ > −1 prove x+ ∗ x+ = B(λ, µ)x+ , for a
function B(λ, µ) which will be expressed as an integral in terms of λ, µ .

Exercise 43. 1. Prove that if φ belongs to C0∞ (R) and equals 1 around 0, and if F =
xφH (H(x) = 1R+ (x)), ′′ ∞
then F = δ0 + g with g ∈ C0 (R).

2. Let u ∈ D′ (R) . Assume that for all compactly supported continuous function F , u∗F
is a C
∞ function. Prove that u is C ∞ .

3. Same question if F is a compactly supported continuous function such that u∗F ∗F

∞
is C .

x3 d4
Exercise 44. 1. Let E(x) = 12 sgn x . Check that E is an elementary solution to
dx4
.

2. Prove that there exists a unique a ∈]0, 1[ to be specied, such that for any integer k,
0 ≤ k ≤ 3, Z
y k 1[−1,1] (y) − δ−a (y) − δa (y) dy = 0.
 
R

3. Prove that there exists a compactly supported distribution u such that

∂ 4 u = 1[−1,1] − δ−a − δa .

4. Check that u is a C2 function.

Exercise 45. What is the problem in the equalities

0 = (1 ∗ δ0′ ) ∗ H = 1 ∗ (δ0′ ∗ H) = 1 ∗ δ0 = 1?

Exercise 46. Let C be a closed convex cone of Rn with vertex 0 . We call −C = {−x, x ∈ C} .

1. Prove that C +C ⊂C.

2. Prove that the map +:C ×C →C is proper i C ∩ (−C) = {0}

3. When C ∩ (−C) = {0} , explain why

′ (Rn ) = {u ∈ D ′ (Rn ) , supp u ⊂ C}
DC is a
convolution algebra.

In the following exercises with the Fourier transform, the duality products are left anti-
linear and right C-linear. The Fourier transform is dened as Fh u(ξ) = limε→0+ ⟨eiξ.x e−ε|x| , u⟩
2

and Fh−1 v(x) = limε→0+ ⟨e−ix.ξ e−ε|ξ| ⟩ dξ n which generalize

2

(2πh)

Z Z
iξ.x ix.ξ dξ
[Fh u](ξ) = e− h u(x) dx and [Fh−1 v](x) = e h v(ξ)
Rn Rn (2πh)n

when u, v ∈ L1 (Rn )

11
Exercise 47 (Vanishing moments)R. Consider a function f ∈ L1 (R, dx; C) such that for
all k∈ N , xk f ∈ L1 (R, dx; C) and xk f (x) dx = 0 .

1. Prove that if f is compactly supported then f = 0.

2. Without the assumption that f is compactly supported, does the conclusion still hold
true ? Hint: translate the assumption in terms of the Fourier transform.

Exercise 48 (Vanishing convolution product). Consider two functions f, g ∈ L1 (Rd , dx; C) .

1. Does f ∗g =0 imply f =0 and g=0 ?

2. Same question with f = g.

Exercise 49 (Fourier transform of a gaussian function.). The Siegel half-space is dened

by
Hd = τ ∈ Md (C) , t τ = τ , τ = τR + iτI , τI

positive denite .
t xτ x
We want to compute the Fourier transform of the gaussian function Gτ (x) = ei 2 :
Z t xτ x
Ĝτ (ξ) = e−iξ.x ei 2 dx
Rd

1/2 −1/2 −1/2

1. By writing −iτ = τI (Id − iτI p τR τI )τI p
check that τ is inversible and that a
√
determination of the square root det(−iτ ) or det(iτ −1 ) is specied by Re λ > 0
when Re λ > 0 .

R −λx2 √
2. With a contour deformation method in dimension 1 , prove R e 2 dx = √2π λ
for
Reλ > 0 .

