Modern Hebrew

An Essential Grammar
4th edition

This new edition of Modern Hebrew: An Essential Grammar is an up-to-

date and practical reference guide to the most important aspects of modern
Hebrew as used by contemporary native speakers of the language.

It presents an accessible description of the language, focusing on the real

patterns of use today. The Grammar aims to serve as a reference source
for the learner and user of Hebrew irrespective of level, by setting out the
complexities of the language in short, readable sections that are clear and
free from jargon.

It is ideal either for independent study or for students in schools, colleges,

universities and adult classes of all types.

Features of this new edition include:

• Much expanded coverage of a large part of the syntax and morphology

• Reformulation and clarification of many details
• Enrichment of the vocabulary to mirror the digital and Internet age.

Lewis Glinert is Professor of Hebrew Studies at Dartmouth College,

New Hampshire, USA.
Routledge Essential Grammars

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Other titles of related interest published by Routledge:

Colloquial Hebrew
By Zippi Lyttleton and Tamar Wang
Modern Hebrew
An Essential Grammar
4th edition

Lewis Glinert
For Bentzion, Yaakov Mordechai,
Dovid Yeshaya and Avigail Sara
First published 1991
by the School of Oriental and African Studies (University of London) as Chik-Chak!
A Gateway to Modern Hebrew Grammar
Second edition published 1994 in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Third edition published 2005 by Routledge
Fourth edition published 2016 by Routledge
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 1991, 1994, 2005, 2016 Lewis Glinert
The right of Lewis Glinert to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent
to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN: 978-1-138-81696-1 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-415-48417-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-10811-7 (ebk)

Typeset in Gill, Sabon and Hebrew Frank Ruehl

by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong
 Contents

Preface xvi
Glossary xix
Hebrew grammatical terminology xxii

LEVEL ONE

1 The simple sentence: basic word order 3

2 The simplest sentences: ‘Me Tarzan, you Jane’ 3
(a) The pattern ‫‘ יו ָֹרם עָ ייֵף‬Yoram is tired’ 3
(b) The pattern ‫‘ יו ָֹרם ּבְ תֵ ל ָאבִ יב‬Yoram’s in Tel Aviv’ 4
(c) The pattern ‘Yoram is a  .  .  .’ 4
(d) The pattern ‘I am  .  .  .  , he is  .  .  .  , it’s  .  .  .’ 5
3 The personal pronouns 5
4 The definite article -‫ ה‬6
(a) General rules 6
(b) Definiteness without ַ‫ ה‬ 6
5 The Hebrew for ‘a, some’ 7

6–8  Masculine and feminine, singular and plural

6 Masculine and feminine nouns (gender) 7
7 The feminine and plural of nouns 9
(a) The endings ‫◌ים‬  ִ and ‫ – וֹת‬for the simplest noun pattern 9
(b) The plural of nouns of the pattern ‫ דבָ ר‬ ָ 10
(c) The plural of nouns of the pattern ‫( סֶ ֶרט‬segolate nouns) 11
(d) The plural of nouns ending in ‫ ּות‬ 12
(e) The feminine of nouns denoting people,
e.g. ‫‘ מו ָֹרה‬teacher’ 12
(f) The plural of foreign nouns 13
vii
Contents 8 The feminine and plural of adjectives 14
(a) The simplest adjective pattern: ‫ ָדתִ י‬, ‫ טוֹב‬ 14
(b) Adjectives ending in ‫◌ה‬ ֶ 15
(c) Adjectives of the pattern ‫‘ גָדוֹל‬large’, ‫‘ קָ טָ ן‬small’ 15
(d) Adjectives shaped like present tense verbs 16
9 Noun + adjective phrases, e.g. ‫‘ ֶילֶד קָ טָ ן‬small boy’ 16
10 Quantity phrases 17
11 Noun + determiner phrases (‘this  .  .  .  , the same  .  .  .  ,
any  .  .  .’) 18

12–13 Agreement
12 Agreement of ַ‫ ה‬ 19
(a) Agreement between noun and adjective: ‫הַ ֶּכלֶב הָ ָרטּוב‬
‘the wet dog’ 19
(b) Agreement between noun and ‫זֶה‬: ‫‘ הַ ֶּכלֶב הַ זֶה‬this dog’ 20
13 Agreement for gender and number 20
(a) Adjective agreement 20
(b) Agreement of verbs 21
(c) Agreement of ‘particles of being’ 21
(d) Agreement of determiners: ‫ ָּכזֹאת‬, ‫זֹאת‬, etc. 21
(e) Agreement of quantifiers 22
14 Numerals 23
(a) The numerals 1 to 10 23
(b) The numerals 11 to 19 23
(c) The numerals 20 to 99 24
15 Partitives: ‘many of the  .  .  .  , all the  .  .  .’ 25
16 Pronouns and words standing in for nouns 25
(a) Definite pronouns 25
(b) Referring back to a clause 26
(c) Indefinite pronouns: ‘someone, something, etc.’ 27
(d) ‘Anyone, anything’ 27
(e) Question words 28
(f ) Adjectives without their noun: ‫‘ הַ יָרוֹק‬the green one’ 28
(g) Numerals without their noun 29
(h) Quantifiers without their noun 29

viii
 17 Possessives and constructs 29 Contents
(a) Possessive ‘of ’: ‫‘ הָ ָאח ׁשֶ ל יו ָֹרם‬Yoram’s brother’ 29
(b) Possessive ‘my, your’, etc.: ‫‘ הָ ָאח ׁשֶ לִ י‬my brother’ 30
(c) The construct: set phrases and other uses 30
(d) Construct suffixes 32
(e) ַ‫ ה‬in construct phrases 33

18–23  The inflections of the verb

18 Introduction 33
19 The past tense 34
(a) Form of the past tense 34
(b) Syntax of the past tense 35
(c) Meaning of the past tense 35
20 The present tense 36
(a) Form of the present tense 36
(b) Use of the present tense 36
21 The future tense 36
(a) Form of the future tense 36
(b) Use of the future tense 37
22 The imperative 38
(a) Form of the imperative 38
(b) Use of the imperative 39
23 The infinitive 39
(a) Form of the infinitive 39
(b) Use of the infinitive 40
24 Root and base 40
25 Word patterns: binyanim and mishkalim 41
(a) Introduction 41
(b) Functions or meanings of the verb patterns 42
(c) Summarizing the chief functions of the verb patterns 44
(d) Function of the noun and adjective patterns 45

26–9  Forming the four active binyanim

26 PA’AL 46
(a) Two-syllable PA’AL 46
(b) One-syllable PA’AL, e.g. ‫‘ קָ ם‬get up’ 48
27 HIF’IL 49

ix
Contents 28–9  Binyan PI’EL and HITPA’EL
28 PI’EL 51
29 HITPA’EL 52

30–2  The passive binyanim: NIF’AL, HUF’AL, PU’AL

30 NIF’AL 53
31 HUF’AL 55
32 PU’AL 56
33 Direct and indirect object 57
34 Object markers 57
(a) The direct object marker ‫ אֶ ת‬ 57
(b) Indirect objects with ְ‫ ל‬, ְ‫ ּב‬,‫ עִ ם‬,‫ ִמ‬,‫ עַ ל‬ 58
(c) Double objects 59
35 Preposition + suffix 60
(a) Preposition + suffix: ‫ לִ י‬,‫ּבִ י‬, etc. 61
(b) Preposition + suffix: ‫ אוֹתִ י‬,ֹ‫אוֹתו‬, etc. 61
(c) Preposition + suffix: ‫ עִ ם‬and ‫ מ‬ ִ 62
(d) Preposition + suffix: ‫ׁשבִ יל‬ ְ ִ‫ ּב‬ 62
(e) Preposition + suffix: ‫ עַ ל‬,‫ אֶ ל‬,‫ לִ פְ נֵי‬,‫ ַאח ֲֵרי‬ 63
36 Some pronunciation rules for prefixes and suffixes 64
(a) ‫ ּו‬, ְ‫ ו‬, ְ‫ ב‬, ְ‫ ּב‬and the like 64
(b) Which syllable is stressed in nouns and adjectives? 65
37 ‫‘ יֵׁש‬there is, there are’ 67
38 ‘I have’:  .  .  .  ‫ יֵׁש לִ י‬ 67
39 Questions 68
(a) Questions of the type ?‫ָאבִ יב‬-‫ יו ָֹרם ּבְ תֵ ל‬68
(b) ‘What, where, when’ 69
40 Negation, or how to say ‘no’ 69
(a) ‘I’m not, he isn’t, they didn’t’ 69
(b) ‫ אֵ ין‬as the opposite of ‫ יֵׁש‬ 70
(c) Dangling ‫ ֹלא‬and ‫ אֵ ין‬ 70
(d) Negative instructions 70
(e) Countering a negative: ‘He did, I do’ 70
(f) ‘Isn’t he, aren’t you?’ 71
41 ‘The cake in the fridge, some news from Israel’ 71
42 Degree words: ‫ ַדי‬,‫ּכְָך‬-‫ ּכָל‬,‫ ְמאֹ ד‬, etc. 71
43 Adverbs of time and place in the sentence 73

x
44–9  Embedded clauses Contents
The pattern ‫אנִי רוֹצֶ ה לְ הִ תְ עַ טֵ ׁש‬
44 ֲ : ‘I want to sneeze’ 73
The pattern ‫טוֹב לְ חַ ייְֵך‬: ‘It’s good to smile’
45 74
46
Reported thoughts and object clauses 74
Relative clauses with ֶ‫ ׁש‬
47 76
Adverbial clauses: ‫ ּכִ י‬,‫ אִ ם‬, ֶ‫ בִּ גְ לַל ׁש‬, ֶ‫ַאח ֲֵרי ׁש‬, etc.
48 76
49
Sentences without a subject 79
(a) The ‘general’ plural: !‫ֹׁשבִ ים‬ ְ ‫ חו‬,‫‘ ׁשֶ קֶ ט‬Quiet,
people are thinking!’ 79
(b) ‫ אֶ פְ ׁשָ ר‬,‫ ּכְ ַדאי‬,‫צָ ִריְך‬, etc. without a subject 79
(c) Point of time, passage of time 80

LEVEL TWO

50–9  Special root-types

50 ‫ ל''ה‬roots 83
(a) Introduction 83
(b) ‫ ל'ה‬in PA’AL and PI’EL 83
(c) ‫ ל'ה‬in HITPA’EL and HIF’IL 85
(d) ‫ ל'ה‬in NIF’AL 86
51 Roots with ‘gutturals’ 87
(a) Introduction 87
(b) When the first letter is a ‘guttural’ 87
(c) When the middle letter is a ‘guttural’ 88
(d) When the final letter is a ‘guttural’ 90
52 Roots with ‫ פ‬,‫ כ‬,‫ב‬: ‘soft’ or ‘hard’? 91
(a) Usually soft 91
(b) Usually hard 92
(c) Always soft 92
53 Four-consonant roots 92
54 ‫ ּפ''י‬roots 94
(a) Inflections where ‫ פ''י‬roots behave regularly 94
(b) Inflections where ‫ פ''י‬roots act anomalously 95
55 ‘Cross-over’: roots with initial ‫ ז‬,‫ ס‬,‫ צ‬,‫ ׂש‬,‫ ׁש‬ 97
56 Maverick verbs 98
(a) ‫ פ''נ‬roots 98
(b) ‫ לָקַ ח‬ 99
(c) ‫ הָ לְַך‬ 99
(d) ‫ יָכוֹל‬and ‫ צָ ִריְך‬ 100
(e) Some verbs beginning with ‫ א‬ 100
xi
Contents (f) Verbs with a missing tense: ‫ הִ גִ יד‬,‫ נִהְ יָה‬,‫ הָ יָה‬ 101
(g) The verbs ‫‘ חַ י‬live’ and ‫‘ מֵ ת‬die’ 101
(h) ‫ ע''ע‬roots 102
57 HIF’IL verbs with two-consonant bases: ‫ הֵ פִ יץ‬,‫ הִ ּכִ יר‬102
(a) ‫ הִ ּכִ יר‬verbs 102
(b) ‫ הֵ פִ יץ‬verbs 103
(c) What are the roots of these verbs? 103
58 PA’AL verbs with -i-a- in the future 104
(a) ‫ יִגְ ַדל‬,‫ ג ֵָדל‬,‫ ג ַָדל‬ 104
(b) ‫ לִ ְׁשּכַב‬,‫ י ְִׁשּכַב‬,‫ ׁשָ כַב‬ 104
(c) ‫ יִלְ ּבַ ׁש‬,‫ לָבַ ׁש‬ 105
(d) ‫ ל''א‬verbs: ‫ י ְִמצָ א‬,‫ מָ צָ א‬ 105
59 A minor binyan: the PO’EL and HITPO’EL 106
60 More plurals of nouns 107
(a) Plurals ending in ‫◌יים‬  ַ 107
(b) Real duals ending in ‫◌יים‬  ַ 108
(c) Plural of segolate nouns with ‫ת‬- (e.g. ‫‘ מָ סו ֶֹרת‬tradition’) 108
(d) Plural nouns: some exceptions 108
(e) Nouns that are intrinsically plural 110
(f) Nouns that are intrinsically a singular collective 110
61 Vowel-raising: ‫ֲדּומים‬ ִ ‫א‬-‫ ָאדוֹם‬,ֹ‫ּכּולו‬-‫ ּכָל‬111
62 Generic plurals: ‘I hate cockroaches’ 112
63 Plural loss: ‫ׂש ִרים אִ יׁש‬ ְ ֶ‫‘ ע‬twenty persons’ 112

64–8  Noun patterns (noun mishkalim)

64 Action nouns, e.g. ‫‘ ִחידּוׁש‬renewal’ 113
65 Abstract nouns built from adjectives, e.g. ‫יטיּות‬
ִ ִ‫‘ א‬slowness’ 114
66 The noun patterns ‫ ּפַ עָ ל‬and ‫ ּפַ עְ לָן‬116
67 Nouns with the suffix ‫◌ן‬  ָ , ‫◌אי‬
 ַ and ‫ ּות‬ 117
(a) The suffix ‫◌ן‬
 ָ 117
(b) The suffix ‫◌אי‬  ַ 117
(c) The suffix ‫ ּות‬ 117
68 Some other noun patterns 118
(a) With a relatively clear ‘pattern meaning’ 118
(b) Lacking a clear ‘pattern meaning’ 124

69–71  Adjective patterns (adjective mishkalim)

69 Passive adjectives (‫ ְמכּונָס‬,‫ מּוכְ נָס‬,‫ )ּכָנּוס‬ 125
70 Adjectives built from nouns (denominal adjectives) 126
71 Other meaningful adjective patterns 127
xii
 72 ‘Piggy-back’ nouns and adjectives 130 Contents
(a) Using present tense ‘verbs’ 130
(b) Nouns from plural adjectives 131

73–7  Constructs and possessives

73 The construct as a possessive 132
(a) Noun + noun, e.g. ‫‘ הו ֵֹרי הַ ַּכלָה‬the bride’s parents’ 132
(b–c)  Possessive suffixes: .  .  .  ‫ דו ְֹדָך‬,‫ דו ִֹדי‬ 133
(b) With singular nouns 133
(c) With plural nouns 134
(d) Construct adjective + noun e.g. ‫ׂשֵ יעָ ר‬-‫‘ אֲרּוּכֵי‬long-haired’ 134
(e) Construct participle + noun 136
74 ְ‫ ל‬of possession: ‫‘ הִ סְ ּתַ ּכַלְ ּתִ י לָּה בָּ עֵ ינַייִם‬I looked her in the eyes’ 136

75–6  Construct nouns – vowel changes

75 Construct segolates 137
(a) The ‫ּבֶ גֶד‬/‫ ּפֶ ַרח‬pattern (initial ◌  ֶ ) 137
(b) The ‫ ּבַ עַ ל‬pattern (initial ◌  ַ ) 137
(c) The ‫ טוֹפֶ ס‬pattern (initial ‫ ) ֹו‬ 137
76 Some other vowel changes in constructs 138
(a) Loss of a: ‫ מקוֹם~מָ קוֹם‬ ְ 138
(b) Inserting an -i-: ‫ ְדבָ ִרים‬,‫ּבְ ָרכָה‬, etc. 138
(c) Some important oddments 139
77 Double possessives: ‫ ּבֵ יתָ הּ ׁשֶ ל ׂשָ ָרה‬ 139
78 Preposition + suffix: ‫ ּכְ מ ֹו‬,‫ ּבֵ ין‬,‫ ּבְ לִ י‬ 140

79–81 Numerals
79 Definite numerals: ‘the three idiots’ 140
80 Ordinals: ‘first, second, third  .  .  .’ 142
81 Hundreds and thousands 142
82 More tenses 143
(a) Past habitual tense: ‘I used to  .  .  .’ 143
(b) Unreal conditionals: ‘If I were  .  .  .’ 143
(c) Tense in reported thought 144
(d) Tense with ֶ‫ ּכְ ׁש‬,‫אִ ם‬, and ֶ‫ ּתוְֹך ׁש‬ 145
83 The object suffix: ‫‘ לִ בְ וֹנת ֹו‬to build it’ 145
84 Reflexives: ‘myself, yourself  .  .  .’ 146
85 ‘One another’ 146
86 Dative ‫ ל‬of feeling: ‫ קַ ר לִ י‬,‫‘ אִ כְ ּפַ ת לִ י‬I care, I’m cold’ 147

xiii
Contents 87–90 Comparatives
87 Comparative phrases 148
(a) ‫‘ יוֹתֵ ר ִמ‬more than’ 148
(b) ‫‘ מֵ אֲׁשֶ ר‬than’ 149
(c) ‫‘ ִמ ַדי‬too’, ‫‘ מַ סְ ּפִ יק‬enough’ 149
88 ‘The most  .  .  .’ 149
89 ‘As big as’: .  .  .  ‫ ּכְ מ ֹו‬ 150
90 Measurement: .  .  .  ‫‘ מַ ה או ֶֹרְך‬How long is  .  .  .’ 150

91–6 Adverbials
91 Adverbs of manner, e.g. ‫‘ ּבִ ְמהִ ירּות‬quickly’ 151
92 Adverbs of amount 153
93 ְ‫ ּב‬of time, place, and means 154
94 ‫ הַ יוֹם‬,‫‘ הַ ׁשָ נָה‬today, this year’ 155
95 ‫ ל‬,‫ אל‬and ‫ ָ ◌ה‬of destination and ‫ ִמ‬of location 155
96 Adverbials of attitude, intent, and truth value 156
(a) Adverbials of attitude 156
(b) Adverbials of intent and organization 157
(c) Adverbials of truth value 157
97 The gerund: ‫‘ ּבִ הַ גִ יע ֹו‬on his arrival’ 158
98 Where to position ‫ גַם‬and ‫ ַרק‬ 158

99–100  More negatives

99 Inflexion of ‫ אֵ ין‬ 159
100 ‘No one, nothing, nowhere, non-, un-, neither’ 159
101 More questions 161
(a) Questions using ‫ הַ אִ ם‬ 161
(b) Questions using ‫‘ אִ ם‬whether’ 162
(c) Indirect ‘what, where, when’, etc. 162
102 Wants, wishes and requests 162
(a) ‘I want (him) to  .  .  .’ .  .  .   ֶ‫אנִי רוֹצֶ ה ׁש‬ ֲ 162
(b) Commands and wishes with ֶ‫ ׁש‬ 163
(c) First person insistence and urgings (e.g. with ‫ )ּבוֹא‬163
103 ‘Either  .  .  .  or’: ‫  א ֹו‬.  .  .  ‫ א ֹו‬ 164
104 Clauses as subject: ‘painting is fun’ 164
105 More relative clauses 164
(a) Relative clauses with a pronoun 164
(b) .  .  .   ֶ‫ אֵ יפֹ ה ׁש‬,  .  .  .   ֶ‫ ִמי ׁש‬,  .  .  .   ֶ‫ מַ ה ׁש‬ 166
(c) Relative clauses with ַ‫ ה‬ 166
(d) Relative clauses with ְ‫ ל‬ 167
xiv
 106 Exclamations 167 Contents
(a) Using question words 168
(b) Superlative nouns + ‫ ׁשֶ ל‬ 168
(c) Using relative clauses 168
107 When the order is not subject–verb–object 169
(a) Inverting subject and verb 169
(b) Starting with the object 170
(c) Presentative and existential verbs 170
108 Backtracking 171
109 Discourse markers 171
110 Hitting the right level: colloquial, formal, and elevated 175
111 Israeli spelling 176

Exercises 179
Vocabulary for exercises 247
Key to exercises 301
Index 346

xv
 Preface

Modern Hebrew: An Essential Grammar is intended as a grammar and

workbook for the first two years of modern Hebrew at high school or
university.
The book covers the features of syntax and morphology – colloquial and
more formal – that are most useful to the average student. Many other
features of modern Hebrew might arguably have been included – but we
wished to keep things short and sweet. For a much fuller picture of the
language, teachers and advancing students are referred to our book The
Grammar of Modern Hebrew (Cambridge University Press, 1989).
Modern Hebrew is not a graded, step-by-step coursebook. Of those there
are many. It supplies what they generally lack: a simple, up-to-date outline
of Hebrew structure.
The grammar and exercises are arranged by topic, with several sections
on the noun, several on the adverb, and so on. Using the contents or index,
students will be able to home in on the points of grammar that they wish
to learn, in whichever order suits them best. The exercises should provide
an entertaining challenge, but a carefully managed one: the exercises for
Level One require no knowledge of Level Two (and in fact little knowledge
of any subsequent sections in Level One), and all vocabulary is listed in
the custom-built word list.
If some of this vocabulary is rather more colorful than the usual beginners’
fare, so much the better. The old ‘basic Hebrew’ word lists upon which
modern Hebrew courses have rested for forty years are starting to look
distinctly dated.
Thus the exercises in this book are more than just an exercise-ground for the
grammar: they also introduce a colorful spectrum of vocabulary, spanning
the colloquial and the elegant, current affairs, kitchens and kibbutzim, and
xvi religious and secular culture.
 To the teacher Preface

The way we have divided the material between Levels One and Two may
cause surprise. Some of the things traditionally fed to beginners do not
appear until Level Two – and not by accident. Hebrew education has had
an unhealthy tradition of fussing over inflections while ignoring syntax,
and the written word, even to this day, gets more attention than the
colloquial language. We have endeavored to redress the balance.

At the same time, in leaving all defective verb inflections until Level Two,
we have taken advantage of the fact that language teachers today no longer
deal with each grammatical structure fully as soon as it crops up. Instead,
a word with ‫ ָל ֶלכֶת‬or ‫ יו ַֹדעַ ת‬may be learned simply as a vocabulary item, or
even just as part of an expression, until the time is ripe for the grammatical
facts of the verb ‫ הָ לְַך‬or the guttural verb to be confronted in toto. The
signal we have tried to convey in leaving all defective verbs till Level Two
is that there are many more important – and above all, simpler – things
to be learned systematically before these.

A word on colloquial language, ‘slang’, and ‘grammatical errors’: some

teachers may be surprised to see that we have given primacy to the norms
of the average educated Israeli speaker rather than the traditional norms
of school grammar books. For example, forms of the type ‫ ָּכנַסְ ּתֶ ם‬appear
throughout the verb tables, rather than the ‘classical’ form ‫ּכְ נַסְ ּתֶ ם‬. Similarly,
our nikkud seeks to echo colloquial pronunciation rather than Biblical
norms. The reason is simple: the main purpose of modern Hebrew teaching,
as of modern French or Spanish teaching, is to teach students to understand
and simulate an average educated speaker – not to sound like a newsreader
or funeral orator.

Thanks are due to the Research and Publications Committee of the School
of Oriental and African Studies for sponsoring the first, experimental edition
of this book, to Simon Bell of Routledge for bringing it to full fruition, to
Professor Reuven Tzur of Tel Aviv University for his wizardry with the
Hebrew Mac and to my students at the universities of London and Chicago,
perforce anonymous, for being such magnificent guinea-pigs in the evolution
of an idea.