3. Deduce
t ξτ −1 ξ
Ĝτ (ξ) = (2π)d/2 det(iτ −1 )1/2 e−i 2 .

Exercise 50 (Uncertainty principle). Use the Fourier transform

Z
ξ.x
Fh u(ξ) = e−i h f (x) dx .
Rd

1. Prove in S(Rd ) ,

h h h
[ ∂xj , xk ]f = [∂xj (xk f ) − xk ∂xj f ] = δjk f .
i i i

2. By applying the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality on ⟨f , [ hi ∂xj , xk ]f ⟩ deduce

Z 1/2 Z 1/2
d dξ h
∀f ∈ S(R ) , ∥f ∥L2 = 1 ξj2 |Fh f |2 (ξ) x2k |f |2 (x) dx ≥ δjk
Rd (2πh)d Rd 2

Exercise 51 (Paley-Wiener Theorem).f ∈ L1 (R, dx) .

Let
1
For f ∈ L (R, dx) such that suppf ⊂ R+ , prove that F1 f is holomorphic in C− =
{ξ ∈ C , Imz < 0} and continuous and bounded on C− .
Prove the converse statement.

Exercise 52. Compute the Fourier transform F1 u of the following tempered distributions
u:

1. eiax (a ∈ R) , cos(x) , cosk (x) (k ∈ N) .

12
 sin(x)
2. x sin(x) , x .
(α) (α)
3. δ0 , δx0 in S ′ (Rd ) ;

4. H(x) = 1R+ (x) in S ′ (R) (start with H(x)e−εx and then take the limit as ε → 0+ ) ;

5. Pf( x1+ ) , 1
x±i0 and vp( x1 ) in S ′ (R) .
t xAx
Exercise 53. For A a symmetric real invertible matrix, verify that GA (x) = ei 2h belongs
′ d
to S (R ) and compute its Fourier transform Fh GA . Hint: use the result for A + iεId ,
ε > 0 , and then take the limit as ε → 0+ .

Exercise 54 (Heat equation). Consider the heat equation ∂t u = ∆u , u(t = 0) = u0 , in

S ′ (Rd , dx) .

1. With the help of the Fourier transform, prove that the heat equation admits a unique
1 ′ d
solution u ∈ C ([0, +∞[; S (R )) .

2. Prove that for t>0 and all s > 0 , u(t) ∈ H s (Rd ) .

3. Deduce that for all t > 0 , u(t) ∈ Cb∞ (Rd ) .

4. Prove that for t > 0 , u(t) = Gt ∗ u0 where Gt is a gaussian function to be specied.

5. Check that 1R+ (t)Gt is an elementary solution of ∂t + ∆ x on Rn+1 = Rt × Rnx .

Exercise 55 (Schrödinger equation). Consider the Schrödinger equation i∂t u = ∆u , u(t =

0) = u0 , in S ′ (Rd , dx) .

1. With the help of the Fourier transform, prove that the Schrödinger equation admits
1 ′
a unique solution u ∈ C (R; S (R)) .

2. Prove that for t∈R and all s ∈ R , u(t) ∈ H s (Rd ) as soon as u0 ∈ H s (Rd ) with
∥u(t)∥H s = ∥u0 ∥H s .

3. Give an elementary solution in D′ (R1+d ) for the Schrödinger operator i∂t − ∆x .

Exercise 56 (Elementary solution of ∆). Let |x| denote the euclidean norm on Rd , d ≥ 3,
d
Pd 2

1 X ∂2
|x| = j=1 xj
2
. Write ∆= .
j=1
∂x2j

1. Let F be a C∞ on ]0, +∞[ ,. Prove that

d−1 ′
∆ F (|x|) = F ′′ (|x|) +


F (|x|).
|x|

1
2. Set f (x) = |x|d−2
for x in Rd − {0} . Check that f denes a distribution on Rd and

that its restriction to R

d − {0} satises ∆f = 0.

3. Deduce that ∆f is a linear combination of derivatives of δ0 (see Exercise 20).

4. For φ ∈ C0∞ (Rd ) , prove

Z
1
⟨∆f, φ⟩ = lim Iϵ where Iϵ = ∆φ(x) dx .
ϵ→0+ |x|>ϵ |x|d−2

13
 5. Use Green's formula in order to prove Iϵ = Jϵ − Kϵ with
Z Z
2−d ∂φ ∂
Jϵ = |x| (x) dσϵ , Kϵ = φ(x) |x|2−d dσϵ
|x|=ϵ ∂n |x|=ϵ ∂n

d−1 dω is the surface measure on the sphere with radius ∂

where dσϵ = ϵ ϵ and ∂n =
Pd xj ∂
− j=1 |x| ∂xj is the unit norma derivative.