‫יבואו כולם על שכרם‬

London 1993/5753

xvii
Preface About the fourth edition

In the twelve years that have passed since the last edition, the everyday
world has changed dramatically and Hebrew with it. Israeli society has
enthusiastically embraced the digital and on-line age and produced a
plethora of words – some imported but many home-grown – to deal with
it. In this new edition of our Essential Grammar, I have endeavored to
mirror these changes. Many sections have also been significantly expanded,
and many details clarified and adjusted to the feedback from teachers and
students. Two entirely new sections have been added to the end of the
book, but otherwise I have contrived to keep to the same numbering of
sections while making copious changes from within. My thanks are due
once more to the reviewers for their invaluable suggestions and above all
to my Routledge editors for their continuing commitment to the teaching
of the Hebrew language around the globe. ‫ מחיל אל חיל‬Mechayil el chayil
‘From strength to strength’.

Lewis Glinert
Dartmouth College, USA
2014/5775

xviii
 Glossary

Action nouns indicate an action: destruction, dancing, development.

Actives are the forms of the verbs that indicate ‘doing an action’: he
grabbed.
Adjectives are words that describe: a bad boy, the eggs are bad.
Adverbials are any word, phrase or clause that tells us how, when, where,
or why: he stopped suddenly, he stopped after the lights, he stopped to
scratch his nose.
Adverbs are any one-word adverbial: he sings loudly, he always knows.
Agreement shows that a word hangs together with a particular noun – the
word may agree in number and gender (sometimes even in person) with
that noun: times are changing (not: is changing).
Bases are the basic uninflected forms, before the addition of inflectional
prefixes and endings. Thus the bases of kibbutzim and madricha are
kibbutz and madrich.
Binyan: a verb pattern. There are seven binyanim, allowing one to build
a variety of verbs from a single root.
Clauses are sentences nested inside the larger sentence: he thinks you’re
crazy.
Comparatives denote more, most, as (e.g. easy as) and the like.
Conjunctions connect clauses: say that I’m here. Go and see.
Construct phrases are two Hebrew words side by side (usually two nouns
and usually a set phrase), much like English soccer game, apple tree.
The first noun in the Hebrew is called ‘the construct noun’ and often
displays a special construct ending.
Definite article: the word ‘the’.
Degree words are a special sort of adverb, indicating degree: very cold,
somewhat strange, more slowly, I quite agree.
Demonstratives single out: this tape, that disk, such ideas (demonstrative
determiners), give me this, what’s that (demonstrative pronouns).
xix
Glossary Determiners are words added to a noun to indicate its identity: which guy,
any time, this tape, the same guy.
Direct objects are objects introduced without an object marker: I got jelly.
Discourse markers are words and expressions that organize the thread of
discourse, e.g. so, really?, nonetheless.
Embedded clauses are clauses within a clause: say that I’m here.
Feminine. See masculine.
Gender. See masculine.
Generic plural: refers to ‘x in general’: I hate exams, dentists chew gum.
Gerunds are a verb form that does the job of a noun: on arriving in
Israel  .  .  .  , before meeting his fiancée.  .  .  .
Imperative: a verb form expressing a request: kiss me! stop!
Indirect objects are introduced with an object marker: I thought of jelly.
Infinitive: a special verb form that is unchanged for gender or plural, and
has an abstract meaning. In English: to go, to be, to squeeze.
Inflections are the variations in number, gender, tense, etc. that can be
created in a word by adding prefixes, suffixes, etc.: take, takes, took,
taken  .  .  .  long, longer, longest.
Interrogative words set up a question, such as who, what, where, whether.
Masculine and feminine: all Hebrew nouns have a certain ‘gender’, either
masculine or feminine. This has nothing essentially to do with male or
female.
Mishkal: a noun or adjective pattern, with a distinctive set of vowels,
prefixes or suffixes.
Negators are words that set up negation, such as no, not, never.
Nouns indicate a person or thing – concrete or abstract: mat, mate,
materialism.
Object: the object of a verb is the person or thing undergoing the action:
I got jelly.
Object marker: the small word (preposition) that often introduces objects
in Hebrew and English: I looked at Joel, he thought of jelly.
Ordinals indicate order by number: first, third, twenty-fourth.
Partitives indicate ‘part of’: some of, all of, three of, most.
Passives: forms of verbs indicating ‘undergoing an action’: he was grabbed,
I am asked by many people. (Compare actives.) Hebrew has special
binyanim for the passive.
Person: depending on whether the subject of the verb is I or we (‘first
person’), you (‘second person’) or he, she, they, or any noun (‘third
person’), the form of the verb may vary, even in English: I am, you are,
Jane is.
xx Personal pronouns denote I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
Plural indicates ‘more than one’: dogs vs. dog. Glossary
Possessive indicates to whom or what something belongs or relates: Jane’s
husband, my surprise, the end of the world.
Prefixes are bits prefixed to words – future tense prefixes, noun prefixes, etc.
Prepositions are short words commonly indicating an object or when,
where, how, etc.: to Sara, for me, with Daniel, under, by, through, after.
Pronouns stand in for a specific noun: they, them, this, someone, who,
what.
Quantifiers indicate quantity: a lot of, some, several, most, half, seven.
Reflexive verbs involve doing something to oneself: he shot himself.
Relative clauses add information about some noun: the car that I bought
does 30 to the gallon.
Roots are ‘skeletons’ of consonants from which the typical Hebrew word
is built.
Singular indicates ‘one’: dog vs. dogs.
Stress is emphasis on a syllable or a word: compound vs compound, try
this one.
Subjects of sentences are the nouns doing the action (more strictly speaking:
nouns with which the verbs agree): films with subtitles annoy me.
Subordinate clauses: see embedded.
Suffixes are bits attached as word endings – dogs, confessed, scientific.
Tenses are the various verb forms expressing past, present and future time.
Verbs indicate actions (occasionally states): fry, enjoy, adore.

xxi
 Hebrew grammatical
terminology

Commonly used Hebrew equivalents for our grammatical terms:

action noun ‫שם פעולה‬

active ‫פעיל‬
adjective ‫תואר‬-‫שם‬
adverb ‫הפועל‬-‫תואר‬
adverbial ‫תיאור‬
agreement ‫התאם‬
base ‫בסיס‬
clause ‫ משפט‬,‫פסוקית‬
comparative ‫מלת השוואה‬
conjunction ‫מלת קשר‬
construct noun ‫נסמך‬
construct phrase ‫צירוף סמיכות‬
definite article ‫תווית יידוע‬
degree word ‫ דרג‬,‫מלת דרגה‬
demonstrative ‫מלה רומזת‬
determiner ‫תווית‬
direct object ‫מושא ישיר‬
discourse marker ‫סמן שיח‬
embedded ‫ נטוע‬,‫משועבד‬
feminine ‫נקבה‬
gender ‫מין‬
generic plural ‫ריבוי סתמי‬
gerund ‫הפועל‬-‫שם‬
imperative ‫ציווי‬
xxii
indirect object ‫מושא עקיף‬ Hebrew
infinitive ‫הפועל‬-‫ שם‬+ ‫ל‬ grammatical
terminology
inflection ‫נטייה‬
interrogative ‫שאלה‬
masculine ‫זכר‬
negative ‫שלילי‬
negator ‫מלת שלילה‬
noun ‫עצם‬-‫שם‬
object ‫מושא‬
object marker ‫סמן מושא‬
ordinal ‫מספר סידורי‬
particle of being ‫אוגד‬
partitive ‫פרטיטיווי‬
passive ‫סביל‬
person ‫גוף‬
personal pronoun ‫כינוי גוף‬
phrase ‫צירוף‬
plural ‫ריבוי‬
possessive ‫קניין‬
prefix ‫ תחילית‬,‫קידומת‬
preposition ‫יחס‬-‫מלת‬
pronoun ‫כינוי‬
quantifier ‫ כמת‬,‫מלת כמות‬
reflexive verb ‫פועל חוזר‬
relative clause ‫משפט זיקה‬
root ‫שורש‬
singular ‫יחיד‬
stress ‫הטעמה‬
subject ‫נושא‬
subordinate ‫משועבד‬
suffix ‫ סופית‬,‫סיומת‬
tense ‫זמן הפועל‬
verb ‫פועל‬

xxiii
Level One
 1 The simple sentence: basic word order The simplest
sentences:
In the basic Modern Hebrew sentence, the subject comes before its ‘Me Tarzan,
predicate, e.g.: you Jane’
Subject + verb
Subject + adjective
Subject + adverb

Examples:

ַ‫יו ָֹרם יו ֵֹדע‬ Yoram knows

‫יו ָֹרם עַ צְ ּבָ נִי‬ Yoram’s uptight
‫יו ָֹרם ׁשָ ם‬ Yoram’s there

Note: We will also encounter the reverse order – verb + subject, etc.

2 The simplest sentences: ‘Me Tarzan, you Jane’

a The pattern ‫‘ יו ָֹרם עָ ייֵף‬Yoram is tired’

For sentences of the type ‘Yoram is tired, the falafel is cold’, i.e. noun +
‘be’ + adjective, Hebrew commonly omits the verb:

‫הַ פַ לַפֶ ל קַ ר‬ The falafel [is] cold

‫הַ פַ לַפֶ לִ ים הָ אֵ לֶה קַ ִרים‬ These falafels [are] cold

Alternatively – especially after a longish subject like ‫ּכָל הַ פַ לַפֶ לִ ים הָ אֵ לֶה‬

‘all these falafels’ or before a longish predicate – Hebrew sometimes inserts
the ‘particles of being’ ‫ הֵ ן‬,‫ הֵ ם‬,‫ הִ יא‬,‫הּוא‬:

‫ּבְ י ְִׂש ָראֵ ל הַ ְמ ִח ִירים הֵ ם נְמּוכִ ים ְמאֹ ד לְ עּומַ ת הָ ע ֹולָם‬

In Israel the prices are very low compared with the world

ַ‫יָד ׁשֶ ל רוֹפְ אִ ים הּוא ְמזַעְ זֵע‬-‫הַ ּכְ תַ ב‬

Doctors’ handwriting is shocking

Which one is chosen depends on whether the subject is masculine or femin­

ine, singular or plural. Colloquially, the choice is generally just between
‫ הֵ ם‬,‫ הִ יא‬,‫ הּוא‬as the feminine plural form ‫ הֵ ן‬is not used much.
Masc. sing. ‫הּוא‬
Masc. pl. ‫הֵ ם‬
Fem. sing. ‫הִ יא‬
Fem. pl. ‫הֵ ן‬/‫הֵ ם‬ 3
Level One Note: These particles are identical with the pronouns for ‘he, she, they’, which will
be dealt with in 3.

b The pattern ‫‘ יו ָֹרם ּבְ תֵ ל ָאבִ יב‬Yoram’s in Tel Aviv’

The same is true for sentences like ‘The cats are in the closet, Shmulik is
over there, The letter’s from Grandma’, i.e. sentences with an adverbial as
their predicate. Either there is no word for ‘be’:

‫הַ חַ תּולִ ים ּבָ ָארוֹן‬ The cats [are] in the closet

‫חַ נִי ּבַ ֶד ֶרְך לְ אִ יקֵ ָאה‬ Chani[’s] on the way to Ikea
‫ְׁשמּואלִ יק ׁשָ מָ ה‬ Shmulik [is] over there
‫הַ ִמכְ ּתָ ב ִמסַ בְ ּתָ א‬ The letter[’s] from Grandma

or one uses one of the particles of being ‫ הֵ ן‬,‫ הֵ ם‬,‫ הִ יא‬,‫הּוא‬:

‫הַ ִמכְ ּתָ ב הּוא ִמסַ בְ ּתָ א‬
The letter’s from Grandma

‫הַ חֲבִ ילוֹת הֵ ן (הֵ ם) ּבִ ְׁשבִ יל הָ ַרּבָ נִית‬

The packages are for the rabbi’s wife

c The pattern ‘Yoram is a  .  .  .’

So far, we have seen sentences of the type ‘someone is <adjective>’ or

‘someone is <adverbial>’. But for ‘someone is <noun>’, Hebrew generally
must insert the particles of being ‫ הֵ ן‬,‫ הֵ ם‬,‫ הִ יא‬,‫הּוא‬:

‫יו ָֹרם הּוא ַרב‬ Yoram is a rabbi

‫ׂשָ ָרה הִ יא הַ ּבוֹסִ ית‬ Sara is the boss
‫ַאחים ׁשֶ לָּה הֵ ם טַ ייָסִ ים‬
ִ ָ‫ה‬ Her brothers are pilots

Note: In formal Hebrew, the forms ‫ הִ ינָן‬,‫ הִ ינָם‬,‫ הִ ינָה‬,ֹ‫ הִ ינו‬may be used instead of
‫ הֵ ן‬,‫ הֵ ם‬,‫ הִ יא‬,‫ הּוא‬respectively:
‫סַ לוֹן זֶלְ ָדה הִ ינ ֹו מֶ ְרּכַז יוֹפִ י ּבְ לֵב ּתֵ ל ָאבִ יב‬
Salon Zelda is a beauty center in the heart of Tel Aviv

4
An exception is where one is identifying someone or defining something. The personal
Then colloquial Hebrew normally uses ‫ זֶה‬for ‘is’: pronouns

‫ִמי זֶה יו ָֹרם? יו ָֹרם זֶה הַ ׁשָ כֵן‬

Who is Yoram? Yoram’s the neighbor

‫ מוֹתֶ ק‬,ֹ‫ מַ ה זֶה גִ 'יּפ? – גִ 'יּפ זֶה אוֹטו‬,‫אִ מָ א‬

Mommy, what’s a jeep? – A jeep is a car, darling

d The pattern ‘I am  .  .  .  , he is  .  .  .  , it’s  .  .  .’

Hebrew does not generally use a word for ‘am, is, are’ after a personal
pronoun:

‫ֲאנִי ַרב‬ I am a rabbi

‫אַ ּתְ ְמׁשּוגַעַ ת‬ You’re nuts
‫ָאח ׁשֶ לִ י‬-‫הּוא הַ ּבֶ ן‬ He’s my nephew
‫הֵ ם ִמ ִמינְסק‬ They’re from Minsk
‫זֶה סְ קַ נ ְָדל‬ It’s a scandal

3 The personal pronouns

The personal pronouns are:

Plural Singular

‫ֲאנ ְַחנּו‬ we ‫ֲאנִי‬ I

‫אַ ּתֶ ם‬ you (masc.) ‫אַ ּתָ ה‬ you (masc.)
‫אַ ּתֶ ן‬ you (fem.) ְ‫אַ ּת‬ you (fem.)
‫הֵ ם‬ they ‫הּוא‬ he
‫הֵ ן‬ they (fem.) ‫הִ יא‬ she

The feminine plural pronouns, ‫ אַ ּתֶ ן‬and ‫הֵ ן‬, are rather formal and typical
of newscasters, newspapers, books and so on. Colloquially, their masculine
counterparts ‫ אַ ּתֶ ם‬and ‫ הֵ ם‬are used instead, thus:

‫ הֵ ם ּבְ צַ הַ ''ל‬,‫הַ ּבָ נוֹת? נּו‬ The girls? Well, they’re in the Army
?‫ מַ ה אַ ּתֶ ם רוֹצוֹת‬,‫טוֹב‬ OK, what do you want (feminine)?

For ‘it’ and other pronouns, see 16. 5

Level One These personal pronouns have one major syntactic restriction: they are
used only as the subject of a sentence or as its predicate:

As subject: ?‫ ּבְ סֵ ֶדר‬,‫ֲאנ ְַחנּו עִ ם ׂשָ ָרה‬ We’re with Sara, OK?
As predicate: !‫ זֶה ֲאנ ְַחנּו‬,‫ ּבְ סֵ ֶדר‬,‫ּבְ סֵ ֶדר‬ OK, OK, it’s us!

But as objects of a verb, e.g. ‘congratulate us’, or after a preposition, e.g.

‘with us, for us’, different pronouns are used, e.g. ‫ – אוֹתָ נּו‬see 35.

4 The definite article -‫ה‬

a General rules

‘The’ is usually ‫ה‬, pronounced ha. It is always prefixed to the noun, e.g.
‫‘ הָ אוֹר‬the light’ – as are all other one-letter words, such as ְ‫‘ ּב‬in’ and ְ‫‘ ּכ‬as’.
Note: Newsreaders and teachers may pronounce it as ֶ‫ ה‬in a few cases, but coming
from an ordinary person this will sound pedantic.

When combining the prepositions ְ‫ ּב‬and ְ‫ל‬ with ‫ה‬ ‘the’, one has to run
them together, making ַ‫ ּב‬and ‫ ַל‬, thus:

‫ּבַ ּבוֹקֶ ר‬ in the morning (not ‫)ּבְ הַ ּבוֹקֶ ר‬

‫לַסוֹף‬ to the end (not ‫)לְ הַ סוֹף‬
About adding ‫ ה‬to an accompanying adjective (‫‘ הַ ֶילֶד הַ טוֹב‬the good boy’),
see 12. On the use of the direct object marker ‫ אֶ ת‬with ַ‫ה‬, see 34a.

b Definiteness without ַ‫ה‬

Rather as in English, ‫ ה‬is not always used where a noun is ‘definite’
(i.e. refers to a known person or thing):

1. Names do not normally take ‫ה‬.

2. Some titles do not take ‫ה‬, notably ‫‘ מַ ר‬Mr.’, ‫‘ גְ בֶ ֶרת‬Mrs, Ms’, ‫דו ְֹקטוֹר‬
‘Dr.’, ‫‘ ּפְ רוֹפֶ סוֹר‬Professor’, ‫‘ סֶ ֶרן‬Captain’ and other military ranks. By
contrast:  .  .  .  ‫‘ הָ ַרב‬Rabbi x’,  .  .  .  ‫‘ הַ מֶ לְֶך‬King x’,  .  .  .  ‫ָׂשיא‬
ִ ‫‘ הַ נ‬President
x’,  .  .  .  ‫‘ הַ ׂשָ ר‬Minister x’.
3. Four kinship terms – ‫‘ אַ ּבָ א‬Dad’, ‫‘ אִ מָ א‬Mom’, ‫‘ סַ ּבָ א‬Grandpa’, ‫סַ בְ ּתָ א‬
‘Grandma’ – can be used definitely or indefinitely:

‫ ֲאנִי עַ כְ ָשׁיו אִ מָ א‬ I’m now a mommy

6 ‫ אִ מָ א ּכַאן‬ Mommy’s here
4. Nouns with a possessive suffix (see 73) are always definite but never Masculine and
take ‫ה‬, thus ‫ַאחי‬
ִ ‘my brother’, ‫‘ ִׁש ְמָך‬your name’, ‫‘ ּבֵ יתֵ נּו‬our home’. feminine nouns
5. In construct phrases (see 17e), such as ַ‫‘ סוֹף הַ ׁשָ בּוע‬the weekend’, ‫ה‬ (gender)
usually appears only with the second element of the phrase.
6. ‘This x, that x, the same x’ are generally treated as definite in colloquial
Hebrew and generally take ‫ה‬. By contrast, formal Hebrew often omits
‫ה‬, treating them as indefinite:
‫ הַ ְמ ִדינָה הַ זאֹ ת‬ this country or ‫( ְמ ִדינָה זאֹ ת‬formal)
‫ אוֹת ֹו הַ יוֹם‬ that day, the same day or ‫( אוֹת ֹו יוֹם‬formal)
It is important to know when a noun is definite, even if it has no ‫ה‬: there
will still be agreement for definiteness (see 12) and the object marker ‫אֶ ת‬
will still be used (see 34a).

5 The Hebrew for ‘a, some’

Hebrew generally has no word for ‘a’, nor for ‘some’ (the plural equivalent
of ‘a’), thus:

‫קַ ח עּוגָה‬ Take a cake

‫קַ ח עּוגוֹת‬ Take some cakes
‫יֵׁש ּפֹ ה ְׁשגִ יאוֹת‬ There are some mistakes here

However, when ‘some’ means ‘a certain’, ‫אֵ יזֶה‬ or ‫אֶ חָ ד‬ is often used
(see 11).

6–8 MASCULINE AND FEMININE, SINGULAR AND

PLURAL

6 Masculine and feminine nouns (gender)

Hebrew nouns are either masculine or feminine. Such gender does not
have very much to do with maleness or femaleness: although most
nouns denoting a male or a female are indeed masculine or feminine,
respectively, nouns denoting objects are masculine or feminine without
apparent reason.

7
Level One Gender shows up in two ways: (a) It commonly affects the form of
the noun, and (b) It invariably affects the form of any verb or adjective
relating to it:

Rule (1) The vast majority of feminine nouns end in either ‫◌ה‬
 ָ or ‫ת‬. Most
masculine nouns, by contrast, have no such ending. Examples:

Feminine nouns: ‫ּפִ יצָ ה‬ pizza ‫אוֹזְ ִניָה‬ headset

‫טַ לִ ית‬ prayer-shawl ‫ִמ ְרּפֶ סֶ ת‬ balcony
‫ע ֲִדיפּות‬ preference
Masculine nouns: ‫ּבָ צֵ ק‬ dough ‫צִ יּור‬ painting
‫ּכוֹבַ ע‬ cap

However, a considerable number of feminine nouns have no singular ending,

particularly (1) many names of body parts, e.g. ‫‘ יָד‬hand, arm’, ‫‘ א ֹוזֶן‬ear’,
‫‘ ּכָתֵ ף‬shoulder’, ‫‘ אֶ צְ ּבַ ע‬finger’, ‫‘ ּפָ נִים‬face’; (2) a few segolate nouns (nouns
of a particular form that stress the next-to-last syllable, see 7c), e.g. ‫אֶ ֶרץ‬
‘country’, ‫‘ ֶד ֶרְך‬route’, ‫‘ חֶ ֶרב‬sword’, ‫‘ ּפַ עַ ם‬time’; (3) several other mis­
cellaneous nouns, e.g. ַ‫‘ רּוח‬wind’, ‫‘ אֵ ׁש‬fire’, ‫‘ עִ יר‬town’, ‫‘ צִ יּפוֹר‬bird’.

Also, (4) names of towns and countries are feminine singular (mirroring
the feminine words ‫‘ עִ יר‬town’ and ‫‘ אֶ ֶרץ‬country’), e.g.:

‫ַארצוֹת הַ ּבְ ִרית ִמתְ ַנג ֶֶדת‬

ְ The US is opposed
‫ּתֵ ל ָאבִ יב יְקָ ָרה‬ Tel Aviv is expensive

Conversely, a handful of masculine nouns end in ‫◌ה‬  ָ or ‫ת‬, e.g. ‫‘ לַילָה‬night’

(stress on the first syllable), ‫‘ ׁשֵ ירּות‬service’ (the ‫ ת‬here is a root letter,
not a suffix).

Rule (2) A combination of masculine and feminine nouns is counted as

masculine:

‫ּכְָך‬-‫ִׁשפְ ָרה וְ מָ ְר ְדכַי קוֹפְ צִ ים ַאחַ ר‬

Shifra and Mordechai are stopping by later

?‫הַ ח ֲִטיפִ ים וְ הַ ְׁשתִ ייָה נ ְִמצָ אִ ים אֶ צְ לְ ָך‬

Are the snacks and drinks at your place?

Rule (3) Any adjective or verb relating to the noun must take masculine
or feminine form, in agreement with that noun (on agreement, see
further 13):

Masculine: ‫הַ ּבָ צֵ ק קָ ׁשֶ ה‬ The dough is hard

8 Feminine: ‫הַ ּפִ יצָ ה קָ ׁשָ ה‬ The pizza is hard
 7 The feminine and plural of nouns The feminine
and plural of
This section introduces the basics of feminine and plural inflections for nouns
nouns. For further details of plural inflections, see sections 60–61.

a The endings ‫ ִ ◌ים‬and ‫ – וֹת‬for the simplest noun pattern

Nouns mark their plural by the endings ‫◌ים‬ ִ and ‫וֹת‬. Nearly all masculine
nouns take ‫◌ים‬
 ִ and nearly all feminine nouns ‫וֹת‬.

Before adding ‫ים‬, the masculine noun first drops any ‫◌ה‬  ֶ or ‫ ִי‬ending it
may have. And before adding ‫וֹת‬, the feminine noun first drops the singular
feminine ending ָ‫ ה‬or ‫ת‬. Thus:

Masc. ‫מֵ יכָל‬ tank ‫מֵ יכָלִ ים‬ tanks

‫ּתִ יק‬ bag ‫ּתִ ִיקים‬ bags
‫מו ֶֹרה‬ teacher ‫מו ִֹרים‬ teachers
‫מַ עֲׂשֶ ה‬ deed ‫מַ ע ֲִׂשים‬ deeds
‫רּוסִ י‬ Russian ‫רּוסִ ים‬ Russians
‫ְהּודי‬
ִ ‫י‬ Jew ‫ְהּודים‬
ִ ‫י‬ Jews
‫ִחיל ֹונִי‬ secularist ‫ִחיל ֹונִים‬ secularists
‫עִ ּת ֹונַאי‬ journalist ‫עִ ּת ֹונָאִ ים‬ journalists
Fem. ‫ְמג ֵָירה‬ drawer ‫ְמגֵירוֹת‬ drawers
‫ִט ָירה‬ castle ‫ִטירוֹת‬ castles
‫י ִָדית‬ handle ‫י ִָדיוֹת‬ handles
‫מַ ּפִ ית‬ napkin ‫מַ ּפִ יוֹת‬ napkins

Note: ‘Nationality’ words ending in the suffix ‫◌י‬  ִ - of the type ‫‘ רּוסִ י‬Russian’,
‫‘ ַאנְגְ לִ י‬English’, ‫ְהּודי‬
ִ ‫‘ י‬Jew(ish)’ can be both nouns and adjectives. As an adjective,
the feminine and plural of words like ‫ רּוסִ י‬are ‫ רּוסִ יִים‬,‫רּוסִ ית‬. See 7e:2 and 70.

There are some exceptions to the rules just set out. For example, the
masculine noun ‫‘ ׁשּולְ חָ ן‬table’ has the plural ‫ׁשּולְ חָ נוֹת‬. Conversely, the
feminine noun ‫‘ ׁשָ נָה‬year’ has the plural ‫ׁשָ נִים‬. For more about these
exceptions, see 60d.

The form that a noun happens to take in the plural has no effect on its
intrinsic gender. Thus ‫‘ ׁשּולְ חָ נוֹת‬tables’ is as masculine as ‫‘ ׁשּולְ חָ ן‬table’,
and hence the agreement yields ‫‘ ׁשּולְ חָ נוֹת גְ דוֹלִ ים‬large tables’. 9
Level One b The plural of nouns of the pattern ‫ָדבָ ר‬
To make a noun plural is often more than just a matter of adding an
ending: the internal vowels may have to be changed, depending on the
form of the word. This generally affects pronunciation rather than spelling,
as Hebrew does not indicate many vowels. We begin with the ‘third-from-
the-end rule’:

When the vowel a becomes third vowel from the end (thanks to the presence
of an ending), many nouns omit it – as it is now so far away from the
stressed final syllable. Thus:

‫ים~דבָ ר‬
ָ ‫‘ ְדבָ ִר‬thing’ davar ~ dvarim (not davarim)
‫‘ ְׁשקֵ ִדים~ׁשָ קֵ ד‬almond’ shaked ~ shkedim (not shakedim)
Further examples: ‫ּבְ צָ לִ ים~ּבָ צָ ל‬ onion
‫גְ מַ לִ ים~גָמָ ל‬ camel
‫ְׁש ֵכנִים~ׁשָ כֵן‬ neighbor
Where it would be difficult to omit the a altogether, Hebrew speakers just
weaken it to a short e:

‫ יְעֵ לִ ים~יָעֵ ל‬ mountain goat

‫ נְחָ ִׁשים~נָחָ ׁש‬snake
However, many nouns do not observe the ‘third-from-the-end rule’. There
are two main reasons:

1. Either they begin with one of the four letters ‫ ע‬,‫ ח‬,‫ ה‬,‫( א‬so-called
‘guttural’ letters), which for ancient phonetic reasons require the acoustic
‘support’ of a full vowel, e.g.:

‫‘ ֲחכ ִָמים~חָ כָם‬sage’, ‫‘ ֲע ָננִים~עָ נָן‬cloud’

2. or the a has the vowel point ◌  ַ rather than ◌  ָ (which again for historical
reasons could not drop), e.g.:

‫‘ צַ ִד ִיקים~צַ ִדיק‬righteous man’, ‫‘ ּפַ סָ לִ ים~ּפַ סָ ל‬sculptor’,

‫‘ ּבַ מָ אִ ים~ּבַ מַ אי‬director’
In many nouns of this kind, the a does not drop because this would
create a hard-to-pronounce run of three consonants in a row, e.g.:

‫‘ מַ ְׁשּבֵ ִרים~מַ ְׁשּבֵ ר‬crisis’, ‫‘ ּכַפְ ּתו ִֹרים~ּכַפְ ּתוֹר‬button’ (not kftorim)
To know if a noun has ◌  ָ or ◌  ַ is a matter of recognizing characteristic
10 patterns – or consulting a dictionary.
 c The plural of nouns of the pattern ‫( סֶ ֶרט‬segolate nouns) The feminine
and plural of

Most nouns are stressed on the last syllable, e.g. ‫‘ מָ קוֹם‬place’. But many nouns
nouns, with ◌ ֶ (termed the ‘segol’ vowel) as their last vowel, are stressed
on the next-to-last syllable. These are called segolate nouns. Here are some
examples (we have marked the stress by ):
  
‫ סֶ ֶרט‬film  ‫ סֵ פֶ ר‬book  ‫ טוֹפֶ ס‬form
Note: Some segolates actually have -a- as their last vowel or as both vowels – owing
to the presence of a so-called guttural letter: ‫ ע‬,‫ ח‬,‫ה‬, e.g. ‫‘ צַ הַ ''ל‬Israel Defense
Forces’, ‫‘ גוֹבַ ּה‬height’, ‫‘ ּפַ חַ ד‬fear’, ‫‘ רוֹחַ ב‬width’, ‫‘ ּפֶ ַרח‬flower’, ‫‘ נַעַ ר‬lad’, ‫‘ קֶ ַרע‬rift’.
But they are still segolates in every other respect.

The plural of segolate nouns involves an internal change in their vowels:

1. The first vowel is usually dropped, forming a variant of the ‘third-from-

the-end rule’ (recall the preceding subsection), as the stress has now
been shifted onto the plural ending.
2. The second vowel becomes a:

‫סְ ָר ִטים‬ ← ‫סֶ ֶרט‬ ‫ְרמָ זִ ים‬ ← ‫ֶרמֶ ז‬

séret → sratim rémez → r’mazim
‫סְ פָ ִרים‬ ‫סֵ פֶ ר‬ ‫ְׁשבָ ִטים‬ ‫ׁשֵ בֶ ט‬
séfer sfarim shévet shvatim
‫ְטפָ סִ ים‬ ‫טוֹפֶ ס‬ ‫גְ ָרנוֹת‬ ‫גו ֶֹרן‬
tófes tfasim góren granot
‫ּפְ ָר ִחים‬ ‫ּפֶ ַרח‬ ‫צְ לָעִ ים‬ ‫צֵ לַע‬
pérach prachim tséla tsla’im

Observe that in all but one of these examples the plural ending is ‫ים‬.
Only a handful use ‫ ות‬in the plural.

Further examples:

‫ּבֶ ֶרז‬ tap ‫ׁשֶ מֶ ן‬ oil

‫ּתֶ ֶדר‬ frequency ‫יֵצֶ ר‬ drive
‫ׂשֵ כֶל‬ intelligence ‫צוֹמֶ ת‬ junction
‫צוֹפֶ ן‬ code ‫ׁשֶ קַ ע‬ socket
‫ׁשֶ בַ ח‬ praise ‫נוֹהַ ל‬ procedure

11
Level One As with nouns like ‫ ָדבָ ר‬in 7b, segolates that begin with one of the four
letters ‫ ע‬,‫ ח‬,‫ ה‬,‫‘( א‬guttural’ letters) do not allow the first vowel to be
dropped. Instead it usually becomes a:

‫ע ֲָרבִ ים~עֶ ֶרב‬ evening ‫ֲחל ִָקים~חֵ לֶק‬ part

‫חֲבָ לִ ים~חֶ בֶ ל‬ rope ‫א ֲָרזִ ים~אֶ ֶרז‬ cedar

See 60c for another type of segolate, ending in the feminine suffix ‫ת‬, such
as ‫‘ ַדי ֶילֶת‬air stewardess’, ‫ׁשלַחַ ת‬
ְ ‫‘ ִמ‬delegation’, ‫‘ מָ סו ֶֹרת‬tradition’.
Another, much smaller group of feminine nouns, stressed on the last syllable,
behaves rather like segolates, e.g.:

‫ֹת~ׁשכְ בָ ה‬
ִ ‫ְׁשכָבו‬ layer
‫ֹת~ד ְמעָ ה‬
ִ ‫ְדמָ עו‬ tear
‫ֹת~ׂש ְמלָה‬
ִ ‫ְׂשמָ לו‬ dress
‫חֲבָ רוֹת~חֶ בְ ָרה‬ firm, company
‫עֲמָ דוֹת~עֶ ְמ ָדה‬ position

d The plural of nouns ending in ‫ּות‬

We saw in 7a that the plural of feminine ‫◌ית‬  ִ nouns is formed by first

dropping the ‫ ת‬and then adding ‫וֹת‬, thus ‫ּכַּפִ ית ← ּכַּפִ יוֹת‬.

Feminine ‫ ּות‬nouns, too, form their plural by dropping ‫ – ת‬but then add
‫יוֹת‬. Thus:
‫חֲנּות ← חֲנּויוֹת‬ store ‫סוֹכְ נּות ← סוֹכְ נּויוֹת‬ agency

Further examples:

‫ּתַ חֲרּות‬ contest ‫ּבַ גְ רּות‬ matriculation exam

‫אוֹמָ נּות‬ art ‫סַ ְמכּות‬ power, authority

e The feminine of nouns denoting people, e.g. ‫‘ מו ָֹרה‬teacher’

Virtually all nouns denoting people have a masculine and a feminine form,
e.g.:

‫מו ָֹרה~מו ֶֹרה‬ male teacher ~ female teacher

12 ‫ּכ ֹוכֶבֶ ת~ּכ ֹוכָב‬ male star ~ female star
The form of the feminine here largely depends on the form of the masculine. The feminine
As a rough rule: and plural of
nouns
1. Nouns of the ‫ מו ֶֹרה‬or ‫ ָדבָ ר‬or ‫ סֶ ֶרט‬pattern (see 7a–c) take ‫ ָ ◌ה‬:
‫מַ ְרצָ ה‬ woman lecturer ‫ְׁש ֵכנָה‬ female neighbor
‫יַלְ ָדה‬ little girl

2. Nouns for inhabitants of many long-established European and Near

Eastern countries take ‫◌ה‬
 ָ :

‫ַאנְגְ לִ יָה‬ Englishwoman ‫ע ֲָרבִ יָה‬ Arab woman

‫ְהּודיָה‬
ִ ‫י‬ Jewish woman ‫ִמצְ ִריָה‬ Egyptian woman

3. Nouns of the ‫ ּפַ עָ ל‬pattern (see 66) take ‫ ֶ ◌ת‬:

‫חַ י ֶילֶת‬ female soldier ‫ַג ֶננֶת‬ kindergarten teacher

4. Nouns of the ‫ ּפַ עְ לָן‬pattern (see 66) take ‫◌ית‬

 ִ , as do inhabitants of most
newer countries or those further afield:

‫ּפַ ְח ָדנִית~ּפַ ְח ָדן‬ coward ‫מַ ְדעָ נִית~מַ ְדעָ ן‬ scientist

‫יַּפָ נִית~יַּפָ נִי‬ Japanese ‫קַ נ ִַדית~קַ נ ִַדי‬ Canadian

5. Nouns ending in ‫ ַ ◌אי‬take ‫ ִ ◌ית‬:

‫עִ ּת ֹונַַאית~עִ ּת ֹונַאי‬ journalist ‫מַ רוֹקַ אִ ית~מַ רוֹקַ אִ י‬ Moroccan

6. Foreignisms take ‫ ִ ◌ית‬:

‫טּודנְט‬
ֶ ְ‫טּודנ ְִטית~ס‬
ֶ ְ‫ס‬ student ‫פְ ַרייאֶ ִרית~פְ ַרייאֶ ר‬ fool, mug
‫ּבוֹסִ ית~ּבוֹס‬ boss ‫ית~ט ֶר ְמּפִ יסְ ט‬
ְ ‫ְט ֶר ְמּפִ יסְ ִט‬ hitchhiker

7. Nouns shaped like present tense verbs behave like these verbs. See 72.

Other notable feminines:

‫‘ ּתַ לְ ִמ ָידה~ּתַ לְ ִמיד‬student’, ‫‘ ׂשָ ָרה~ׂשָ ר‬minister’, ‫‘ רוֹפְ ָאה~רוֹפֵ א‬doctor’,

‫ה~רווָק‬ ַ ָ‫‘ ַרווָק‬single man ~ single woman’, ‫‘ מַ ּכ ָָרה~מַ ּכָר‬acquaintance’

f The plural of foreign nouns

In foreign nouns the stress rarely falls on the plural ending. It remains on the
  
same syllable that is stressed in the singular. Hence, ‫ וִ יזוֹת‬,‫ ּבַ נ ְִקים‬,‫ּפְ ר ֹוי ְֶק ִטים‬.
See 36b for more about stress in foreign words. 13
Level One 8 The feminine and plural of adjectives

Virtually all adjectives have four forms: masculine singular and plural, and
feminine singular and plural. All but the first are marked by distinctive
suffixes and often by internal vowel changes as well.

a The simplest adjective pattern: ‫ ָדתִ י‬, ‫טוֹב‬

1. The simplest adjectives add the following endings, with no other changes
in spelling or pronunciation:*

Example: ‫‘ טוֹב‬good’
Fem. sing. ‫ָ ◌ה‬ ‫טוֹבָ ה‬
Masc. pl. ‫ִ ◌ים‬ ‫טוֹבִ ים‬
Fem. pl. ‫וֹת‬ ‫טוֹבוֹת‬

* Changes in nikkud can be ignored, except where there is also a change in

pronunciation.

2. A vast number of adjectives have the suffix ‫◌י‬  ִ . They are either created
from nouns by adding ‫◌י‬  ִ or based on some international word (with
‫ ִ ◌י‬taking the place of -ic, -ical, etc.). These adjectives, too, simply add
the following endings:

Examples: ‫‘ ָדתִ י‬religious’, ‫‘ פִ יזִ י‬physical’, ‫ְהּודי‬

ִ ‫‘ י‬Jewish’
Fem. sing. ‫ת‬ ‫ָדתִ ית‬ ‫פִ יזִ ית‬ ‫ְהּודית‬
ִ ‫י‬
Masc. pl. ‫ִ ◌ים‬ ‫ָדתִ יִים‬ ‫פִ יזִ יִים‬ ‫ְהּודיִים‬
ִ ‫י‬
Fem. pl. ‫וֹת‬ ‫ָדתִ יוֹת‬ ‫פִ יזִ יוֹת‬ ‫ְהּודיוֹת‬
ִ ‫י‬

Many adjectives with ‫י‬- are foreign loans. As if to show this fact, Hebrew
keeps the stress on the base of the word rather than on the ending. Hence
(marking stress by ):

   
‫ פִ יזִ יוֹת‬,‫ פִ יזִ יִים‬,‫ פִ יזִ ית‬,‫פִ יזִ י‬

14
Further examples: The feminine
and plural of
Like ‫טוֹב‬: ‫‘ נִפְ לָא‬wonderful’, ‫‘ ֶנאֱמָ ן‬loyal’, ‫‘ ַרע‬bad’, ‫‘ חָ זָק‬strong’, adjectives
‫‘ חַ ם‬warm’, ‫‘ יַצִ יב‬stable’, ‫‘ ִראׁשוֹן‬first’
Like ‫ ָדתִ י‬: ‫‘ י ִַמי‬marine’, ‫‘ ּכַלְ ּכָלִ י‬economic’, ‫‘ ִראׁש ֹונִי‬preliminary’,
‫‘ ּבַ ֲעיָיתִ י‬problematic’
Foreignisms: ‫‘ קוֹמּונִיסְ ִטי‬communist’, ‫ימי‬ ִ ִ‫‘ כ‬chemical’, ‫‘ נו ְֹרמָ לִ י‬normal’

b Adjectives ending in ‫◌ה‬

 ֶ

Like nouns (7a), adjectives ending in ‫◌ה‬

 ֶ drop this before adding a plural
suffix.

Example: ‫‘ נָאֶ ה‬attractive’

Fem. sing. ‫ָ ◌ה‬ ‫נָָאה‬

Masc. pl. ‫ִ ◌ים‬ ‫נָאִ ים‬
Fem. pl. ‫וֹת‬ ‫נָאוֹת‬

Further examples:

‫יָפֶ ה‬ beautiful ‫ֵּכנֶה‬ honest

‫ּכֵהֶ ה‬ dark ‫ְמׁשּונֶה‬ strange

c Adjectives of the pattern ‫‘ גָדוֹל‬large’, ‫‘ קָ טָ ן‬small’

In many adjectives the first vowel is a, and many of these belong to

the ‫קָ טָ ן‬-‫ גָדוֹל‬pattern, i.e. they drop their a when adding endings – the
‘third-from-the-end rule’. Thus, they resemble nouns of the pattern ‫ָדבָ ר‬
(recall 7b):

Examples: ‫‘ גָדוֹל‬large’, ‫‘ קָ טָ ן‬small’

Fem. sing. ‫ָ ◌ה‬ ‫( גְ ד ֹולָה‬gdola) ‫( ְקטַ נָה‬ktana)

Masc. pl. ‫ִ ◌ים‬ ‫( גְ דוֹלִ ים‬gdolim) ‫( ְקטַ נִים‬ktanim)
Fem. pl. ‫וֹת‬ ‫( גְ דוֹלוֹת‬gdolot) ‫( ְקטַ נוֹת‬ktanot)

15
Level One Further examples:

‫נָכוֹן‬ right ‫יָׁשָ ר‬ straight

‫נָעִ ים‬ pleasant ‫ׁשָ חוֹר‬ black
‫סָ גּור‬ closed ‫ּבָ רּור‬ obvious

However, just as with nouns, many adjectives are exceptions to this rule
and belong under 8a:

‫ ֲחזָקוֹת‬,‫ ֲחז ִָקים‬,‫ ֲחזָקָ ה‬,‫חָ זָק‬

Examples:

‫ָאדיב‬ִ polite ‫הָ גּון‬ fair

‫חָ זָק‬ strong ‫חָ כָם‬ wise
‫עָ צּום‬ huge ‫עַ ּתִ יק‬ ancient
‫וָתִ יק‬ veteran ‫יַצִ יב‬ stable

Just as with nouns (7b), there are two main reasons for this:

1. Either they begin with one of the four letters ‫ ע‬,‫ ח‬,‫ ה‬,‫‘( א‬guttural’
letters) which for ancient phonetic reasons do not allow the vowel to
be dropped;
2. or (very occasionally) the a has the vowel point ◌
 ַ rather than ◌
 ָ . These
have to be learned as you go along or you should consult a dictionary.

d Adjectives shaped like present tense verbs

Many adjectives have the shape of present tense verbs and inflect accord­
ingly. See 72a for details.

Example: ‫‘ נ ְִרגָׁש‬excited’
Fem. sing. ‫ֶ ◌ת‬ ‫נ ְִרגֶׁשֶ ת‬
Masc. pl. ‫ִ ◌ים‬ ‫נ ְִרג ִָשׁים‬
Fem. pl. ‫וֹת‬ ‫נ ְְרגָׁשוֹת‬

9 Noun + adjective phrases, e.g. ‫‘ ֶילֶד קָ טָ ן‬small boy’

For ‘small boy’, ‘wet dog’ and other phrases composed of adjective + noun,
16 Hebrew puts the noun first:
 ‫ֶילֶד קָ טָ ן‬ a small boy ‫ֶּכלֶב ָרטּוב‬ a wet dog Quantity
phrases
To distinguish these from whole sentences (‘Dogs are wet’), Hebrew tends
to insert the particle of being ‫הּוא‬, ‫ הֵ ם‬etc.:

‫ּכְ לָבִ ים הֵ ם ְרטּובִ ים‬ Dogs are wet

10 Quantity phrases

Quantifiers, expressing such notions as ‘a lot of, a few, more, how many,
twenty, all, the rest of’, usually precede their noun:

‫הַ ְרּבֵ ה גְ לִ ידוֹת‬ a lot of ice-creams

?‫ּכַמָ ה גְ לִ ידוֹת‬ how many ice-creams?
‫ְמעַ ט סּוּכָר‬ a little sugar
‫ִטיּפָ ה זְ מַ ן‬ a little time
‫עוֹד ּכוֹסוֹת‬ more glasses
‫עֶ ְׂש ִרים סְ פָ לִ ים‬ 20 cups
‫ּכָל הַ ִמכְ סִ ים‬ all the lids
‫ ֵג'יִים‬-‫רוֹב הַ ִדי‬ most of the DJs
‫ּכָל ְׁשָאר הַ זְ מַ ן‬ all the rest of the time
‫נו ָֹרא הַ ְרּבֵ ה ּתְ אּונוֹת‬ a great many accidents
‫הַ ְרּבֵ ה ְמאֹ ד ּתְ אּונוֹת‬ very many accidents

Generally, the same quantifier is used whether the noun is being treated
as something countable (as in ‘lots of e-mails, how many letters?’) or
something uncountable (as in ‘lots of e-mail, how much mail?’):

‫מֵ יילִ ים‬-‫הַ ְרּבֵ ה אִ י‬ ‫הַ ְרּבֵ ה אִ י מֵ ייל‬

lots of e-mails lots of e-mail
?‫ּכַמָ ה ִמכְ ּתָ בִ ים‬ ?‫ּכַמָ ה דוַֹאר‬
how many letters? how much mail?
‫ְמעַ ט ִמכְ ּתָ בִ ים‬ ‫ְמעַ ט דוַֹאר‬
a few letters a little mail
‫ַייקים‬
ִ ‫מֵ ַירב הַ ל‬ ‫מֵ ַירב הָ עִ נְייַן‬
most of the ‘likes’ most of the interest

17
Level One However, ‫ ּכַמָ ה‬in the (non-interrogative) sense of ‘a few, some’ is used only
with countable nouns, i.e. it cannot be used for English ‘a little’:

‫ּכַמָ ה ִמכְ ּתָ בִ ים‬ a few letters, some letters

A few quantifiers follow their noun, namely the numeral ‫‘ אֶ חָ ד‬one’ and a
few adjectives of quantity: ‫‘ ַרב‬much, many’, ‫‘ אֲחָ ִדים‬a few’, ‫ְמעַ ִטים‬
‘a few’.

‫סֵ פֶ ל אֶ חָ ד‬ one cup

‫סְ פָ לִ ים אֲחָ ִדים‬ a few cups
‫סְ פָ לִ ים ְמעַ ִטים‬ a few cups
‫ּפַ חַ ד ַרב‬ much fear

Notice that ‫ְמעַ ט‬ can either precede the noun or follow it. Following it,
it denotes ‘a few’, preceding it, it denotes ‘a few’ or ‘a little’.

11 Noun + determiner phrases (‘this  .  .  .  , the same  .  .  .  ,

any  .  .  .’)

Determiners are words that concern the identity of a noun, among them
‫‘ ָּכזֶה‬such, a sort of ’, ‫‘ זֶה‬this’, ‫‘ אוֹת ֹו‬that, the same’, ‫‘ אֵ יזֶה‬which?, some
kind of ’, ‫‘ ּכָל‬any’, ‫‘ ַאף‬not a single’.

‫ אוֹת ֹו‬and ‫ ּכָל‬here are not to be confused with ‫ אוֹת ֹו‬and ‫ ּכָל‬meaning ‘him’
and ‘every, all’.