6. Study the limits of Jϵ and Kϵ as ϵ → 0, according to µ(Sd−1 ) the total measure of

the d−1 unit sphere.

7. Compute ∆f in D′ (Rd ) and deduce an elementary solution of ∆ in dimension d ≥ 3.

1
Exercise 57. In dimension 2 consider the function f (x) = 2πlog |x| for x ̸= 0 and by
following the same method as in dimension d ≥ 3, prove that ∆f = δ0 in D′ (R2 ) .

Exercise 58 (Elementary solution of ∂z̄ ). In Cz ∼ R2(x,y) write ∂z̄ = 21 (∂x + i∂y ) . Check
1
that πz is an elementary solutionn of ∂z .

Exercise 59 (Elementary solution for the wave equation in R3 ). Call dω the surface
2
measure on S . For t∈R and all φ C0∞ (R3 ) set
Z
t
⟨Tt , φ⟩ = φ(tω) dω.
4π S2

1. Check that for all xed t ∈ R , Tt is an order 0 compactly supported distribution

2. Prove that (Tt )t belongs C ∞ (R, E ′ (R3 )) i.e. t → ⟨Tt , φ⟩ is a C∞ function for all
φ ∈ C ∞ (R3 ) .
(ℓ) (ℓ) dℓ
3. For any integer ℓ let Tt denote the distribution given by ⟨Tt , φ⟩ = dtℓ
⟨Tt , φ⟩ .
(1)
Prove T0 = 0, T0 = δ0 .

4. Let dσr = r2 dω
be the surface measure on the sphere with center 0 and radius r > 0
∂ ∞ 3
and ∂n the exterior normal unit vector to this sphere. Prove for all φ ∈ C0 (R ) the
equality Z Z
∂φ
∆φ(x) dx = (x)dσr .
|x|<r |x|=r ∂n

5. Deduce
Z r Z 3 Z
2 2
X ∂φ
∆φ(ρω)ρ dωdρ = r ωj (rω) dω.
0 S2 S2 ∂xj
j=1
Z
6. Check that if for t>0 we set F (t) = ∆φ(tω)t2 dω , then
S2

3 Z
X ∂φ X Z ∂2φ
F (t) = 2t ωj (tω) dω + t2 ωi ωj (tω) dω.
S2 ∂xi S2 ∂xi ∂xj
j=1 1≤i,j≤3

(2)
7. Prove Tt = ∆Tt .
Z +∞
8. If (t, x) → ψ(t, x) ∞ 4
belongs to C0 (R ) , we set ⟨E, ψ⟩ = ⟨Tt , ψ(t, ·)⟩ dt . Prove
0
that E is a distribution on R4 and specify its support.

14
 9. Prove Z +∞
⟨E, ∂t2 ψ⟩ = ψ(0, 0) + ⟨Tt , ∆ψ⟩ dt.
0

10. Deduce that E is an elementary solution for ∂t2 − ∆.

Exercise 60 (Parametrix of an elliptic operator). Consider a dierential operator with

constant coecients

X 1
P (Dx ) = aα Dxα with D xk = ∂ xk ,
i
|α|=m

α which is an homogeneous polynomial with

P
and associate its symbol P (ξ) = |α|=m aα ξ
degree m.
The operator P (D) is said elliptic if (P (ξ) = 0) ⇔ (ξ = 0) .

1. Prove that there exists C≥1 such that for all ξ ∈ Rd , C −1 |ξ|m ≤ |P (ξ)| ≤ C|ξ|m .
∞ d
2. Take χ ∈ C0 (R ) such that χ ≡ 1 in a neighborhood of 0 and consider Q =
(1−χ)
F1−1 [ P (ξ)]F1 . Prove P ◦ Q = Q ◦ P = 1 + R where R is a continuous linear
′ d ∞ d
map from S (R ) into Cb (R ) .

3. InC = R2 check that ∂z̄ = 12 (∂x − i∂y ) is elliptic. Deduce that a tempered distribution
u ∈ S ′ (C ∼ R2 ; C) such that ∂z̄ u = 0 is an entire (holomorphic on the whole C)
function.

15