With ‫‘ אוֹת ֹו‬that, the same’, the noun can be with or without ַ‫‘ ה‬the’ –
without affecting the meaning. And when it serves as a direct object,
colloquial Hebrew often inserts the direct object marker ‫אֶ ת‬, as is usual
before ַ‫ה‬:

‫ אוֹת ֹו ָדבָ ר‬or ‫ אוֹת ֹו הַ ָדבָ ר‬ the same thing (or that thing)
‫ חָ ׁשַ בְ ּתִ י אֶ ת אוֹת ֹו (הַ ָ)דבָ ר‬ I was thinking the same thing

Positioning:

‫‘ זֶה‬this, that’ and ‫‘ הַ הּוא‬that’ follow the noun:

‫ִמ ְקצוֹעַ זֶה‬ this profession
‫ָאדם הַ הּוא‬ָ ָ‫ה‬ that man

18
‫אוֹת ֹו‬
‘that, the same’, ‫‘ אֵ יזֶה‬which?, some kind of ’, ‫ּכָל‬ ‘any’ and most Agreement
other determiners must precede the noun: of ַ‫ה‬

‫אוֹת ֹו אִ ְידיוֹט‬ the same idiot

?‫אֵ יזֶה ְרחוֹב‬ which street?
!‫אֵ יזֶה מּוסִ יקָ ה‬ what music!
‫יֵׁש ּפֹ ה אֵ יזֶה ְט ִריק‬ There’s some kind of trick here
‫אֵ יזֶׁשֶ הּו ִקיׁשּור‬ some kind of link
‫ּכָל סִ ימָ ן‬ any (= the slightest) sign
‫ַאף ּכ ְַר ִטיס‬ not a single ticket
‫ׁשּום מּוׂשָ ג‬ no idea
‫ִמין ּפֶ תַ ח‬ a kind of doorway

‫‘ ָּכזֶה‬such’ (= ‘such a
kind of ’ and ‘what a’) can precede or follow the
noun. Formal style requires the latter, thus

‫הִ יּפוֹתֵ יזוֹת ּכָאֵ לֶה‬ such hypotheses

!‫צַ ִדיק ָּכזֶה‬ such a saint!

whereas colloquial style often prefers the former:

?‫צָריְך א ֹויְבִ ים‬

ִ ‫ ִמי‬,‫ֲבֵרים‬ ִ ‫עםִ ּכָאֵ לֶה ח‬ With such friends, who needs enemies?
‫ַאל ּתַ ע ֲִׂשי ָּכזֶה ּבַ ַלגַן‬ Don’t make such a mess

12–13 AGREEMENT

12 Agreement of ַ‫ה‬

a Agreement between noun and adjective: ‫‘ הַ ֶּכלֶב הָ ָרטּוב‬the wet dog’

When noun + adjective phrases like those in 9 have a definite noun – i.e.
one with ַ‫ה‬, or a name – the adjective automatically takes a ַ‫ ה‬prefix, too:

‫הַ ֶילֶד הַ קָ טָ ן‬ the little child

‫גְ בֶ ֶרת ְקווֶטׁש הַ זְ קֵ נָה‬ Old Mrs Kvetch

If the adjective does not show agreement for definiteness, we are dealing
with a whole sentence, not a phrase. Thus, contrast these:

Phrase ‫הַ לֶחֶ ם הַ טָ ִרי‬ the fresh bread

Sentence ‫הַ לֶחֶ ם טָ ִרי‬ the bread is fresh 19
Level One b Agreement between noun and ‫זֶה‬: ‫‘ הַ ֶּכלֶב הַ זֶה‬this dog’

‫זֶה‬ ‘this’ following a noun with ַ‫ ה‬usually becomes ‫הַ זֶה‬ :‫‘ הַ ֶּכלֶב הַ זֶה‬this
dog’. However, official or formal Hebrew tends to prefer ‫ – ֶּכלֶב זֶה‬though
it means absolutely the same.

13 Agreement for gender and number

a Adjective agreement

Any adjective relating to a noun must agree in gender, meaning that it

must adopt either masculine or feminine form in agreement with that noun.
Similarly, it must agree in number (singular or plural). Thus:

‫מֵ יכָל ֵריק‬ an empty tank

‫ְמג ֵָירה ֵריקָ ה‬ an empty drawer
‫מֵ יכָלִ ים ֵר ִיקים‬ empty tanks
‫ְמגֵירוֹת ֵריקוֹת‬ empty drawers

‫הַ מֵ יכָל ֵריק‬ the tank is empty

‫הַ מֵ יכָלִ ים ֵר ִיקים‬ the tanks are empty
‫הַ ְמג ֵָירה ֵריקָ ה‬ the drawer is empty
‫הַ ְמגֵירוֹת ֵריקוֹת‬ the drawers are empty

Even if a singular noun denotes a group, such as ‫ׁשּפָ חָ ה‬ ְ ‫‘ ִמ‬family’,

‫‘ צֶ ֶוות‬team’, ‫‘ ַועַ ד‬committee’, it is treated as singular for purposes of
agreement:

‫הַ וַעַ ד הֶ ְחלִ יט לְ תַ קֵ ן אֶ ת הַ ׁשֶ לֶט‬

The committee has decided to mend the sign

Pronouns require similar agreement:

‫ ֲאנִי עֵ ר‬I (masc.) am awake ‫ ֲאנִי עֵ ָרה‬I (fem.) am awake

Most adjectives take the following agreement endings (see details in 8):

fem. sing. ‫ ה‬or ‫ת‬ masc. pl. ‫ים‬ fem. pl. ‫וֹת‬

20
 b Agreement of verbs Agreement
for gender
Verbs agree with their subject, and not only in gender and number but and number
also in person – when the verb makes such distinctions available.

Present tense verbs distinguish masculine from feminine, and singular from
plural:

‫רּוסִ ים ּבָ אִ ים‬ Russians are coming

‫רּוסִ יוֹת ּבָ אוֹת‬ Russian women are coming

Past and future tense verbs additionally distinguish 1st, 2nd, and
3rd person, e.g.:

‫ֲאנִי אֶ ְמׁשוְֹך‬ I’ll pull

‫אַ ּתָ ה ּתִ ְמׁשוְֹך‬ You’ll pull
‫הּוא י ְִמׁשוְֹך‬ He’ll pull

For full details see 18 onwards.

c Agreement of ‘particles of being’

The particles expressing ‘is’ and ‘are’ (described in 2a) agree for gender
and number with their subject noun:

masc. sing. ‫הּוא‬ fem. sing. ‫הִ יא‬ masc. pl. ‫הֵ ם‬ fem. pl. ‫הֵ ן‬

Thus:

Masc. sing. ‫יו ָֹרם ׁשֶ לָנּו הּוא רוֹפֵ א‬ Our Yoram is a doctor
Masc. pl. ‫ְׂשמָ לוֹת הֵ ן הַ לּוק הַ חָ ָדׁש‬ Dresses are the new look

d Agreement of determiners: ‫ ָּכזֹאת‬, ‫זֹאת‬, etc.

Determiners (see 11) that point to someone or something, i.e. denoting

‘this, that (demonstratives), the same, such, a kind of’, agree for gender
and number with their noun. Most other determiners (e.g. ‫‘ ּכָל‬any, every’,
‫‘ ׁשּום‬no’) do not agree. Taking each determiner in turn:

21
Level One
Masc. sing. Fem. sing. Masc. pl.  Fem. pl.

this ‫זֶה‬ ‫זֹאת‬, ‫ זּו‬or ‫ז ֹו‬ ‫ אֵ לֶה‬or ‫אֵ לּו‬

that ‫הַ הּוא‬ ‫הַ הִ יא‬ ‫הַ הֵ ן הַ הֵ ם‬
that, the same ‫אוֹת ֹו‬ ‫אוֹתָ ה‬ ‫אוֹתָ ן אוֹתָ ם‬
such, a kind of ‫ָּכזֶה‬ ‫ ּכָזּו‬,‫ ָּכזֹאת‬or ‫ּכָז ֹו‬ ‫ ּכָאֵ לֶה‬or ‫ּכָאֵ לּו‬

Examples:

‫הַ מַ ְחׁשֵ ב הַ זֶה‬ this computer ‫הַ מַ ְחׁשֵ בִ ים הָ אֵ לֶה‬ these computers
‫הַ ְשׁמּועָ ה הַ זֹאת‬ this rumor ‫הַ ְשׁמּועוֹת הָ אֵ לֶה‬ these rumors

‫וִ ירּוס ָּכזֶה‬ a virus of sorts, ‫וִ ירּוסִ ים ּכָאֵ לּו‬ viruses of sorts,
such a virus such viruses
‫ּבְ ִחינָה ָּכזֹאת‬ a test of sorts, ‫ּבְ ִחינוֹת ּכָאֵ לֶה‬ tests of sorts,
such a test such tests
In formal Hebrew the determiner ‫( אֵ יזֶה‬in its various meanings) has a
feminine inflection ‫ אֵ יז ֹו‬and a plural inflection ‫אֵ ילּו‬. Colloquially, however,
‫ אֵ יזֶה‬is uninflected:
?‫ּבְ אֵ יז ֹו ָֹשעָ ה לְ הַ ְׁשּכִ יב ּתִ ינוֹק לִ יׁשוֹן‬ At what time should one put a baby
to sleep?
?‫ּבְ אֵ ילּו ִמ ְק ִרים יִינָתֵ ן ּפְ טוֹר‬ In which cases will exemption be given?
!‫אֵ יזֶה ַאכְ זָבָ ה‬ What a disappointment!
?‫ּבְ אֵ יזֶה ּתַ א ֲִריכִ ים‬ On which dates?
Note: Instead of ‫ ז ֹו‬and ‫ּכָז ֹו‬, one usually hears ‫ זּו‬and ‫ ּכָזּו‬in colloquial speech.

e Agreement of quantifiers

Most quantifiers generally do not agree with their noun. Thus:

‫הָ מוֹן נִסָ יוֹן‬ lots of experience
‫הָ מוֹן נִיסּויִים‬ lots of experiments
‫ּכַמָ ה אוֹטוֹּבּוסִ ים‬ a few buses
‫ּכַמָ ה מ ֹונִיוֹת‬ a few cabs
But those that are really adjectives do agree:
‫ִמ ְׂש ָר ִדים ַרּבִ ים‬ many offices ‫מַ ְדּפֵ סוֹת ַרּבוֹת‬ many printers
22 Some numerals agree, too. See 14.
 14 Numerals Numerals

a The numerals 1 to 10

The numerals for 1 to 10 agree for gender with their noun. But unlike
adjectives, the feminine is the basic form of the numeral, whereas the
masculine has to add the suffix ‫◌ה‬ ָ (for 3 to 10) – together with various
other adjustments:

Feminine numerals 1–10

‫ׁשֵ ׁש ּבַ נַנוֹת‬ 6 bananas ‫ּבַ ַננָה ַאחַ ת‬ 1 banana

‫ׁשֶ בַ ע ּבַ נַנוֹת‬ 7 bananas ‫ְׁשּתֵ י ּבַ נַנוֹת‬ 2 bananas
‫ׁשמ ֹונֶה ּבַ נַנוֹת‬ 8 bananas ‫ׁשָ לוֹׁש ּבַ נַנוֹת‬ 3 bananas
‫ּתֵ ׁשַ ע ּבַ נַנוֹת‬ 9 bananas ‫ַארּבַ ע ּבַ נַנוֹת‬ְ 4 bananas
‫עֶ ׂשֶ ר ּבַ נַנוֹת‬ 10 bananas ‫חָ מֵ ׁש ּבַ נַנוֹת‬ 5 bananas

Masculine numerals 1–10

‫ִׁשׁשָ ה סֶ נ ְְדווִ יצִ 'ים‬ 6 sandwiches ‫סֶ נ ְְדווִ יץ' אֶ חָ ד‬ 1 sandwich

‫ִׁשבְ עָ ה סֶ נ ְְדווִ יצִ 'ים‬ 7 sandwiches ‫ְׁשנֵי סֶ נ ְְדווִ יצִ 'ים‬ 2 sandwiches
‫ְׁשמ ֹונָה סֶ נ ְְדווִ יצִ 'ים‬ 8 sandwiches ‫ְׁשלוֹׁשָ ה סֶ נ ְְדווִ יצִ 'ים‬ 3 sandwiches
‫ּתִ ְׁשעָ ה סֶ נ ְְדווִ יצִ 'ים‬ 9 sandwiches ‫ַארּבָ עָ ה סֶ נ ְְדווִ יצִ 'ים‬
ְ 4 sandwiches
‫עַ ׂשָ ָרה סֶ נ ְְדווִ יצִ 'ים‬ 10 sandwiches ‫ח ֲִמׁשָ ה סֶ נ ְְדווִ יצִ 'ים‬ 5 sandwiches

For ‘2’, the free-standing form is ‫ׁש ַניִים‬ְ ,‫( ְׁשּתַ יִים‬masculine and feminine,
respectively) rather than ‫ׁשנֵי‬
ְ ,‫ ְׁשּתֵ י‬:
‫ ּבְ בַ קָ ׁשָ ה‬,‫‘   ְׁשּתַ יִים‬Two, please’
The feminine form, being the basic form, is also used for performing
a count:

.  .  .  ‫ׁשָ ל ֹוׁש‬ ,‫ ְׁשּתַ יִים‬,‫ַאחַ ת‬

b The numerals 11 to 19

The numerals 11 to 19 similarly have masculine and feminine forms, but

in colloquial usage the feminine does the job for both (and, again, is also
used for counting): 23
Level One
Fem. Masc.
16 ‫עֶ ְׂש ֵרה‬-‫ ׁשֵ ׁש‬
17 ‫עֶ ְׂש ֵרה‬-‫ ְׁשבַ ע‬
18 ‫עֶ ְׂש ֵרה‬-‫ ְׁשמ ֹונֶה‬
19 ‫עֶ ְׂש ֵרה‬-‫ ּתְ ׁשַ ע‬
Examples:
Fem. Masc.
‫עָ ׂשָ ר‬-‫ִׁשׁשָ ה‬ 11 ‫עֶ ְׂש ֵרה‬-‫ ַאחַ ת‬ ‫עָ ׂשָ ר‬-‫ַאחַ ד‬
‫עָ ׂשָ ר‬-‫ִׁשבְ עָ ה‬ 12 ‫עֶ ְׂש ֵרה‬-‫ ְׁשּתֵ ים‬ ‫עָ ׂשָ ר‬-‫ְׁשנֵים‬
‫עָ ׂשָ ר‬-‫ְׁשמ ֹונָה‬ 13 ‫עֶ ְׂש ֵרה‬-‫ ְׁשלוֹׁש‬ ‫עָ ׂשָ ר‬-‫ְׁשלוֹׁשָ ה‬
‫עָ ׂשָ ר‬-‫ּתִ ְׁשעָ ה‬ 14 ‫עֶ ְׂש ֵרה‬-‫ַארּבַ ע‬
ְ ‫עָ ׂשָ ר‬-‫ַארּבָ עָ ה‬
ְ
15 ‫עֶ ְׂש ֵרה‬-‫ חֲמֵ ׁש‬ ‫עָ ׂשָ ר‬-‫ח ֲִמׁשָ ה‬

‫עֶ ְׂש ֵרה ּפָ רוֹת‬-‫ ְׁשלוֹׁש‬13 cows  vs.  ‫עָ ׂשָ ר ְׁשוו ִָרים‬-‫ ְׁשלוֹׁשָ ה‬13 bulls
but colloquially: ‫ׁשוו ִָרים‬
ְ ‫עֶ ְׂש ֵרה‬-‫ְׁשלוֹׁש‬
These forms are a peculiar combination of the regular masculine or feminine
1–9 form (with a few adjustments) with a special word for ‘10’: ‫ עָ ׂשָ ר‬for
masculine, ‫ׂש ֵרה‬
ְ ֶ‫ ע‬for feminine. Notice that the ‫ ה‬ending appears on only
one bit of each numeral.

c The numerals 20 to 99

The numerals for the ‘tens’ (20–90) do not have separate masculine and
feminine forms. They make use of the same base as the masculine numerals
just listed – thus ‘30’ is ‘3’ with ‫ ים‬added. The exception is ‘20’, which is
based on ‫‘ עֶ ׂשֶ ר‬10’ and not on ‘2’:

60 ‫ִׁש ִׁשים‬ 20 ‫עֶ ְׂש ִרים‬

70 ‫ִׁשבְ עִ ים‬ 30 ‫ְׁשלו ִֹׁשים‬
80 ‫ְׁשמ ֹונִים‬ 40 ‫ַארּבָ עִ ים‬
ְ
90 ‫ּתִ ְׁשעִ ים‬ 50 ‫ח ֲִמ ִׁשים‬
For 21, 34, 77, etc. the order is ten + ְ‫ו‬ + unit. As with numerals like
‘1, 4, 7’, the unit agrees with its noun:

‫עֶ ְׂש ִרים וְ ׁשֵ ׁש קּופְ סוֹת‬ 26 boxes ‫עֶ ְׂש ִרים וְ ִׁשׁשָ ה קַ ְרט ֹונִים‬ 26 cartons
Two details must be pointed out:
1. For ‘21, 31’, etc. ‫ אֶ חָ ד‬or ‫ ַאחַ ת‬do not this time follow the noun:
‫‘ עֶ ְׂש ִרים וְ ַאחַ ת קּופְ סוֹת‬21 boxes’.
2. For ‘22, 32’, etc. one always uses the ‘free-standing’ form ‫ׁשנַייִם‬ ְ or
‫ ְׁשּתַ ייִם‬rather than ‫ׁשּתֵ י‬,
ְ ‫ ְׁשנֵי‬: ‫‘ עֶ ְׂש ִרים וְ ְׁשּתַ יִים קּופְ סוֹת‬22 boxes’.
24 For the hundreds and thousands, see 81 in Level Two.
 15 Partitives: ‘many of the  .  .  .  , all the  .  .  .’ Pronouns
and words
To express partitive ‘of’ as in ‘many of the  .  .  .  , some of the  .  .  .  , three of standing in
the  .  .  .’, Hebrew generally uses ‫ ִמ‬: for nouns

‫הַ ְרּבֵ ה מֵ הַ ׁשו ְֹט ִרים‬ many of the cops

‫חֵ לֶק מֵ הַ סֶ ֶרט‬ part of the film
‫ׁשֵ ׁש מֵ הַ מוֹרוֹת‬ six of the teachers
?‫ּכַמָ ה מֵ הֶ ם‬ how many of them?

There are a few exceptions: ‫‘ ּכָל‬all’, ‫‘ רוֹב‬most of’, ‫ׁשָאר‬

ְ ‘the rest of’ and
a few others require the construct (see 17c, d) instead of ‫ ִמ‬:

‫ּכָל הָ ע ֹולָם‬ all the world

‫ּכָל הַ ּתִ ִיקים‬ all the files
‫רוֹב הַ ְקלַסֶ ִרים‬ most of the binders
‫ְׁשָאר הַ גְ לּולוֹת‬ the rest of the pills

16 Pronouns and words standing in for nouns

a Definite pronouns

The personal pronouns have already been listed in 3. Commonly used for
referring back to something previously mentioned, they are also used where
English might say ‘it’ – ‫ הּוא‬for referring back to a masculine noun and
‫ הִ יא‬for referring back to a feminine:
!‫הַ טוֹּפ הָ ָאדוֹם? אֲבָ ל הּוא ֹלא נ ִָקי‬
The red top? But it isn’t clean!

‫אֵ יפֹ ה הַ ְמנו ָֹרה? הִ יא ּבְ תִ יקּון‬

Where is the lamp? It’s being fixed

?‫ אֵ יפֹ ה הִ יא‬,‫יֵׁש לְ ָך גִ יטָ ָרה? נּו‬

You have a guitar? So where is it then?

And similarly, one uses ‫אוֹת ֹו‬, ‫( אוֹתָ ה‬see 35b):

!ֹ‫יֵׁש לְ ָך ְׁשלַט? ָאז ּתֵ ן לִ י אוֹתו‬
Do you have a remote? Then give it to me! 25
Level One For a vaguer, less specific ‘it’, Hebrew uses ‫זֶה‬:
!‫ אֵ ין ּתְ ׁשּובָ ה? זֶה ָאיוֹם וְ נו ָֹרא‬,‫מַ ה‬
What, no answer? It’s awful!

!‫ַדי! זֶה סְ קַ נ ְָדל‬

Stop! It’s a scandal!

‫ּכָל הַ ּבַ ַלגַן ׁשֶ לְ ָך? זֶה ּבָ אוֹט ֹו מֵ ַאחו ָֹרה‬
All your mess? It’s in the back of the car

For ‘the person who’, Hebrew can use simply ֶ‫ זֶה ׁש‬or (for females) ֶ‫זֹאת ׁש‬:
‫ּבִ יקַ ְׁשּתִ י מַ ְרקֶ ר ִמזֹאת ׁשֶ י ְָׁשבָ ה לְ פַ נַי‬
I asked the woman in front of me for a marker
Note: ‫ זֶה‬can also mean ‘this (x)’ (plural: ‫‘ אֵ לֶה‬these’). Recall 11.

b Referring back to a clause

To refer back to an entire clause, colloquial Hebrew again generally uses

‫זֶה‬, but formal style uses ‫ זֹאת‬or ‫הַ ָדבָ ר‬:
‫הַ אקֶ ִרים ּפָ ְרצּו ֹלא ִמזְ מַ ן ל ֶָרׁשֶ ת אֲבָ ל הַ חֶ בְ ָרה מַ כְ ִחיׁשָ ה אֶ ת זֶה‬
Hackers recently broke into the network but the company’s denying it

‫ּבָ ַאחֲר ֹונָה ּפָ ְרצּו הַ אקֶ ִרים ל ֶָרׁשֶ ת אַ ְך הַ חֶ בְ ָרה מַ כְ ִחיׁשָ ה זֹאת‬
Hackers recently broke into the network but the company is denying this

.‫ זֹאת אִ יׁשֵ ר הַ יוֹם רֹאׁש הַ מֶ ְמׁשָ לָה‬.‫הַ ּבְ ִחירוֹת יִתְ קַ ייְמּו ּבְ אֶ חָ ד ּבְ מֶ ְרץ‬
The elections will be held on March 1. This was confirmed today by the
Prime Minister.
Note: Where ‫ זֶה‬is the object, as in the first of the foregoing examples, it requires
‫ אֶ ת‬as it normally does. ‫זֹאת‬, however, does not take ‫ אֶ ת‬in these circumstances.
After the prepositions ‫ על‬,‫ ל‬,‫ב‬, the pronoun ‫ ּכְָך‬is often used:
‫ ֹלא הִ תְ ּכַו ַונְּתִ י לְ כְָך‬ I didn’t mean that
?‫ מָ תַ י הו ִֹדיעּו עַ ל ּכְָך‬ When did they announce that?

Note: This ‫ ּכְָך‬is not to be confused with the adverb ‫ ּכְָך‬meaning ‘thus, in this way’.

With a verb of saying or conjecture, ‫ ׁשֶ ּכֵן‬can be used like English ‘so’:
‫ָאמרּו ׁשֶ ּכֵן‬
ְ They said so
26 ‫ ֲאנִי חוֹׁשֵ ב ׁשֶ ּכֵן‬ I think so
‫ ּכְָך‬,‫ זֹאת‬and ‫ ּכֵן‬are used in set ways in certain common adverbial phrases, Pronouns
notably: and words
standing in
‫ ִמׁשּום ּכְָך‬or ‫ּבִ גְ לַל זֶה‬ because of that for nouns
‫אִ ם ּכֵן‬ if so
‫ָלכֵן‬ therefore
‫ּבְ קֶ ׁשֶ ר לְ כְָך‬ concerning that
‫הַ סִ יּבָ ה לְ כְָך‬ the reason for this
‫ּכְ תוֹצָ ָאה ִמּכְָך‬ as a result of that
‫ּבְ עִ ְקבוֹת זֹאת‬ following that
‫כֵן‬-‫ לִ פְ נֵי‬or ‫קו ֵֹדם ָלכֵן‬ beforehand
‫ּכְָך‬-‫ ַאחַ ר‬or ‫מּכֵן‬-‫ר‬
ִ ַ‫לְ ַאח‬ afterwards
‫יַחַ ד עִ ם זֶה‬ at the same time (i.e. nonetheless)
‫ּבְ כָל זֹאת‬ nonetheless
‫ל ְַמרוֹת זֹאת‬ in spite of everything

c Indefinite pronouns: ‘someone, something, etc.’

‘Someone’ and ‘something’ are expressed by taking the interrogative

pronouns ‫ מַ ה‬,‫( ִמי‬see 39b) and adding ‫ׁשֶ הּו‬. Note the spelling – and the
stress on the first part of the word: ‫‘ מַ ׁשֶ הּו‬something’, ‫‘ ִמיׁשֶ הּו‬someone’
and, if one knows that the ‘someone’ refers to a woman: ‫ ִמיׁשֶ הִ י‬.

‘Somewhere’ is usually ‫( ּבְ אֵ יזֶׁשֶ הּו מָ קוֹם‬i.e. ‘in some place’), ‘some time, once’
is ‫ּפַ עַ ם‬, ‘somehow’ is ‫אֵ יכְ ׁשֶ הּו‬, and ‘for some reason’ is ‫מֵ אֵ יזוֹׁשֶ הִ י סִ יּבָ ה‬:

‫זֶה ּבֶ טַ ח ּבְ אֵ יזֶׁשֶ הּו מָ קוֹם‬ It’s definitely somewhere

‫ּתֵ ן צִ לְ צּול ּפַ עַ ם‬ Give a call some time
‫יַאדה‬
ָ ִ‫הִ גַעְ ּתִ י אֵ יכְ ׁשֶ הּו ל ְַט ַר ְמּפ‬ Somehow I reached the hitchhiking stop

d ‘Anyone, anything’

The equivalent of ‘anyone, anything’, etc. in a positive sentence often

involves ‫ּכָל‬. See also 105b. Thus:

‫ּכָל אֶ חָ ד ַיעֲזוֹר‬ Anyone will help

‫הּוא א ֹוכֵל ּכָל ָדבָ ר‬ He eats anything 27
Level One Where such ‘any-’ words are the focus of a question, Hebrew often uses
the words for ‘someone, something’:

?‫ִמיׁשֶ הּו ּבָ א‬ Did anyone come?

?‫מָ צאּו מַ ׁשֶ הּו‬ Did they find anything?

When ‘any’ is the focus of a negative, Hebrew has special negative pronoun
phrases (see also 100), thus:

‫ֹלא ָראִ יתִ י ַאף אֶ חָ ד‬ I didn’t see anyone

‫ֹלא עָ צַ ְרנּו ּבְ ׁשּום מָ קוֹם‬ We didn’t stop anywhere

However, where they are qualified by an infinitive, as in ‘anyone to ask, any­

thing to do’, Hebrew uses what is ostensibly an interrogative pronoun, thus:

‫אֵ ין לָהֶ ם מַ ה לְ הַ פְ סִ יד‬ They don’t have anything to lose

‫ֹלא ּתָ ִמיד יֵׁש אֶ ת ִמי לִ ְׁשאוֹל‬ There isn’t always anyone to ask
?‫יֵׁש אֵ יפֹ ה לָצֵ את לְ בַ לוֹת‬ Is there anywhere to go out to have
a good time?

A common example of this construction is the response to a thank-you,

‫‘ אֵ ין ּבְ עַ ד מַ ה‬You’re welcome’ (literally ‘There isn’t for what’). This kind
of infinitive is known as a ‘modal infinitive’. For other uses of modal
infinitives, see 105d.

e Question words

For question words, e.g. ‫ אֵ יְך‬,‫ מַ ה‬,‫‘ ִמי‬who, what, how’, see 39b. Also see 101c.

f Adjectives without their noun: ‫‘ הַ יָרוֹק‬the green one’

Where English might use the pronoun ‘one, ones’ in phrases like ‘green
ones, the green one, this one, which one?’, Hebrew lets the adjective or
other word stand by itself with whatever agreement is needed:

‫ ֲאנִי ַרק אוֹהֶ בֶ ת קָ ׁשוֹת‬,‫נֶפֶ ׁש‬-‫ּבֵ יצִ ים ַרּכוֹת זֶה גוֹעַ ל‬

Soft eggs are gross, I only like hard ones

?‫ הַ יְרּוקָ ה‬,‫אֵ יזֶה סִ יּכָה אַ ּתְ רוֹצָ ה‬

Which clip do you want, the green one?

‫ ָאז ְק ִחי אֶ ת זֹאת‬,‫ָאז הַ ִׂש ְמלָה הַ הִ יא ֹלא ּבְ סֵ ֶדר? נּו‬

28 So that dress is no good? Then take this one
For ‘the one that  .  .  .  , the one with  .  .  .’, Hebrew uses ‫ זֶה עִ ם‬, ֶ‫( זֶה ׁש‬and Possessives
in the plural, ‫ אֵ לֶה עִ ם‬,ׁ ֶ‫)אֵ לֶה ש‬: and constructs

‫ּתָ בִ יא לִ י אֶ ת זֶה עִ ם הַ חַ גו ָֹרה‬ Give me the one with the belt

?‫אֵ יפֹ ה אֵ לֶה ׁשֶ עו ִֹׂשים ּבִ יּפ‬ Where are the ones that go ‘beep’?

g Numerals without their noun

Numerals, like adjectives, can be used without mentioning the noun each
time. They will still agree:

?‫ַארּבָ עָ ה‬
ְ ‫לָמָ ה ִקיּבַ לְ ּתִ י ְׁשלוֹׁשָ ה ּתְ מָ ִרים וְ הּוא ִקיּבֵ ל‬
Why did I get three dates and he got four?

‫ֲאנִי ִמתְ לַּבֶ טֶ ת אִ ם לִ ְקנוֹת ׁשָ לוֹׁש א ֲִריזוֹת א ֹו ְׁשּתַ יִים‬

I can’t decide whether to buy three packs or two

h Quantifiers without their noun

Other quantifiers, too, can be used without a noun:

‫ ּתֵ ן לִ י עוֹד ְקצָ ת‬,‫יֵׁש לְ ָך הָ מוֹן‬ You have loads, give me a bit more

17 Possessives and constructs

a Possessive ‘of ’: ‫יו ָֹרם‬ ‫‘ הָ ָאח ׁשֶ ל‬Yoram’s brother’

Possessive ‘of’ (or ’s) is commonly ‫ׁשֶ ל‬:

‫הַ ּבֵ ן ׁשֶ ל הַ נ ִָׂשיא‬ the son of the President (the President’s son)
‫הַ סֶ לּול ִָרי ׁשֶ ל מַ ייק‬ Mike’s cell-phone

Notice that the word order is as with English ‘of’: the thing possessed
comes first.

‫ ׁשֶ ל ִמי‬denotes ‘whose?’ For example:

?‫ׁשֶ ל ִמי זֶה ׁשָ מָ ה‬
Whose is that there? (lit. Of whom is that there?)

?‫הַ ּבֵ ן ׁשֶ ל ִמי ִמתְ חַ ּתֵ ן‬

Whose son is getting married? (lit. The son of whom is getting married?) 29
Level One b Possessive ‘my, your’, etc.: ‫ׁשֶ לִ י‬ ‫‘ הָ ָאח‬my brother’

‘My’ is commonly ‫ׁשֶ לִ י‬:

‫הַ ֶּכלֶב ׁשֶ לִ י‬ my dog (lit. the dog of me)
‫הַ חֲבֵ ָרה ׁשֶ לִ י‬ my friend (lit. the friend of me)

‫ ׁשֶ לִ י‬is made up of ‫‘ ׁשֶ ל‬of’ + an ending representing ‫‘ ֲאנִי‬I’ – thus, ‘of me’.
These possessives follow the noun, just like ‫‘ ׁשֶ ל הַ נ ִָׂשיא‬of the President’
in 17a.

ַ‫‘ ה‬the’ is added to the first noun, because ‘my dog, my friend’ means
‘the dog of mine, the friend of mine’.
Note: ‫ חֲבֵ ָרה ׁשֶ לִ י‬without the ַ‫‘ ה‬the’ means ‘a friend of mine’.
The full list is as follows:

our ‫ׁשֶ לָנּו‬ my ‫ׁשֶ לִ י‬

your (masc. pl.) ‫ׁשֶ ָלכֶם‬ your (masc. sing.) ‫ׁשֶ לְ ָך‬
your (fem. pl., formal) ‫ׁשֶ ָלכֶן‬ your (fem. sing.) ‫ׁשֶ לְָך‬
their (masc. pl.) ‫ׁשֶ לָהֶ ם‬ his ‫ׁשֶ ל ֹו‬
their (fem. pl., formal) ‫ׁשֶ לָהֶ ן‬ her ‫ׁשֶ לָּה‬
Formal Hebrew commonly uses possessive suffixes, e.g. ‫‘ ּכַלְ ּבְ ָך‬your dog’
(literally, dog-you), rather than the separate possessive word ‫ ׁשֶ לְ ָך‬,‫ׁשֶ לִ י‬,
etc. For details, see 73b–c.

c The construct: set phrases and other uses

To make two nouns into a set phrase of the type ‘soccer game’, Hebrew
places them side by side, but in the opposite order to English: the noun
that does the qualifying comes last, just as an adjective follows its noun. The
whole thing is called a construct phrase or smichut, and the first noun is
called the construct noun or nismach:

‫ַדּורגֶל‬
ֶ ‫ִמ ְׂשחַ ק ּכ‬ soccer game
(Lit. game soccer. The word order is the same as in ‫טוֹב‬ ‫‘ ִמ ְׂשחָ ק‬a good game’)
To remember the order, just imagine that there is a ‫‘ ׁשֶ ל‬of’ between the nouns:

30 ‫ַדּורגֶל‬
ֶ ‫ִמ ְׂשחָ ק ׁשֶ ל ּכ‬ game of soccer
Further examples: ַ‫‘ סוֹף שָ ׁבּוע‬weekend’, ַ‫ּתַ ּפּוח‬ ‫‘ עֵ ץ‬apple tree’, ‫אֶ ֶרץ י ְִׂש ָראֵ ל‬ Possessives
‘Land of Israel’, ‫‘ אֵ ירּועַ צְ ָדקָ ה‬charity event’ and constructs

With particularly fixed set phrases, a hyphen is sometimes used:

‫יָם‬-‫ּבֶ גֶד‬ swimsuit

As with English set phrases and ‘of’, Hebrew construct phrases and ‫ׁשֶ ל‬
cover a wide range of semantic relationships. The following stand out:

1. made of, composed of, a measure of:

‫ִׁשינֵי זָהָ ב‬ gold teeth ‫ִטיּפַ ת גֶׁשֶ ם‬ raindrop

‫צֶ ווֶת רוֹפְ אִ ים‬ team of doctors ‫ּכַף מֶ לַח‬ a tablespoon of salt

2. function:
‫ִׂש ְמלַת חֲתּונָה‬ wedding dress
‫ּבּורה‬
ָ ‫ִמ ְׂש ַרד הַ ּתַ ְח‬ Ministry of Transport
‫עֲרּוצֵ י ְיל ִָדים‬ children’s channels
‫ּכ ְַר ִטיס אַ ְׁש ַראי‬ credit card
‫חוֹק הַ גִ יּור‬ the Conversion Law
‫ּכְ לֵי הַ ּתִ ְקׁשו ֶֹרת‬ the media

3. naming and branding:

‫ְמ ִדינַת או ֶֹרגוֹן‬ the State of Oregon ‫ִקיּבּוץ ְד ַג ְניָה‬ kibbutz Deganya
‫נַחַ ל הַ י ְַרקוֹן‬ the River Yarkon ‫יׁשי‬
ִ ‫ׁש‬-‫י‬ִ ֵ‫יְמ‬ Fridays
‫אֵ יזוֹר ּבִ ְני ִָמין‬ the Binyamin region ‫צֶ בַ ע ָאדוֹם‬ the color red
2004 ‫ׁשנַת‬ ְ the year 2004 ‫ִמפְ ֶלגֶת הַ לִ יּכּוד‬ the Likud party
‫עֲצֵ י או ֶֹרן‬ pine trees ‫מַ צְ לֵמַ ת קַ נוֹן‬ a Canon camera

4. an action (and the subject or object of the action):

‫ּתְ פִ ילַת נ ִָׁשים‬ women’s prayer ‫ְרעִ ַידת א ֲָדמָ ה‬ earthquake

‫ִחינּוְך ְיל ִָדים‬ children’s education '‫ַאהֲבַ ת ה‬ love of God
‫ְש ִטיפַ ת ּכֵלִ ים‬ washing dishes ‫ּבִ זְ ּבּוז ּכֶסֶ ף‬ waste of money

In colloquial usage, these are generally set phrases. Formal usage is freer:

‫עֲלִ ייַת הָ אֶ ּתִ יוֹּפִ יִים‬

the immigration of the Ethiopians

‫ְהּודים ּבִ ֵידי הָ רו ִֹמים‬

ִ ‫ְר ִדיפַ ת הַ י‬
the persecution of the Jews by the Romans 31
Level One 5. using certain nouns as the equivalent of an adjective, e.g.:

‫עָ נָק‬ ‫ִד ַירת עָ נָק‬ giant apartment

‫ִמ ְׁשנֶה‬ ‫ַוע ֲַדת ִמ ְׁשנֶה‬ subcommittee
‫ִחינָם‬ ‫ִׂשיחַ ת ִחינָם‬ free call
‫ּבְ כו ָֹרה‬ ‫הוֹפַ עַ ת ּבְ כו ָֹרה‬ premiere appearance
‫ׁשָ וְ א‬ ‫ַאזְ עַ קַ ת ׁשָ וְ א‬ false alarm

Some nouns (at least in certain senses) are only used in construct phrases –
as first element, e.g.:

‫יְלִ יד‬ ‫יְלִ יד חֶ בְ רוֹן‬ a native of Hebron

‫ּפְ נֵי‬ ‫ּפְ נֵי הַ יָם‬ the surface of the sea
‫ּבְ נֵי‬ ‫ּבְ נֵי הַ ׁשֶ בֶ ט‬ the tribesmen (as against ‫‘ ּבָ נִים‬sons’)
‫חַ בְ ֵרי‬ ‫חַ בְ ֵרי הַ חּולְ יָה‬ the members of the cell

d Construct suffixes

A construct phrase is often more than just a matter of putting two nouns
together. The first noun frequently requires a special construct suffix and/or
an internal change of vowel.

For words that already have an inflectional ending, there are two construct
suffixes:

1. The feminine ending ‫ ָ ◌ה‬always becomes ‫ ַ ◌ת‬:

‫אֲרּוחָ ה‬ meal ~ ‫עֶ ֶרב‬-‫אֲרּוחַ ת‬ evening meal (supper)
‫ּבְ ֵרכָה‬ pool ~ ‫ׂש ִחייָה‬-‫ַת‬
ְ ‫ּבְ ֵרכ‬ swimming pool

2. The plural ending ‫ ִ ◌ים‬always becomes ‫ – ֵ ◌י‬but the plural ending ‫וֹת‬
is unchanged:

‫סַ לִ ים‬ baskets ~ ‫סַ לֵי לֶחֶ ם‬ bread baskets

‫קַ ווִ ים‬ lines ~ ‫קַ ווֵי טֶ לֶפוֹן‬ telephone lines
‫אֲרּוחוֹת‬ meals ~ ‫עֶ ֶרב‬-‫אֲרּוחוֹת‬ evening meals (suppers)

For words without such an inflectional ending in their base form, such as
‫ ִקיּבּוץ‬,‫ מָ טוֹס‬,‫ ֶילֶד‬,there is no construct suffix, but some may undergo
an internal vowel-change, e.g. ‫‘ צָ בָ א‬army’ has the construct form ‫צְ בָ א‬, as
32 in ‫ּתּורּכִ יָה‬
ְ ‫‘ צְ בָ א‬the army of Turkey’. For details, see 73a.
When one wishes to put a construct phrase into the plural, it is usually Introduction
the first noun that becomes plural; the second noun remains unchanged
(and usually singular): ‫עֶ ֶרב‬-‫‘ אֲרּוחוֹת‬evening meals (suppers)’, ַ‫עֲצֵ י ּתַ ּפּוח‬
‘apple trees’.

e ַ‫ ה‬in construct phrases

To add ‘the’ to a construct phrase, formal Hebrew attaches the ַ‫ ה‬to the
second word:

‫אֲרּוחַ ת הָ עֶ ֶרב‬ the evening meal

ַ‫עֵ ץ הַ ּתַ ּפּוח‬ the apple tree

But colloquial Hebrew often treats set phrases such as these like a single word,
attaching ‫ ה‬to the front: for example, ‫עֶ ֶרב‬-‫‘ הָ אֲרּוחַ ת‬the supper (evening
meal)’, ‫ּבַ יִת‬-‫‘ הַ חַ יוֹת‬the pets’, ‫יָד‬-‫‘ הַ ּכְ תַ ב‬the handwriting’, ‫סֵ פֶ ר‬-‫‘ הַ ּבֵ ית‬the
school’, ‫ּכְ נֶסֶ ת‬-‫‘ הַ ּבֵ ית‬the synagogue’, ‫ ְיל ִָדים‬-‫‘ הַ גַן‬the kindergarten’. While
common and quite acceptable in casual speech, this practice is much
frowned upon in formal Hebrew.

18–23 THE INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB

18 Introduction

Most verbs have five major sets of inflections:

Three tenses: past, present, future

Imperative (i.e. request)
Infinitive (i.e. ‘to  .  .  .’)
For example – referring to the verb by its simplest form, the ‘he’ form of
the past tense:

‫‘   ִקיצֵ ר‬shorten’

The three tenses:

‫יְקַ צֵ ר‬ ‫ְמקַ צֵ ר‬ ‫ִקיצֵ ר‬

will shorten shortens shortened

Imperative: !‫ קַ צֵ ר‬ shorten!
Infinitive: ‫ לְ קַ צֵ ר‬ to shorten 33
Level One Most verbs also have a related ‘action noun’, e.g. ‫‘ ִקיצּור‬abbreviation’.
We have listed it together with the inflection tables, though in fact it is
not quite as regular as the inflections proper (for example, the action noun
for ‫‘ ָרקַ ד‬dance’ is not ‫ידה‬
ָ ‫ ְר ִק‬as expected but ‫) ִריקּוד‬. For the use of the
action noun, see 64.
Note: Verbs also have a gerund, related to the infinitive (e.g. ‫‘ קַ צֵ ר‬shortening’), but
it is too uncommon to be listed here. See 97 for its use.

In addition, any given verb must belong to a particular grammatical pattern,

known as a binyan. There are seven binyanim (see 25). Every verb also
has a root, with certain types of root being peculiar in some way, leading
to significant upsets in the verb’s inflections. But whichever binyan or root-
type they belong to, verbs form their tenses and other inflections in a fairly
uniform way; in the next five sections, we describe these shared features.

19 The past tense

a Form of the past tense

All verbs form their past tense by adding a suffix, as follows:

‫( נּו‬we) ‫( ּתִ י‬I)

‫( ּתֶ ם‬you, masc. pl.) ָ‫ ּת‬ (you, masc. sing.)
‫( ּתֶ ן‬you, fem. pl.) ְ‫ ּת‬ (you, fem. sing.)
‫( ּו‬they) no suffix (he)
‫( ָ ◌ה‬she)
Note: The suffixes in the first three lines (the 1st and 2nd person suffixes) are not
stressed. Those in the last two lines are sometimes stressed, depending on the type
of verb.

Using the verb ‫‘ קָ ם‬get up’ as a model:

 
‫ ֲאנ ְַחנּו קַ ְמנּו‬ we got up ‫ ֲאנִי קַ ְמּתִ י‬ I got up
 
‫ אַ ּתֶ ם קַ ְמּתֶ ם‬ you (masc. pl.) got up ָ‫ אַ ּתָ ה קַ ְמּת‬ you (masc. sing.) got up
 
‫ אַ ּתֶ ן קַ ְמּתֶ ן‬ you (fem .pl.) got up ְ‫ אַ ּתְ קַ ְמּת‬ you (fem. sing.) got up
 
‫ הֵ ם קָ מּו‬ they got up ‫ הּוא קָ ם‬ he got up

‫ הִ יא קָ מָ ה‬ she got up
34
We have marked stress by  on the first syllable. It is a feature of this type The past
of verb that stress never falls on the past tense endings. tense

The past tense inflects for person as well as for gender and number,
but unlike the present tense (see 20a) it cannot distinguish gender for ‘I’,
‘we’, and ‘they’.

A point to ponder: some of these suffixes bear a resemblance to the personal

pronouns themselves: ‫ י‬to ‫אנִי‬
ֲ , ‫ ּת‬to ‫אַ ּתָ ה‬, etc.
Note: If a verb ending in a nun takes a suffix ‫נּו‬-, one nun is sometimes omitted:
‫‘ יָׁשַ ן‬slept’ ~ ‫‘ יָׁשַ נּו‬we slept’ (pronounced yashAnu)

b Syntax of the past tense

The 1st and 2nd person forms in the past tense are often used without
a subject pronoun, particularly in formal style:

? ָ‫מָ תַ י קַ ְמּת‬ ‫הֶ ְחל ְַטּתִ י‬

When did you get up? I have decided

By contrast, the third person forms normally require ‫ הּוא‬or ‫ הִ יא‬or ‫ הֵ ם‬or
a noun:

?‫מָ תַ י הּוא קָ ם‬ When did he get up? ‫הִ יא קָ מָ ה‬ She’s got up

‫ַאחוֹתִ י קָ מָ ה‬ My sister got up ‫הַ ּפָ רוֹת קָ מּו‬ The cows rose
‫הֵ ם קָ מּו ּכְ בָ ר‬ They’ve got up already

c Meaning of the past tense

The meaning of the Hebrew past tense essentially covers four English past
tenses: ‘I got up, I have got up, I was getting up, I had got up.’ An added
‫‘ ּכְ בָ ר‬already’ or ‫‘ ּבְ ִדיּוק‬just’ can increase precision:
‫אֶ תְ מוֹל קַ ְמּתִ י ְמאּוחָ ר‬ Yesterday I got up late
?‫ ּבְ סֵ ֶדר‬,‫ּכְ בָ ר קַ ְמּתִ י‬ I’ve already got up, OK?
‫ ֲאנִי ּבְ ִדיּוק קַ ְמּתִ י‬, ָ‫ּכְ ׁשֶ אַ ּתָ ה ּבָ את‬ When you came, I was just getting up

35
Level One 20 The present tense

a Form of the present tense

All verbs form their present tense with suffixes of the kind used for nouns
and adjectives:

masc. sing. no suffix fem. sing. ‫ ָ ◌ה‬or ‫ֶ ◌ת‬

masc. pl. ‫ִ ◌ים‬ fem. pl. ‫וֹת‬
Using the verb ‫‘ קָ ם‬get up’ as a model:
‫ קָ ם‬ ‫  הּוא‬.  .  .  ‫  אַ ּתָ ה‬.  .  .  ‫ֲאנִי‬ I (masc.)  .  .  .  you (masc.)  .  .  .  he  .  .  .  
get(s) up
‫ קָ מָ ה‬ ‫  הִ יא‬.  .  .   ְ‫  אַ ּת‬.  .  .  ‫ֲאנִי‬ I (fem.)  .  .  .  you (fem.)  .  .  .  she  .  .  .  
get(s) up
‫ קָ ִמים‬ ‫  הֵ ם‬.  .  .  ‫  אַ ּתֶ ם‬.  .  .  ‫ֲאנ ְַחנּו‬ We  .  .  .  you (pl.)  .  .  .  they  .  .  .  
get up
‫ קָ מוֹת‬ ‫  הֵ ן‬.  .  .  ‫  אַ ּתֶ ן‬.  .  .  ‫ֲאנ ְַחנּו‬ We (fem.)  .  .  .  you (fem. pl.)  .  .  .
they (fem.)  .  .  .  get up

b Use of the present tense

The present tense verb ordinarily requires a subject pronoun (or a noun),
as in the preceding table.

The meaning of the Hebrew present tense basically covers the two English
tenses ‘I get up’ and ‘I am getting up’ (including the meaning ‘I am planning
to get up’):

?‫מָ תַ י אַ ּתְ קָ מָ ה ּבְ ׁשַ ּבָ ת‬ When do you get up on Shabbat?

?‫מָ תַ י אַ ּתְ קָ מָ ה מָ חָ ר‬ When are you getting up tomorrow?

21 The future tense

a Form of the future tense

All verbs form their future tense by using the following prefixes plus suffixes.
(The reason for listing these ‘skeletal’ prefixes without vowels is that the
36 vowels vary according to the verb pattern.)
 The future
Plural Singular
tense
.  .  .  ‫ נ‬we .  .  .  ‫ א‬I
‫  ּו‬.  .  .  ‫ ּת‬you .  .  .  ‫ ּת‬ you (masc.)
‫  י‬.  .  .  ‫ ּת‬you (fem.)
‫  ּו‬.  .  .  ‫ י‬they .  .  .  ‫ י‬he
.  .  .  ‫ ּת‬she

Using the verb ‫ קָ ם‬as a model:

‫ ֲאנ ְַחנּו נָקּום‬ we will get up ‫ ֲאנִי ָאקּום‬I will get up

‫אַ ּתֶ ן ּתָ קּומּו‬/‫ אַ ּתֶ ם‬you (pl.) will get up ‫ אַּתָה ּתָ קּום‬you (masc. sing.) will get up

‫קּומי‬
ִ ָ‫ אַ ּתְ ּת‬you (fem. sing.) will get up

‫הֵ ן יָקּומּו‬/‫ הֵ ם‬they will get up ‫ הּוא יָקּום‬he will get up
‫ הִ יא ּתָ קּום‬she will get up
1. Notice the similarities to the personal pronouns: ‫ א‬to ‫אני‬, and so on
for ‫‘ ת‬you’ and ‫‘ נ‬we’; but not for ‫‘ ת‬she’ or ‫‘ י‬he, they’.
2. Plural ‫ ּו‬is added to distinguish ‘you’ sing. from pl., and ‘he’ from ‘they’.
For this reason it is not found with ‫נ‬.
Note: In elevated style, a special form may be used for the feminine 2nd and 3rd
person plural (one form for both): ‫  נה‬.  .  .  ‫ת‬, e.g. ‫ֹמנָה‬
ְ ‫‘ ּתָ קו‬they or you will arise’.
We will disregard it here. It is listed in traditional grammars.

b Use of the future tense

The future tense has two main uses:

1. It can be a prediction, equivalent to the English future;

2. in the 2nd person it can be a request.

In practice, confusion between the two uses rarely arises.

Examples of a prediction:

‫ָאקּום‬ I’ll get up

‫ּתָ קּום‬ you’ll get up
‫ֹלא ּתָ קּום‬ you won’t get up
‫ּתָ קּומּו‬ you’ll (pl.) get up
‫ֹלא ּתָ קּומּו‬ you (pl.) won’t get up 37
Level One Examples of a request:

‫ּתָ קּום‬ get up!

‫ַאל ּתָ קּום‬ don’t get up!
‫ּתָ קּומּו‬ get up! (pl.)
‫ַאל ּתָ קּומּו‬ don’t get up! (pl.)

Notice that a negative prediction uses ‫לא‬, whereas a negative request requires
‫אל‬. For making a positive request, Hebrew also has the imperative form
(see 22). Colloquial Hebrew uses the imperative with just a handful of
verbs, whereas formal Hebrew uses it more extensively and tends to avoid
the future tense for positive requests.

In making requests the personal pronouns ‫ אַ ּתָ ה‬,‫ ֲאנִי‬, etc. tend not to be
used at all with the future tense verb:

!‫ּתָ קּום‬ Get up!

In predictions, on the other hand, colloquial Hebrew makes heavy use

of the personal pronouns:

‫ֲאנִי ָאקּום ִמיָד‬ I’ll get up right away

?‫אַ ּתָ ה ּתָ קּום ִמיָד‬ Will you get up right away?

By contrast, more formal Hebrew prefers not to use 1st and 2nd person
pronouns with the future (like the past), since the prefixes already make
it quite clear which pronoun is intended:

‫ ָאקּום ִמיָד‬ I’ll get up right away

22 The imperative

a Form of the imperative

The imperative has just three forms. These involve suffixes, in fact the same
suffixes as the 2nd person future tense, but without its prefixes:

Example:

masc. sing. no suffix ‫ קּום‬ get up! (to a male)


fem. sing. ‫ִ ◌י‬ ‫קּומי‬
ִ get up! (to a female)

masc. and fem. pl. ‫ּו‬ ‫ קּומּו‬ get up! (to many)

38 Note: The special fem. pl. form ‫ קו ְֹמנָה‬is rare so we have omitted it.
Suffixes aside, what the imperative looks like depends on the binyan involved The infinitive
(see under the individual binyanim in 26–32 and 50–9). As a rule of thumb,
the imperative resembles either the future or the infinitive.

b Use of the imperative

The imperative is found only in positive requests. In negative requests,

it is replaced by the future tense (see 40d). For the most part, it is formal
in tone, inhabiting fiction, documents, instruction manuals, cookbooks,
speeches and the like. Examples:

‫לְ חַ ץ לְ הַ תְ קָ נָה‬ Press to install ‫ְׁשמוֹר לְ בִ יקו ֶֹרת‬ Retain for inspection
‫צְ פּו ּבְ תַ ְקצִ יר‬ Watch highlights ‫הַ ְׁשאֵ ר ּפְ ָר ִטים ּכַאן‬ Leave details here

At the same time, a handful of verbs have an imperative in all-round

everyday use. These are usually of one syllable. Notable examples:

‫ּבוֹא‬ come! ‫זּוז‬ move!

‫חַ ּכֵה‬ wait! ‫לְֵך‬ go!
‫סַ ע‬ go! ‫עֲזוֹב‬ leave off!
‫צֵ א‬ leave! ‫קּום‬ get up!
‫קַ ח‬ take! ‫ֵרד‬ get down!
‫רּוץ‬ run! ‫ׁשֵ ב‬ sit!
‫ִׂשים‬ put! ‫ּתֵ ן‬ give!
Note: Most such one-syllable imperatives belong to one-syllable (‫ )ע''ו‬verbs or to
verbs that drop their first consonant.

23 The infinitive

a Form of the infinitive

The infinitive cannot be inflected. Whether one is addressing males or

females, one person or many, it is unchanged.

The infinitive’s distinguishing mark is a prefixed ‫ל‬, thus ‫‘ לָקּום‬to get up’,
‫‘ לְ ׁשַ פְ ׁשֵ ף‬to rub’. All the rest depends on the type of binyan and root, as
set out in section 25. 39
Level One b Use of the infinitive

The infinitive covers many of the uses of English ‘to  .  .  .’, including ‘it’s
hard to  .  .  .  , I want to  .  .  .’ (see 44, 45):

‫קָ ׁשֶ ה ל ַָדעַ ת‬ It’s hard to know

‫ֲאנִי רוֹצֶ ה ל ַָדעַ ת‬ I want to know

A further important use is in issuing lofty or detached instructions, e.g. to

a child, to troops, to groups of people, thus:

‫ּכּולָם לָקּום‬ Everyone get up!

‫ ְיל ִָדים‬,‫לָרּוץ‬ Run, children!
‫ֹלא לָזּוז‬ Don’t move!

The fact that the infinitive does not inflect in gender or number almost
seems to underline its loftiness and detachment from the addressee, by
comparison with the inflecting future tense and imperative.

However, the infinitive request is also commonly used in a question to

signify ‘should I/we?’ – with no hint of detachment:

?‫ לָצֵ את‬ Should we leave?

?‫ לְ הַ נ ְִמיְך אֶ ת הַ קוֹל‬ Should I lower the sound?

24 Root and base

Most Hebrew words are built around a root and a base. The base is the
basic form of a word after we have peeled off any meaningful suffixes or
prefixes. Thus, reading the following table from right to left:

Root Base Word with prefixes or suffixes

‫ם‬-‫ד‬-‫ק‬ ‫ ִק ֵידם‬promote ‫ ִק ַיד ְמּתִ י‬ I promoted

‫קַ ֵדם‬ ‫ אֲקַ ֵדם‬ I will promote
‫ם‬-‫ק‬ ‫ מָ קוֹם‬a place ‫ הַ מָ קוֹם‬ the place
‫ ְמקוֹמוֹת‬places
‫ ְמקו ִֹמי‬ my place

Note that the root is just a string of consonants; in itself it has no pro­
nunciation. Roots may have from two to five consonants. Thus the root
40 of ‫‘ קָ ם‬got up’ can be said to be the two consonants ‫ם‬-‫ק‬.
As will be seen, roots sometimes have a precise meaning. But more often, they Word
do not – and instead, display a loose sort of semantic ‘family resemblance’, patterns:
sometimes blurred by apparently unrelated words. binyanim and
mishkalim
Here are three examples of a root and its sometimes enigmatic variations:

‫ם‬-‫ד‬-‫→ ק‬
Verbs: ‫‘ קָ ַדם‬precede’, ‫‘ הִ ְק ִדים‬anticipate’, ‫ידם‬ ֵ ‫‘ ִק‬promote’,
‫‘ הִ תְ קַ ֵדם‬move forward’
Nouns: ‫‘ תַ ְק ִדים‬precedent’, ‫‘ ִמ ְק ָדמָ ה‬advance (payment)’
Adjectives: ‫‘ ִק ְד ִמי‬front’, ‫‘ קָ דּום‬ancient’
Adverb: ‫‘ קֵ ְדמָ ה‬eastward’

‫ר‬-‫ב‬-‫→ ד‬
Verbs: ‫‘ ִדיּבֵ ר‬speak’, ‫‘ נ ְִדּבַ ר‬reach an understanding’, ‫‘ הִ ְדּבִ יר‬control (pests)’
Nouns: ‫‘ ָדבָ ר‬thing, word’, ‫‘ דוֹבֵ ר‬spokesman’, ‫‘ ְדבו ָֹרה‬bee’, ‫‘ ִמ ְדּבָ ר‬desert’

‫ח‬-‫ק‬-‫→ ל‬
Verbs: ‫‘ לָקַ ח‬take’, ‫‘ נִלְ קַ ח‬be taken’, ַ‫‘ הִ תְ לַקֵ ח‬catch fire’
Nouns: ַ‫‘ לָקוֹח‬client’, ‫‘ מֶ קַ ח‬purchase’, ‫‘ לֶקַ ח‬moral lesson’,
‫‘ מֶ לְ קַ חַ יִים‬forceps, pincer’
Many roots have no obvious coherent meaning at all. For example, ‫ל‬-‫ב‬-‫ק‬
yields ‫‘ ִקיּבֵ ל‬receive’, ‫‘ קָ בַ ל‬complain’ and ‫‘ הִ ְקּבִ יל‬correspond’.

Many nouns and adjectives, especially foreign imports, have no obvious

root – for instance ‫‘ ּבַ יִת‬house’, ַ‫‘ ּכוֹח‬force’, ‫‘ נ ְַקנִיק‬sausage’, ‫‘ עֵ ז‬goat’,
‫‘ ׁשָ מַ יִים‬sky’, ‫ימי‬
ִ ִ‫‘ כ‬chemical’.

25 Word patterns: binyanim and mishkalim

a Introduction

As just noted, all verbs and very many adjectives and nouns have a recogniz­
able root, on which are imposed various vowels and consonants.

There is a variety of such imposed patterns. For the verb there are seven,
known as binyanim. For the adjective and noun, there are scores of patterns,
known as mishkalim, some common and some much less so.

What makes verbs particularly different from nouns or adjectives is that

all verbs, without exception, must adhere to one of the seven verb patterns
(thus, all verbs consist of a root skeleton on which is mounted a binyan),
whereas many nouns and adjectives have no particular root or pattern, 41
Level One and indeed are often imported direct from some foreign source. Examples
would be the nouns ‫ידיוֹט‬ ְ ִ‫‘ א‬idiot’ and ‫‘ ּבַ נְק‬bank’ and the adjectives
‫רּוק ִטיווִ י‬
ְ ‫‘ קוֹנסְ ְט‬constructive’ and ‫ַאקטּוַאלִ י‬
ְ ‘topical’.

b Functions or meanings of the verb patterns

There are seven binyanim:

1 ‫ּפָ עַ ל‬ 2 ‫נִפְ עַ ל‬
3 ‫הִ פְ עִ יל‬ 4 ‫הּופְ עַ ל‬
5 ‫ּפִ יעֵ ל‬ 6 ‫ּפּועַ ל‬ 7 ‫הִ תְ ּפַ עֵ ל‬
These names are a graphic representation of the past tense form of each
binyan. Thus ‫‘ ָאכַל‬ate’, ‫‘ לָקַ ח‬took’, ‫‘ נָׁשַ ק‬kissed’ all belong to the first
binyan, ‫ּפָ עַ ל‬, while ‫‘ הִ ְרּבִ יץ‬hit’, ‫‘ הִ ְט ִריד‬bothered’, ‫‘ הִ זְ ּכִ יר‬reminded’ all
belong to the third binyan, ‫הִ פְ עִ יל‬. (The choice of the letters ‫ל‬-‫ע‬-‫ פ‬to
frame the names of verb patterns is because the verb ‫ ּפָ עַ ל‬means ‘to act’.)

As the diagram suggests, the binyanim fall into three groups. These groups
are basically grammatical rather than semantic: that is, the group a verb
belongs to cannot tell us much about the meaning of that verb. Take, for
example, the verbs ‫‘ קָ בַ ל‬complain’, ‫‘ הִ ְקּבִ יל‬parallel’, ‫‘ ִקיּבֵ ל‬receive’, ‫הִ תְ קַ ּבֵ ל‬
‘be received’: the root ‫ל‬-‫ב‬-‫ ק‬is being put through the various patterns with
meanings that seem mostly arbitrary. Or take the verbs ‫‘ ּבָ טַ ח‬trust’, ַ‫הִ בְ ִטיח‬
‘assure’, ַ‫‘ ּבִ יטֵ ח‬insure’: That there is a connection between them is obvious,
but there is no ‘magic formula’ for what precisely the connection will be.

However, the sets of binyanim within these groupings do tend to be related

in meaning, as follows:

Three passives

1. NIF’AL is often the passive of PA’AL, e.g.:

‫ָגנַב‬ steal ~ ‫נִגְ נַב‬ be stolen

‫ׁשָ טַ ף‬ rinse ~ ‫נ ְִׁשטַ ף‬ be rinsed

2. HUF’AL is almost automatically the passive of HIF’IL, e.g.:

‫הִ סְ ּבִ יר‬ explain ~ ‫הּוסְ ּבַ ר‬ be explained

42 ‫הִ גְ ּבִ יר‬ increase ~ ‫הּוגְ ּבַ ר‬ be increased
3. PU’AL is almost automatically the passive of PI’EL, e.g.: Word
patterns:
‫ִחילֵק‬ hand out ~ ‫חּולַק‬ be handed out
binyanim and
‫ִׁשיּתֵ ף‬ share ~ ‫ׁשּוּתַ ף‬ be shared mishkalim

Two causatives

4. For a PA’AL or NIF’AL verb denoting ‘something happens’, there is

often a HIF’IL denoting ‘cause something to happen’, e.g.:

‫ג ַָדל‬ grow ~ ‫הִ גְ ִדיל‬ magnify

‫לָבַ ׁש‬ wear ~ ‫הִ לְ ּבִ יׁש‬ clothe
‫נִזְ הַ ר‬ take care ~ ‫הִ זְ הִ יר‬ warn
‫נִכְ נַס‬ go in ~ ‫הִ כְ נִיס‬ bring in

And for an adjective, there is similarly often a HIF’IL denoting ‘cause

something to be  .  .  .’, e.g.:

‫נָמוְֹך‬ low ~ ‫הִ נ ְִמיְך‬ to lower

‫ָרחָ ב‬ broad ~ ‫הִ ְר ִחיב‬ to broaden

Other frequent uses of binyanim

5. For PI’EL verbs denoting ‘agent x doing y to something’, there is

often an intransitive HITPA’EL denoting ‘y happening to something’
or ‘something or someone doing y’ without alluding to an external
agent, e.g.:

‫ֲאנִי ְמבַ ׁשֵ ל מָ ָרק‬ ~ ‫הַ מָ ָרק ִמתְ ּבַ שֵ ׁל‬

I’m cooking soup ~ the soup’s cooking

Similarly, ‫‘ ּבִ צְ עּו נְסִ יגָה‬they carried out a retreat’ (PI’EL) versus ‫נְסִ יגָה‬
‫הִ תְ ּבַ צְ עָ ה‬
‘a retreat took place’ (HITPA’EL), ‫‘ סוֹבְ בּו אֶ ת הַ ּכַפְ ּתוֹר‬they
turned the knob’ versus ‫‘ הַ ּכַפְ ּתוֹר הִ סְ ּתוֹבֵ ב‬the knob turned’.

6. For an adjective there is often a HIF’IL or HITPA’EL denoting

‘becoming x’:

‫צָ הוֹב‬ yellow ~ ‫הִ צְ הִ יב‬ become yellow

‫זָקֵ ן‬ old ~ ‫הִ זְ ִקין‬ grow old
‫יָׁשָ ן‬ old ~ ‫הִ תְ יַׁשֵ ן‬ become outmoded
‫ָרחָ ב‬ broad ~ ‫הִ תְ ַרחֵ ב‬ spread, expand

43
Level One 7. For a noun there is often a PI’EL denoting an action typical of that
noun, often equivalent to ‘-ize’, ‘-ate’:

‫ְקלִ יּפָ ה‬ peel ~ ‫ִקילֵף‬ to peel

‫גֶׁשֶ ר‬ a bridge ~ ‫גִ יׁשֵ ר‬ to bridge
‫סּוּבְ סִ ְידיָה‬ subsidy ~ ‫סִ יּבְ סֵ ד‬ to subsidize
‫מַ ְחׁשֵ ב‬ computer ~ ‫יחׁשֵ ב‬ ְ ‫ִמ‬ to computerize
‫ּפַ סְ טֶ ר‬ Pasteur ~ ‫פִ יסְ טֵ ר‬ to pasteurize
‫גּוגֶל‬ Google ~ ‫גִ יגֵל‬ to google

8. For PA’AL or PI’EL verbs denoting ‘doing something’, there is occasionally

a HITPA’EL verb denoting ‘doing something to oneself’ (the ‘reflexive’)
or ‘doing something to one another’ (the ‘reciprocal’), e.g.:

‫לְ ַגלֵחַ אֶ ת הָ רֹאׁש‬ ~ ַ‫לְ הִ תְ ַגלֵח‬

to shave the head to shave (oneself )

‫ַאחי‬
ִ ‫נָׁשַ ְקּתִ י אֶ ת‬ ~ ‫הִ תְ נַׁשַ ְקנּו‬
I kissed my brother we kissed (one another)

There are many false beliefs about the binyanim, such as that the PI’EL is
generally intensive and the HITPA’EL generally reflexive. In fact, the PI’EL
is rarely the ‘intensive’ of anything. Taking 100–200 dictionary verbs at
random, only one in five PA’AL verbs has a causative HIF’IL or an intensive
or causative PI’EL.

c Summarizing the chief functions of the verb patterns

The chief functions of the verb patterns can be summarized as follows.

(Note that this does not cover all verbs.)

PA’AL No distinctive function

NIF’AL Commonly passive of PA’AL
HIF’IL Cause <PA’AL, NIF’AL> to happen
Cause <adj.> to be
Become <adj.>
HUF’AL Near-automatic passive of HIF’IL
PI’EL Action typically associated with <noun>
PU’AL Near-automatic passive of PI’EL
HITPA’EL Intransitive of PI’EL
Become <adj.>
44 Reflexive or reciprocal of PA’AL or PI’EL
Some more examples (numbers refer to the numbering in 25b): Word
patterns:
4.
binyanim and
Based on PA’AL
mishkalim
‫‘ הֶ ְחּתִ ים‬sign (someone) up’, ‫‘ הִ פְ גִ יׁש‬introduce’, ‫‘ הֶ אֱכִ יל‬feed’, ‫הֶ ְחזִ יר‬
‘restore’, ‫ׁשּכִ יב‬ְ ִ‫‘ ה‬put to bed’, ‫‘ הִ כְ ּתִ יב‬dictate’, ‫‘ הִ ְדלִ יק‬kindle’
Based on NIF’AL

‫‘ הֶ עֱלִ יב‬offend’, ‫‘ הִ כְ נִיס‬put in’, ‫‘ הֶ עֱלִ ים‬conceal’, ַ‫‘ הִ ְרגִ יע‬calm’

Based on adjective

‫‘ הִ ְׁשּפִ יל‬belittle’, ‫‘ הִ ְק ִטין‬reduce’, ‫‘ הִ כְ ִׁשיר‬make fit’

5.
‫‘ הִ סְ ּתַ ֵדר‬sort oneself out’, ‫‘ הִ תְ ּפַ ּתָ ה‬be tempted’, ַ‫‘ הִ תְ נַּפֵ ח‬swell’,
‫‘ הִ תְ לַכְ לְֵך‬get dirty’
6.
‫‘ הִ ְרזָה‬slim’, ‫‘ הִ ְש ִׁמין‬get fat’, ‫‘ הִ ְׁש ִחיר‬blacken’, ‫‘ הֶ ְח ִׁשיְך‬grow dark’
‫‘ הִ תְ ייַקֵ ר‬get expensive’, ‫‘ הִ תְ עַ גֵל‬grow round’, ‫ַארְך‬ ֵ ְ‫‘ הִ ת‬lengthen’,
‫‘ הִ תְ חַ ֵדׁש‬get renewed’
7.
‫‘ אִ יּתֵ ר‬locate’, '‫‘ ִריצְ ' ֵרץ‬zip up’, ‫‘ ִמיסְ ּפֵ ר‬number’, ‫‘ סִ יּבֵ ן‬lather, fool’,
‫‘ ִמימֵ ן‬finance’, ‫‘ אִ ייֵׁש‬man’

d Function of the noun and adjective patterns

The sheer number of noun and adjective patterns (mishkalim), and their
openness to further additions, make it even harder to find meaning in them.
The clearest and most numerous are the action noun and denominal patterns
– nouns denoting action (such as ‫‘ ּבִ יׁשּול‬cooking’) and adjectives based
on nouns (such as ‫‘ י ִַמי‬marine’, from ‫‘ יָם‬sea’). See 64–5.

26–9 FORMING THE FOUR ACTIVE BINYANIM

The following are the chief forms for the four active binyanim, meaning
that they are used in active rather than passive constructions, (that is ‘Gil
ate the yoghurt’ as against ‘The yoghurt was eaten by Gil’):

PA’AL, HIF’IL, PI’EL, and HITPA’EL 45

Level One The remaining three binyanim, which are primarily passive, are set out
in 30–2.

The illustrations that follow involve the basic root-type. (Deviant root-types
will be illustrated in 50–9.)

26 PA’AL

a Two-syllable PA’AL

The PA’AL pattern is the only one of the seven that does not have the
‘burden’ of a present tense prefix or general binyan prefix. For this reason
it is also known as KAL, the ‘light’ pattern. Using the verb ‫‘ ּכָתַ ב‬to write’:

Past

Pl. Sing.

‫ּכָתַ בְ נּו‬ ‫ּכָתַ בְ ּתִ י‬

‫ּכָתַ בְ ּתֶ ם‬ ָ‫ּכָתַ בְ ּת‬
‫ּכָתַ בְ ּתֶ ן‬ ְ‫ּכָתַ בְ ּת‬
‫ּכָתְ בּו‬ ‫ּכָתַ ב‬
‫ּכָתְ בָ ה‬

Notes:

1. The suffixes consisting of a vowel (i.e. 3rd fem. sing. ‫ ה‬and 3rd pl. ‫)ּו‬
take the stress. All the other suffixes are unstressed. This is true of most
verb types, in all tenses. However, for the 2nd pl. forms newscasters,
teachers and their like insist on stressing the suffix, in accordance with
 
the Classical rules ‫ כְ ּתַ בְ ּתֶ ן‬,‫ּכְ תַ בְ ּתֶ ם‬.
2. The last vowel in the base drops when it loses its stress: not katava
but katva, not katavu but katvu.
3. Notice also that in most forms in the table the base vowels are a-a.
In fact, in nearly all 1st or 2nd person forms of the past tense, in all
binyanim, the last base vowel is likewise a.

Present

Pl. Sing.

masc. ‫ּכוֹתְ בִ ים‬ ‫ּכוֹתֵ ב‬

46
fem. ‫ּכוֹתְ בוֹת‬ ‫ּכוֹתֶ בֶ ת‬
Notes: PA’AL

1. The feminine singular is stressed ‫ּכוֹתֶ בֶ ת‬.
2. In the plural, instead of the expected kotevim, kotevot, we get kotvim,
kotvot. The stressed e has lost its stress to the ending, and drops out
as a result. This is a standard rule for the e vowel.

Future

Pl. Sing.
‫נִכְ ּתוֹב‬ ‫אֶ כְ ּתוֹב‬
‫ּתִ כְ ּתְ בּו‬ ‫ּתִ כְ ּתוֹב‬
‫ּתִ כְ ּתְ בִ י‬
‫יִכְ ּתְ בּו‬ ‫יִכְ ּתוֹב‬
‫ּתִ כְ ּתוֹב‬
Notes:
1. The vowel in the prefix of the 1st person (‫ )אֶ כְ ּתוֹב‬is odd one out: not
i but e. (Putting it technically, ‫‘ א‬lowers’ the vowel that goes with it.)
2. In this and other binyanim, except HIF’IL, stress is shifted onto the
suffix, if any, and as a result the vowel losing the stress is relegated to
a brief e or lost, thus:

tichtovi → tichtevi tichtovu → tichtevu

3. When the first root consonant is ‫ פ‬,‫ כ‬,‫ב‬, it will be soft rather than
hard, i.e. it will be ‘v, ch, f’. This is the result of a general rule: with
certain exceptions ‫ פ‬,‫ כ‬,‫ ב‬are soft after a vowel and otherwise hard.

Infinitive Imperative

‫לִ כְ תוֹב‬ masc. sing. ‫ּכְ תוֹב‬

fem. sing. ‫ּכִ תְ בִ י‬
pl. ‫ּכִ תְ בּו‬
Notes:
1. The infinitive prefix ‫ ל‬here is usually ִ‫ל‬.
2. A general rule for virtually the entire verb system is that the future,
the infinitive and the imperative share the same vowel pattern, thus:
!‫ יָקּום~לָקּום~קּום‬,!‫יִכְ ּתוֹב~לִ כְ ּתוֹב~ּכְ תוֹב‬.
Action noun 47
‫ּכְ תִ יבָ ה‬
Level One b One-syllable PA’AL, e.g. ‫‘ קָ ם‬get up’

Strictly speaking, one-syllable verbs (e.g. ‫‘ קָ ם‬get up’) are just a variant of
the PA’AL binyan, arising because they have a two-consonant root. But
they are sufficiently distinct to warrant separate treatment.
Note: The traditional name for verbs like these, with a two-consonant root, is ‫ע''ו‬
(ayin-vav) verbs, meaning that in place of the usual middle letter (the so-called ayin
letter) of the root these verbs sometimes feature a vav e.g. ‫קּום‬.

Past

 
‫קַ ְמנּו‬ ‫קַ ְמּתִ י‬
 
‫קַ ְמּתֶ ם‬ ָ‫קַ ְמּת‬
 
‫קַ ְמּתֶ ן‬ ְ‫קַ ְמּת‬

‫קָ מּו‬ ‫קָ ם‬

‫קָ מָ ה‬
For clarity, we have marked stress by  on the first syllable: in one-syllable
verbs, stress never falls on the past or future tense suffixes.

Present

Pl. Sing.

masc. ‫קָ ִמים‬ ‫קָ ם‬
 
fem. ‫קָ מוֹת‬ ‫קָ מָ ה‬
Stress here is peculiar: although the suffixes look just like adjective suffixes,
 
colloquial usage stresses the fem. sing. as ‫ קָ מָ ה‬instead of ‫קָ מָ ה‬. The result

is that ‘she got up’ and ‘she gets up’ are both ‫הִ יא קָ מָ ה‬.

Future

‫נָקּום‬ ‫ָאקּום‬

‫ּתָ קּומּו‬ ‫ּתָ קּום‬
 
‫יָקּומּו‬ ‫קּומי‬
ִ ָ‫ּת‬
‫יָקּום‬
‫ּתָ קּום‬
Here, and on the imperative below, we have again marked stress with an
48 accent mark to show that stress is always on the base, not on the suffix.
Exception: ‫‘ ׁשָ ר‬sing’, ‫‘ ָרב‬quarrel’, and ‫‘ ׂשָ ם‬put’ have the vowel ‫ י‬rather HIF’IL
than ‫ ּו‬in the future, imperative, and infinitive:
‫ ל ִָׂשים‬,!‫ ִׂשים‬,‫אָ ִׂשים‬.
Also, one important verb, ‫‘ ּבָ א‬come’, has ‫ ֹו‬instead:
‫ לָבוֹא‬,!‫ ּבוֹא‬,‫ָאבוֹא‬.
Imperative

masc. sing. ‫קּום‬


fem. sing. ‫קּומי‬
ִ

pl. ‫קּומּו‬
Infinitive Action noun
‫לָקּום‬ ‫ִקימָ ה‬

27 HIF’IL

All the binyanim except PA’AL and one-syllable verbs have a distinctive
binyan prefix. Binyan HIF’IL has a distinctive binyan prefix ‫ ה‬in its past
tense, infinitive, and action noun. Notice that the present, future, infinitive,
and action noun have something of their own in common: the use of -a- as
the vowel in the prefix. Using the verb ‫‘ הִ כְ נִיס‬to insert’:

Past

 
‫הִ כְ נַסְ נּו‬ ‫הִ כְ נַסְ ּתִ י‬
 
‫הִ כְ נַסְ ּתֶ ם‬ ָ‫הִ כְ נַסְ ּת‬
 
‫הִ כְ נַסְ ּתֶ ן‬ ְ‫הִ כְ נַסְ ּת‬

‫הִ כְ נִיסּו‬ ‫הִ כְ נִיס‬

‫הִ כְ נִיסָ ה‬
Notes:
1. In the past tense, the base vowel is ‘stress-dominant’, like the a in the
 
past tense of one-syllable verbs (see 26b), hence, ‫הִ כְ נִיסו הִ כְ נִיסָ ה‬.
2. The vowels are i-i (3rd person) or i-a. Similar vowel-alternation occurs
in the PI’EL binyan: i-e, i-a.*
* In fact, wherever there is a consonantal suffix, the adjacent vowel (i.e. the last
vowel in the base) will become ‘a’: ‫ הִ כְ נִיסָ ה‬as against ‫הִ כְ נַסְ ּתִ י‬. 49
Level One Present

Pl. Sing.

masc. ‫מַ כְ נִיסִ ים‬ ‫מַ כְ נִיס‬


fem. ‫מַ כְ נִיסוֹת‬ ‫מַ כְ נִיסָ ה‬

Notes:

1. The fem. sing. ending, ‫ה‬, is stressed, like a regular adjective or noun
such as ‫טוֹבָ ה‬. (The verb patterns shown so far have unstressed ‫ ה‬or
‫ת‬, and so do nearly all verb patterns.)
2. Present tense here is marked by ‫מ‬, as it is for all the remaining binyanim
(HUF’AL, PI’EL, PU’AL and HITPA’EL).

Future

‫נַכְ נִיס‬ ‫ַאכְ נִיס‬


‫ּתַ כְ נִיסּו‬ ‫ּתַ כְ נִיס‬

‫ּתַ כְ נִיסִ י‬

‫יַכְ נִיסּו‬ ‫יַכְ נִיס‬
‫ּתַ כְ נִיס‬

Just as in the past tense, the base of the future HIF’IL is stress-dominant
– the endings do not get the stress.

Imperative Infinitive
 
‫ הַ כְ נִיסּו‬,‫ הַ כְ נִיסִ י‬,‫הַ כְ נֵס‬ ‫לְ הַ כְ נִיס‬
The ‘binyan prefix’ is ‫( ה‬h), as in the past tense. Thus, one can view ‫לְ הַ כְ נִיס‬
as le + ha + BASE (‫)כְ נִיס‬.

Action noun

‫הַ כְ נָסָ ה‬

28–9 BINYAN PI’EL AND HITPA’EL

The family PI’EL, HITPA’EL, and the passive PU’AL (see 32) are closely
related in their prefixes and vowels, and they all require that ‫ פ‬,‫ כ‬,‫ ב‬as
50 the middle root-letter be hard (with a few exceptions).
 28 PI’EL PI’EL

PI’EL has no binyan prefix. Using the verb ‫‘ ּכִ ינֵס‬to convene’:
Past

 
‫ּכִ ינַסְ נּו‬ ‫ּכִ ינַסְ ּתִ י‬
 
‫ּכִ ינַסְ ּתֶ ם‬ ָ‫ּכִ ינַסְ ּת‬
 
‫ּכִ ינַסְ ּתֶ ן‬ ְ‫ּכִ ינַסְ ּת‬
‫ּכִ ינְסּו‬ ‫ּכִ ינֵס‬
‫ּכִ ינְסָ ה‬

As with the a vowel in binyan PA’AL, the vowel e drops when it loses its
stress, yielding not kinesa, kinesu but rather kinsa, kinsu.

Present

‫ְמ ַכנְסִ ים‬ ‫ְמ ַכנֵס‬


‫ְמ ַכנְסוֹת‬ ‫ְמ ַכנֶסֶ ת‬

The vowel in the present tense is ‫ ְמ‬, and similarly for the future and
infinitive.

Future

‫ְנ ַכנֵס‬ ‫ֲא ַכנֵס‬

‫ּתְ ַכנְסּו‬ ‫ּתְ ַכנֵס‬
‫ּתְ ַכנְסִ י‬
‫ְי ַכנְסּו‬ ‫ְי ַכנֵס‬
‫ּתְ ַכנֵס‬

Notes:

1. Notice that the prefix vowel becomes ◌ ֲ   with the ‫ א‬prefix.

2. Be aware of the difference between the future tense of PI’EL and
that of PA’AL: on paper, in unpointed Hebrew, the PI’EL future forms
‫ יכנסו‬,‫ תכנסו‬,‫ תכנסי‬are liable to be confused with the PA’AL future.
Imperative Infinitive Action noun

‫ ַּכנְסּו‬,‫ ַּכנְסִ י‬,‫ַּכנֵס‬ ‫לְ ַכנֵס‬ ‫ּכִ ינּוס‬ 51

Level One 29 HITPA’EL

Binyan HITPA’EL uses a distinctive binyan prefix. In the past tense, infinitive,
and action noun, it shows up as ‫הִ ת‬. In the present and future tense,
the additional prefixes ‫ ת‬,‫ א‬,‫מ‬, etc. swallow up the ‫ ה‬and the ‫הת‬. Using
the verb ‫‘ הִ תְ ַּכנֵס‬to assemble’:

Past

 
‫הִ תְ ַּכנַסְ נּו‬ ‫הִ תְ ַּכנַסְ ּתִ י‬
 
‫הִ תְ ַּכנַסְ ּתֶ ם‬ ָ‫הִ תְ ַּכנַסְ ּת‬
 
‫הִ תְ ַּכנַסְ ּתֶ ן‬ ְ‫הִ תְ ַּכנַסְ ּת‬
 
‫הִ תְ ַּכנְסּו‬ ‫הִ תְ ַּכנֵס‬

‫הִ תְ ַּכנְסָ ה‬

Unlike the binyan PI’EL, the base vowels are a-e (3rd person) or a-a – not
i-e, i-a.

Note: The reason: where there is a prefix, the adjacent vowel (i.e. the first vowel
in the base) will become ‘a’. Here, in the HITPA’EL, there is such a prefix, ‫הת‬.
But in the PI’EL, the past tense has no prefix, hence ‘i’. Similarly, wherever there
is a suffix, the adjacent (preceding) vowel will become ‘a’, hence: ‫ ּכִ ינַסְ ּתָ ~ּכִ ינֵס‬and
‫הִ תְ ַּכנַסְ ּתִ י~הִ תְ ַּכנֵס‬.
Present

‫ִמתְ ַּכנְסִ ים‬ ‫ִמתְ ַּכנֵס‬

‫ִמתְ ַּכנְסוֹת‬ ‫ִמתְ ַּכנֶסֶ ת‬

Future

‫נִתְ ַּכנֵס‬ ‫אֶ תְ ַּכנֵס‬

‫ּתִ תְ ַּכנְסּו‬ ‫ּתִ תְ ַּכנֵס‬
‫ּתִ תְ ַּכנְסִ י‬
‫יִתְ ַּכנְסּו‬ ‫יִתְ ַּכנֵס‬
‫ּתִ תְ ַּכנֵס‬

Imperative Infinitive Action noun

52 ‫ הִ תְ ַּכנְסּו‬,‫ הִ תְ ַּכנְסִ י‬,‫הִ תְ ַּכנֵס‬ ‫לְ הִ תְ ַּכנֵס‬ ‫הִ תְ ַּכנְסּות‬

 30–2 THE PASSIVE BINYANIM: NIF’AL, HUF’AL, PU’AL NIF’AL

‘The rabbi found it’ is an active sentence. ‘It was found by the rabbi’ is
a passive sentence, saying essentially the same thing as the active sentence
but with a different perspective on the action – and with the subject
switched around and the verb form changed.

Hebrew has three passive binyanim: NIF’AL, HUF’AL, and PU’AL. Examples:

‫זֶה נִגְ נַב‬ It was stolen

‫הּוחלַפְ ּתִ י‬
ְ I was replaced
‫ּבּוטלּו‬
ְ ‫הֵ ם‬ They were cancelled

NIF’AL is used commonly, though by no means always, as the passive of

PA’AL. It has several other important functions. HUF’AL and PU’AL are
generally used as the passive of HIF’IL and PI’EL respectively.

Exception: PU’AL in its ostensible present tense form (‫ ) ְמפּועָ ל‬also yields
some adjectives that are not passive at all, e.g. ‫‘ ְמיּוחָ ד‬special’, ‫ְמנּומָ ס‬
‘polite’ (see 72).

In colloquial usage, all these passives are somewhat less common: the active
binyanim are usually preferred.

‫ָגנְבּו אֶ ת זֶה‬ It was stolen

‫הֶ ְחלִ יפּו אוֹתִ י‬ I was replaced

However, NIF’AL is also employed for several non-passive verbs, such

as ‫‘ נִכְ נַס‬to enter’, ‫‘ נִתְ קַ ל‬to trip’, ‫‘ נִלְ חַ ם‬to fight’, ‫ִׁשמַ ט‬
ְ ‫‘ נ‬to slip off’, ‫נ ְִמנַע‬
‘to abstain’, and ‫‘ נ ְִר ַדם‬to fall asleep’. It also sometimes denotes ‘happening
by itself’ or ‘-able’, e.g.:

‫הָ אוֹר ֹלא נ ְִדלַק‬ The light didn’t turn on

‫הַ ּתוֹכְ נִית נִפְ ּתַ חַ ת‬ The program is opening
‫מַ ָדף נ ְִׁשלָף‬ A removable shelf
‫ְמכ ֹונַת גִ ילּוחַ נ ְִטעֶ נֶת‬ A rechargeable shaver

30 NIF’AL

NIF’AL, unlike the other binyanim, switches between two binyan prefixes:
‫ הִ י‬in the infinitive and imperative; ‫ ִנ‬in the present and past. 53
Level One We illustrate NIF’AL with the verb ‫‘ נִכְ נַס‬to enter’:

Past Present
 
‫ נִכְ נַסְ נּו‬ ‫נִכְ נַסְ ּתִ י‬ ‫ נִכְ נָסִ ים‬ ‫נִכְ נָס‬
 
‫ נִכְ נַסְ ּתֶ ם‬ ָ‫נִכְ נַסְ ּת‬ ‫ נִכְ נָסוֹת‬ ‫נִכְ נֶסֶ ת‬
 
‫ נִכְ נַסְ ּתֶ ן‬ ְ‫נִכְ נַסְ ּת‬

‫ נִכְ נְסּו‬ ‫נִכְ נַס‬
‫נִכְ נְסָ ה‬
Notes:

1. NIF’AL’s binyan prefix in the present and past tense is ‫ ִנ‬.

2. Notice that the vowel a does not drop out in the present plural:
‫ נִכְ נָסוֹת‬,‫נִכְ נָסִ ים‬.
  The dropping of a as seen, for example, in PA’AL (‫ ) ָּכנְסּו‬never affects
present tense verbs.
3. In the past tense, however, a drops: ‫ נִכְ נְסּו‬,‫נִכְ נְסָ ה‬.

Future

‫נִי ָּכנֵס‬ ‫אֶ ָּכנֵס‬

‫ּתִ י ָּכנְסּו‬ ‫ּתִ י ָּכנֵס‬
‫ּתִ י ָּכנְסִ י‬
‫יִי ָּכנְסּו‬ ‫י ִי ָּכנֵס‬
‫ּתִ י ָּכנֵס‬

Notes:

1. Some omit the letter ‫ י‬in the prefix, for example ‫ּתִ ָּכנֵס‬. Written without
vowel points, ‫תכנס‬, this is liable to be confused with PI’EL future tense
(see 28).
2. Observe the hard ‫כ‬. It is a peculiarity of the NIF’AL future, infinitive,
and action noun that ‫ פ‬,‫ כ‬,‫ ב‬as the first letters of the base are hard.
3. Be aware of the difference between the future tense of PI’EL and that
of NIF’AL:

(a) The PI’EL future as a whole can be confused on paper with the
NIF’AL future.
(b) The PI’EL prefix has the vowel ◌
 ְ while the NIF’AL prefix has ◌
 ִ .
54
 Imperative Infinitive HUF’AL
!‫ הִ י ָּכנְסּו‬,!‫ הִ י ָּכנְסִ י‬,!‫הִ י ָּכנֵס‬ ‫לְ הִ י ָּכנֵס‬
As with one-syllable and PA’AL verbs, the NIF’AL imperative and infinitive
are like the future. However, the binyan prefix ‫ הי‬is added, one of the
many ways in which NIF’AL is the odd-man-out. Many people spell this
as ‫ ה‬rather than ‫הי‬.

Action noun
‫הִ י ָּכנְסּות‬

31 HUF’AL

The HUF’AL has the same prefixes and vowels as its active counterpart,
the HIF’IL, except that u-a replaces i-i, i-a, and a-i throughout. Using the
verb ‫‘ הּוכְ נַס‬to be inserted’:

Past Present
 
‫הּוכְ נַסְ נּו‬ ‫הּוכְ נַסְ ּתִ י‬ ‫מּוכְ נָסִ ים‬ ‫מּוכְ נָס‬
  
‫הּוכְ נַסְ ּתֶ ם‬ ָ‫הּוכְ נַסְ ּת‬ ‫מּוכְ נָסוֹת‬ ‫מּוכְ נֶסֶ ת‬
 
‫הּוכְ נַסְ ּתֶ ן‬ ְ‫הּוכְ נַסְ ּת‬

‫הּוכְ נְסּו‬ ‫הּוכְ נַס‬
‫הּוכְ נְסָ ה‬
Future

‫נּוכְ נַס‬ ‫אּוכְ נַס‬

‫ּתּוכְ נְסּו‬ ‫ּתּוכְ נַס‬
‫ּתּוכְ נְסִ י‬
‫יּוכְ נְסּו‬ ‫יּוכְ נַס‬
‫ּתּוכְ נַס‬

Infinitive
‫לִ הְ יוֹת מּוכְ נָס‬
Neither HUF’AL nor PU’AL has a simple infinitive. Instead, they use the
infinitive of ‫‘ הָ יָה‬be’ + the passive adjective (set out in 69). There is no
imperative, either. 55
Level One 32 PU’AL

As already noted, the binyanim PI’EL, PU’AL, and HITPA’EL form a family.
They have similar prefixes and vowels and, above all, they all require that
‫ פ‬,‫ כ‬,‫ ב‬as the middle root-letter be hard (with a few exceptions). Observe in
particular that PI’EL and PU’AL have the vowel ◌  ְ in their various prefixes.

PU’AL, like the other passive binyan, HUF’AL, has the vowels u-a through­
out. It has no binyan prefix. Using the verb ‫‘ ּכּונַס‬to be convened’:

Past

 
‫ּכּונַסְ נּו‬ ‫ּכּונַסְ ּתִ י‬
 
‫ּכּונַסְ ּתֶ ם‬ ָ‫ּכּונַסְ ּת‬
 
‫ּכּונַסְ ּתֶ ן‬ ְ‫ּכּונַסְ ּת‬
‫ּכּונְסּו‬ ‫ּכּונַס‬
‫ּכּונְסָ ה‬
As with the a vowel in binyan PA’AL and e in PI’EL, the vowel a
drops when it loses its stress, hence not kunasa, kunasu but rather kunsa,
kunsu.

Present

‫ְמכּונָסִ ים‬ ‫ְמכּונָס‬


‫ְמכּונָסוֹת‬ ‫ְמכּונֶסֶ ת‬
The a vowel is kept even when there is a suffix; this is characteristic of
the present tense of NIF’AL and HUF’AL, too.

Future

‫נְכּונַס‬ ‫אֲכּונַס‬
‫ּתְ כּונְסּו‬ ‫ּתְ כּונַס‬
‫ּתְ כּונְסִ י‬
‫יְכּונְסּו‬ ‫יְכּונַס‬
‫ּתְ כּונַס‬

Infinitive

56 ‫לִ הְ יוֹת ְמכּונָס‬

 33 Direct and indirect object Object
markers
In English, some verbs take a direct object (‘Eat meat’) and some an indirect
object, i.e. one introduced by a preposition (‘Opt for octopus, look at the
leopard’). Such prepositions are relatively ‘empty’ of meaning: they have
either no meaning of their own (contrast ‘at’ in ‘look at’ with ‘at’ in ‘I’m
at the party’) or just a loose meaning (contrast ‘spoke to’ with ‘drove to’).
The same is true of Hebrew: some Hebrew verbs take a direct object,
whereas others take an indirect object introduced by a preposition with
little or no meaning.

Which verbs take which type of object is somewhat arbitrary, in both

languages. Thus ‫‘ ִחיּפֵ ׂש‬look for’ (indirect object in English) takes a direct
object in Hebrew; conversely ‫ׁשּתַ מֵ ׁש‬
ְ ִ‫‘ ה‬use’ (direct object in English) requires
an indirect object using ְ‫ּב‬:

‫ֲאנִי ְמחַ ּפֵ ׂש ּבֵ ייּבִ יסִ יטֶ ר‬ I’m looking for a baby-sitter
‫ּתִ ְׁשּתַ מֵ ׁש ּבְ טַ אּבְ לֶט‬ Use a tablet

For more on indirect objects and their prepositions, see 34b.

34 Object markers

a The direct object marker ‫אֶ ת‬

The Hebrew direct object is only literally direct when it is indefinite, as in:

‫קַ ח ּבָ ׂשָ ר‬ Take meat

‫קַ ח ּכִ יסֵ א‬ Take a chair

When definite (e.g. ‫‘ הַ ּבָ ׂשָ ר‬the meat’), it is generally introduced by the
special preposition ‫אֶ ת‬. This is known as the direct object marker. By
‘definite’, we mean (a) a noun with ַ‫ה‬, or (b) a name, (c) a definite pronoun,
and certain other types of noun described in 4b.

‫קַ ח אֶ ת הַ ּבָ ׂשָ ר‬ Take the meat

‫קַ ח אֶ ת ַדלְ יָה לְ סֶ ֶרט‬ Take Dalya to a film
‫קַ ח אוֹת ֹו‬ Take it
‫ַאחי‬ ִ ‫קַ ח אֶ ת‬ Take my brother
ָ‫אֶ ת ִמי לָקַ ְחּת‬ Who did you take? 57
Level One Thus, direct objects are sometimes introduced by an object marker; by
contrast, indirect objects nearly always are. See 34b.

In rapid speech, ַ‫ אֶ ת ה‬is often conflated to ta. This is sometimes written

as '‫ ת‬for colloquial effect, thus:

‫  ּתֵ ן לִ י ּתַ ' טֶ לֶפוֹן‬ Give me the phone

Note: ?‫‘ ִמי‬who?’ is considered definite, but not ?‫‘ מַ ה‬what?’ Thus ? ָ‫מַ ה לָקַ ְחּת‬
‘What did you take?’, rather than ? ָ‫אֶ ת מַ ה לָקַ ְחּת‬. The reasons are too complex to
set out here.

b Indirect objects with ְ‫ ל‬, ְ‫ ּב‬,‫ עִ ם‬,‫ ִמ‬,‫עַ ל‬

An indirect object is generally introduced by (‘governed by’) one of five

prepositions acting as indirect object markers, ְ‫ ל‬, ְ‫ ּב‬,‫ עִ ם‬,‫ ִמ‬,‫עַ ל‬, which are
used not in their regular sense of ‘to, in, with, from, on/about’, but in a
more abstract sense. There is often no corresponding preposition in English.
A sixth preposition, ְ‫ּכ‬, has the sense of ‘as’, meaning ‘in the role of ’ or
‘as being’; it has nothing to do with ‫‘ ּכְ מ ֹו‬like’. Examples:

‫  ֲאנִי ע ֹונֶה ל ֹו‬ I’m answering him   ‫  ֲאנִי ְמקַ נֵא ּבְ מו ִֹרים‬ I envy teachers

Note: ‫ ל‬can also denote ‘for (the benefit of)’; this is not an indirect object, as it
does not depend on the verb being used, thus:

‫  ּתִ ְׁשמוֹר לִ י עַ ל הַ מוֹׁשָ ב‬Keep the seat for me

More examples of each of the indirect object markers:

ְ‫הִ ְמּתִ ין ל‬ wait for ְ‫ּבָ טַ ח ּב‬ trust in

ְ‫הִ ְק ִׁשיב ל‬ listen to ְ‫ָנגַע ּב‬ touch
ְ‫הֶ א ֱִמין ל‬ believe ְ‫הִ תְ מַ צֵ א ּב‬ be familiar with
ְ‫צִ יּפָ ה ל‬ expect ְ‫הִ סְ ּתַ ּכֵל ּב‬ look at

‫הִ תְ חַ ּתֵ ן עִ ם‬ marry ‫ׁשָ כַח ִמ‬ forget about

‫ִדיּבֵ ר עִ ם‬ speak to ‫מֵ ת ִמ‬ die of
‫ָרב עִ ם‬ quarrel with ‫ּפָ חַ ד ִמ‬ be afraid of

‫סָ מַ ְך עַ ל‬ rely on ְ‫ִׁשימֵ ׁש ּכ‬ serve as

‫חָ זַר עַ ל‬ repeat ְ‫ִמינָה ּכ‬ appoint as
58 ‫ׁשָ מַ ר עַ ל‬ look after ְ‫הִ צִ יג ּכ‬ represent as
With these object markers, unlike ‫אֶ ת‬, it makes no difference whether the Object
object is definite or indefinite: markers

‫ַרבְ ּתִ י עִ ם נֶהָ ג‬ I quarreled with a driver

‫ַרבְ ּתִ י עִ ם הַ נֶהָ ג‬ I quarreled with the driver

Many adjectives similarly take an object, in which case there is almost

always a preposition. For example:

.  .  .   ְ‫ל‬ ‫ׁשַ ייְָך‬ belonging to, relevant to

.  .  .   ְ‫גֵאֶ ה ּב‬ proud of
.  .  .  ‫מַ ּבְ סּוט ִמ‬ pleased with
.  .  .  ‫ְממּונֶה עַ ל‬ in charge of

Which preposition goes with which verb or adjective is not completely

arbitrary. Thus, words of fear and distancing take ‫מ‬, and words of giving
and communicating usually take ‫ל‬. But the only way to be sure is to
consult a good dictionary, for example Even-Shoshan’s Hebrew–Hebrew
dictionary.

The action nouns and abstract nouns corresponding to these verbs and
adjectives take the same corresponding prepositions – except that where
a verb would take ‫אֶ ת‬, the corresponding noun will generally use a construct
form (or occasionally ‫ )ׁשֶ ל‬rather than ‫אֶ ת‬. Examples:

‫ ִׁשימּוׁש ּבְ מַ כְ ִׁשיר‬ use of a device

‫ ֲחז ָָרה עַ ל טָ עּות‬ repetition of a mistake
‫ הִ תְ מַ ּכְ רּות לְ מַ ְחׁשֵ ב‬ addiction to a computer
ְ‫ ׂשַ ייָכּות ל‬ relevance to
ְ‫מּודעּות ל‬
ָ awareness of

as against

‫ ּכְ תִ יבַ ת מֵ ייל‬ writing e-mail

An exception: ְ‫‘ צו ֶֹרְך ּב‬need for’ (whereas the verb ‫‘ צָ ִריְך‬need’ takes ‫)אֶ ת‬

c Double objects

Many verbs can take two objects – one of them usually a direct object
and the other indirect, thus: 59
Level One .  .  .  ‫  מ‬.  .  .  ‫הִ ְר ִחיק את‬ ‫  ּב‬.  .  .  ‫ּכִ יּבֵ ד את‬
expel x from y honor x with y
.  .  .  ‫  עם‬.  .  .  ‫ׁשווָה את‬
ְ ִ‫ה‬ .  .  .  ‫  ל‬.  .  .  ‫את‬ ‫הִ תְ אִ ים‬
compare x with y adapt x to y
.  .  .  ‫  על‬.  .  .  ‫הִ פְ ִקיד את‬ .  .  .  ‫  כ‬.  .  .  ‫סִ יווֵג את‬
put x in charge of y classify x as y

Several verbs can take two indirect objects and a few allow two direct
objects, e.g.:

.  .  .  ‫  עַ ל‬.  .  .  ‫ל‬
‫ הו ָֹדה‬ thank x for y
?‫ ִמי לִ ימֵ ד אוֹתָ ְך ע ֲָרבִ ית‬ Who taught you Arabic?
‫ ֲאנִי ַאעֲבִ יר אֶ ת הַ ְיל ִָדים אֶ ת הַ ּכְ בִ יׁש‬ I’ll take the kids across the street

Which object comes first is partly a matter of length and focus. Similarly,
the positioning of adverbs in a sentence is far more flexible (and subtle)
than in English. This is all beyond the scope of this book. A few broad
guidelines must suffice:
1. If there are two indefinite object nouns, the direct object generally
comes first:

‫ ׁשָ ל ְַחנּו חֲבִ ילוֹת לְ חַ ייָלִ ים‬ We sent packages to soldiers

2. Pronoun and noun: the pronoun comes first, especially with ‫ את‬,‫ ל‬,‫ב‬,
because it is felt to be lighter:

‫ ׁשָ לְ חּו לִ י אִ יחּולִ ים‬ They sent me good wishes

‫ ּתֵ ן אוֹתָ ם לִ צְ ָדקָ ה‬ Give them to charity

3. With two pronouns: ‫ ב‬and ‫ ל‬usually come before ‫את‬, and all three
tend to precede ‫ על‬,‫ אל‬,‫מ‬, thus:

‫ ּתַ ּכִ יר לָנּו אוֹת ֹו‬ Introduce him to us

‫ ּתַ ְראֶ ה לִ י אוֹת ֹו‬ Show it to me
ָ‫ זֶה י ְַרגִ יל אוֹתְ ָך אֵ ילֶיה‬ This will get you used to her

35 Preposition + suffix

When the prepositions ְ‫ ּב‬and ְ‫ ל‬or, indeed, any of the prepositions introduce
one of the personal pronouns (‫ אַ ּתָ ה‬,‫אנִי‬ ֲ , etc.) listed in section 3, the
pronoun has to be in the form of a suffix. In other words, Hebrew does
not allow ‫ ּבְ הֵ ם‬,‫ לְ אַ ּתָ ה‬for saying ‘to you’ or ‘in them’; instead of ‫אַ ּתָ ה‬
60 comes the suffix ‫ָך‬, and so on.
An exception is ‫‘ זֶה‬it’, which does not change its form. Thus one has: Preposition +
suffix
‫ לְ זֶה‬ to it ‫  ִמזֶה‬ from it

a Preposition + suffix: ‫לִ י‬ ,‫ּבִ י‬, etc.

In the case of ְ‫ ּב‬and ְ‫ל‬, the suffix is the same as with ‫( ׁשֶ ל‬see 17b):
 
1st ‫ ּבָ נּו‬ ‫ּבִ י‬ ‫ לָנּו‬ ‫לִ י‬
2nd masc. ‫ ּבָ כֶם‬ ‫ּבְ ָך‬ ‫ ָלכֶם‬ ‫לְ ָך‬
2nd fem. ‫ ּבָ כֶן‬ ‫ּבָ ְך‬ ‫ ָלכֶן‬ ‫לְָך‬
3rd masc. ‫ ּבָ הֶ ם‬ ‫ּב ֹו‬ ‫ לָהֶ ם‬ ‫ל ֹו‬
3rd fem. ‫ ּבָ הֶ ן‬ ‫ּבָ ּה‬ ‫ לָהֶ ן‬ ‫לָּה‬
Notice that the stress for the ‘we’ form, ‫ ּבָ נּו‬and ‫לָנּו‬, is never on the ‫נּו‬.
Not surprisingly, the same is true of ‫ נּו‬in verbs, and of ‫אנ ְַחנּו‬
ֲ.
However, the suffixed form of ְ‫ ל‬is ‫ אֵ לֶיָך‬,‫אֵ לַי‬, etc. (as in 35e) when using
verbs of motion or connection, such as ‫‘ ּבָ א‬come’, ‫‘ הִ צְ טָ ֵרף‬join’, ‫צִ לְ צֵ ל‬
‘phone’, ‫‘ ִדיּבֵ ר‬speak’, ‫‘ הִ תְ ייַחֵ ס‬relate to, treat, refer to’:

?‫מָ תַ י אַ ּתְ קוֹפֶ צֶ ת אֵ לָיו‬ When are you popping over to him?
?‫הַ ּבֵ ן ּכָתַ ב אֵ ַליְִך‬ Has your son written to you?
‫קַ ל לְ הִ תְ ייַחֵ ס אֵ לֵיהֶ ם‬ It’s easy to relate to them

b Preposition + suffix: ‫אוֹתִ י‬ ,ֹ‫ אוֹתו‬, etc.

To express the direct object ‘me, him’, etc., the direct object marker ‫ אֶ ת‬is
used with a suffix. But ‫ אֶ ת‬becomes  .  .  .  ‫ אוֹת‬except for 2nd person pl.*.
Suffixes are the same as in 35a, except that ‘they’ is ‫◌ם‬  ָ and ‫◌ן‬
 ָ , not ‫◌הֶ ם‬
 ָ
and ‫◌הֶ ן‬
 ָ .

1st ‫אוֹתָ נּו‬ ‫אוֹתִ י‬

2nd masc. ‫אֶ תְ כֶם‬ ‫אוֹתְ ָך‬
2nd fem. ‫אֶ תְ כֶן‬ ‫אוֹתָ ְך‬
3rd masc. ‫אוֹתָ ם‬ ‫אוֹת ֹו‬
3rd fem. ‫אוֹתָ ן‬ ‫אוֹתָ ּה‬
61
Level One Examples:

‫סִ יל ְַקּתִ י אוֹת ֹו‬ I threw him out

‫קַ ח אוֹתָ נּו‬ Take us!
*  Colloquial speech often sidesteps the anomaly by using ‫אוֹתְ כֶם‬.

c Preposition + suffix: ‫ עִ ם‬and ‫ִמ‬

‫עִ ם‬and ‫ ִמ‬, whether meaning ‘with’ and ‘from’ or merely functioning as
indirect object markers, have the following suffixed forms:

1st ‫ אִ ּתָ נּו‬ ‫אִ ּתִ י‬ ‫ממֶ נּו‬/‫נּו‬

ִ ָ‫ מֵ אִ ּת‬ ‫ִממֶ נִי‬
2nd masc. ‫ אִ ּתְ כֶם‬ ‫אִ ּתְ ָך‬ ‫ִ מּכֶם‬ ‫ִמ ְמָך‬
2nd fem. ‫ אִ ּתְ כֶן‬ ‫אִ ּתָ ְך‬ ‫ִ מּכֶן‬ ‫ִממֵ ְך‬
3rd masc. ‫ אִ ּתָ ם‬ ‫אִ ּת ֹו‬ ‫ מֵ הֶ ם‬ ‫ִממֶ נּו‬
3rd fem. ‫ אִ ּתָ ן‬ ‫אִ ּתָ ּה‬ ‫ מֵ הֶ ן‬ ‫ִממֶ נָּה‬
‫ עִ ם‬and ‫ ִמ‬are both irregular, each in its own way:
1. ‫ עִ ם‬takes on an entirely new base, ‫( אִ ת‬no connection with ‫)אֶ ת‬. Only
in formal style are ‫ עִ ִמי‬,‫עִ ְמָך‬, etc. sometimes found.
2. Notice, though, that the endings in ‫ אִ ּתִ י‬,‫אִ ּתְ ָך‬, etc. are the same as for
‫אוֹתִ י‬, etc. (see 35b).
3. The inflection of ‫ ִמ‬is so odd as to defy simple explanation. Of the two
forms for ‘from us’, ‫ ִממֶ נּו‬is more colloquial. It is in fact identical with
the ‘him’ 3rd masc. sing. form.

Examples:

‫ ֹלא אִ ּתְ ָך‬,‫ ֲאנִי מַ סְ ּכִ ימָ ה אִ ּתָ ם‬ I agree with them, not with you
?‫ ַדי מַ ה אִ תְ כֶם‬ Stop it, what’s with you?
‫ ֹלא מֵ אִ ּתָ נּו‬,‫ קַ ח ִממֶ נּו‬ Take from him, not from us
?‫ זֶה הַ ּכֹ ל ִמּכֶם‬ Is this all from you?

d Preposition + suffix: ‫ּבִ ְׁשבִ יל‬

The endings for the preposition ‫ׁשבִ יל‬

ְ ִ‫‘ ּב‬for’ are rather different from those
shown so far (which all involve prepositions that have the extra function
of indirect object marker): the 2nd fem. sing. and 1st pl. endings, though
62 spelled the same way, are pronounced -ech, -enu, not -aH, -anu.
This type of ending is used by many prepositions, such as ‫‘ לְ יַד‬next to’, Preposition +
‫‘ ֶנגֶד‬against’, ‫‘ לְ עֵ בֶ ר‬towards’, ‫‘ ּבִ גְ לַל‬because of’, ‫‘ ֶד ֶרְך‬via’ – though not suffix
by several of the most common. This type of ending is also used by nouns
(see 73).

1st ‫ּבִ ְׁשבִ ילֵנּו‬ ‫ּבִ ְׁשבִ ילִ י‬

2nd masc. ‫ּבִ ְׁשבִ ילְ כֶם‬ ‫ּבִ ְׁשבִ ילְ ָך‬
2nd fem. ‫ּבִ ְׁשבִ ילְ כֶן‬ ‫ּבִ ְׁשבִ ילְֵך‬
3rd masc. ‫ּבִ ְׁשבִ ילָם‬ ‫ּבִ ְׁשבִ יל ֹו‬
3rd fem. ‫ּבִ ְׁשבִ ילָן‬ ‫ּבִ ְׁשבִ ילָּה‬

Note: Colloquial speech often has ‫ׁשבִ ילָנּו‬

ְ ִ‫ ּב‬,‫ ּבְ ְׁשבִ ילְָך‬by analogy with ‫לָנּו‬ ,‫ – לְָך‬the
two prepositions often have the same meaning.

e Preposition + suffix: ‫עַ ל‬ ,‫ אֶ ל‬,‫ לִ פְ נֵי‬,‫ַאח ֲֵרי‬

The prepositions introduced so far take so-called ‘light’ suffixes. But about
a dozen prepositions take heavy suffixes, notably ‫‘ עַ ל‬on’, ‫‘ אֶ ל‬to’, ‫לִ פְ נֵי‬
‘before, in front of ’, ‫‘ ַאח ֲֵרי‬after’, ‫‘ ּכְ לַּפֵ י‬towards’:

  
1st ‫ אֵ לֵינּו‬ ‫אֵ לַי‬ ‫ עָ לֵינּו‬ ‫עָ לַי‬
   
2nd masc. ‫ *אֵ לֵיכֶם‬ ‫אֵ לֶיָך‬ ‫ ֲעלֵיכֶם‬ ‫עָ לֶיָך‬
   
2nd fem. ‫ אֵ לֵיכֶן‬ ‫אֵ ַליְִך‬ ‫ ֲעלֵיכֶן‬ ‫עָ ַליְִך‬
  
3rd masc. ‫ אֵ לֵיהֶ ם‬ ‫אֵ לָיו‬ ‫ ֲעלֵיהֶ ם‬ ‫עָ לָיו‬
   
3rd fem. ‫ אֵ לֵיהֶ ן‬ ָ‫אֵ לֶיה‬ ‫ ֲעלֵיהֶ ן‬ ָ‫עָ לֶיה‬

Note the stress on the last-but-one syllable in the ‫ ֵ ◌ינּו‬, ָ‫ יה‬,‫ ַ ◌יְִך‬,‫ ֶ ◌יָך‬forms.
*  Purists insist on pronouncing the 2nd and 3rd pl. ‫ ֲאלֵיכֶם‬,‫ ֲאלֵיכֶן‬, etc.

1st ‫ ַאח ֲֵרינּו‬ ‫ַאח ֲַרי‬ ‫ לְ פָ נֵינּו‬ ‫לְ פָ נַי‬

2nd masc. ‫ ַאח ֲֵריכֶם‬ ‫ַאח ֲֶריָך‬ ‫ לִ פְ נֵיכֶם‬ ‫לְ פָ נֶיָך‬
2nd fem. ‫ ַאח ֲֵריכֶן‬ ‫ַאח ֲַריְִך‬ ‫ לִ פְ נֵיכֶן‬ ‫לְ פָ ַניְִך‬
3rd masc. ‫ ַאח ֲֵריהֶ ם‬ ‫ַאח ֲָריו‬ ‫ לִ פְ נֵיהֶ ם‬ ‫לְ פָ נָיו‬
3rd fem. ‫ ַאח ֲֵריהֶ ן‬ ָ‫ַאח ֲֶריה‬ ‫ לִ פְ נֵיהֶ ן‬ ָ‫לְ פָ נֶיה‬
63
Level One Notice, first, that all these suffixes have an extra letter ‫י‬, except the 1st
person pl.: hence the term heavy suffixes. However, its effect on actual
pronunciation is quite irregular. The only regular feature is that the suffixes
(and the stressed syllable) are the same for all these prepositions.

Second, the base of ‫לִ פְ נֵי‬ changes to -‫לְ פָ נ‬ for all but the 2nd and 3rd
plural.

As we shall see in 73, the heavy suffixes happen to be identical to the

possessive suffixes (‘my, your’, etc.) attached to plural nouns. Thus we
have ‫‘ דו ָֹדיו‬his uncles’. But regard this as a coincidence: there is nothing
plural about the meaning of ‫ עַ ל‬,‫לִ פְ נֵי‬, etc.

Three other prepositions with difficult inflections will be described in 78:

‫‘ ּכְ מ ֹו‬like’, ‫‘ ּבְ לִ י‬without’ and ‫‘ ּבֵ ין‬between’.

36 Some pronunciation rules for prefixes and suffixes

a ‫ ּו‬, ְ‫ ו‬, ְ‫ ב‬, ְ‫ ּב‬and the like

The Hebrew of broadcasters, teachers and their ilk makes certain rather
complicated adjustments in pronouncing words beginning with a prefixed
ְ‫ ל‬, ְ‫ ּכ‬, ְ‫ ּב‬and ְ‫ו‬. Colloquial Hebrew generally does not bother. (None of these
adjustments ever apply to ‫ ַל‬,ַ‫ ּכ‬, ַ‫ּב‬.)

Adjustment (a)

If the next consonant is written with the vowel ◌

 ְ , the prefix is pronounced
ִ‫ ּב‬, ִ‫ ל‬, ִ‫ ּכ‬and ‫ּו‬. Examples:
‫ּבִ ְׁשלַּבִ ים‬ in stages ‫קּודת‬
ַ ְ‫לִ פ‬ to the account of
‫ּולְ ִחימָ ה‬ and combat ‫ּכִ ְמנַהֵ ל‬ as a manager

Adjustment (b)

If the next consonant is ‫ כ‬,‫ ב‬or ‫פ‬, it will be soft. Examples:

‫ּבְ פַ חַ ד‬ in fear ‫ּבְ כָל יוֹם‬ on every day
‫ּכְ בִ יקו ֶֹרת‬ as criticism ‫לְ כוֹהֵ ן‬ to a priest

64
Adjustment (c) Some
pronunciation
If the next consonant is one of the four ‘lip consonants’ – ‫ פ‬,‫ מ‬,‫ ו‬,‫ – ב‬the rules for
prefix ‫ ו‬is pronounced ‫ּו‬. Examples:
prefixes and
‫ּובָ ְדקּו‬ and examined ‫ּומַ סְ לּול‬ and a runway suffixes
‫יטרּו‬
ְ ִ‫ּופ‬ and dismissed ‫ּווִ יּתְ רּו‬ and gave in

In colloquial usage, by contrast:

‫ּבְ ְׁשלַּבִ ים‬ in stages ‫ּבְ ּפַ חַ ד‬ in fear

‫וְ ּבָ ְדקּו‬ and examined ‫וְ מָ סָ ְך מַ ְדהִ ים‬ and an amazing screen

b Which syllable is stressed in nouns and adjectives?

Native words

Most nouns are stressed on the final syllable, including when this is a
 
plural or other inflectional ending, thus ‫‘ ִמכְ ּתָ ב‬letter’ ~ ‫ ִמכְ ּתָ בִ ים‬. One major

exception among nouns are the segolates (see 7c and 60c), such as ‫סֶ ֶרט‬
   
‘film’, ‫‘ טוֹפֶ ס‬form’, ‫‘ ּפַ חַ ד‬fear’, ‫‘ מַ ְחּבֶ ֶרת‬notebook’, ‫‘ ִמ ְקלַחַ ת‬shower’, but
note that even here the stress will fall on any plural or other inflectional
 
ending, thus ‫ מַ ְחּבָ רוֹת‬,‫סְ ָר ִטים‬, etc.
Most adjectives, too, are stressed on the final syllable. There is a major
exception: when a foreign-sourced adjective ends in -i, this -i is not stressed,
thus:
   
‫‘ לִ יּבֶ ַרלִ י‬liberal’, ‫‘ ּפְ ַר ְק ִטי‬practical’, ‫‘ ֶדמו ְֹק ַר ִטי‬democratic’, ‫‘ נָאִ יבִ י‬naïve’,
 
‫‘ יַּפָ נִי‬Japanese’, ‫יו ְֹר ִקי‬-‫‘ נְיּו‬New Yorker’
When these foreign-sourced adjectives are given a further suffix, even an
‫ ּות‬creating an abstract noun, the stress is unaffected:
 
‫‘ נָאִ יבִ י‬naïve’ > ‫‘ נָאִ יבִ יּות‬naïvety’

Modern borrowings

Foreign words are exceptional. They fall into three types:

1. Those with a ‘heavy’ Latin suffix (ending in a double consonant, such

as ‘-ent’, ‘-ism’) stress the final syllable:
  
‫טּודנְט‬
ֶ ְ‫‘ ס‬student’, ‫‘ מַ ְרּכְ סִ יסְ ט‬Marxist’, ‫‘ ּפְ ר ֹוי ְֶקט‬project’ 65
Level One So do several other words, such as:
‫‘ ּבַ ַלגַן‬mess’, ‫‘ ּפְ לַקַ ט‬placard’, ‫‘ חַ ּבּוּב‬buddy’, ‫‘ מַ ּבְ סּוט‬happy’, ‫‘ מַ סְ טּול‬stoned’
2. Many others stress the penultimate syllable. Final ‫ה‬- is rarely stressed. Thus:
  
‫מֵ ייל‬-‫‘ אִ י‬e-mail’, ‫‘ וִ יזָה‬visa’, ‫‘ גֵיאוֹגְ ַרפְ יָה‬geography’, ‫ֶדמו ְֹק ַר ְטיָה‬
 
‘democracy’, ‫טּורה‬ ָ ‫ַארכִ יטֶ ְק‬
ְ ‘architecture’, ‫‘ אִ ינְסְ טַ לַטוֹר‬plumber’,
   
‫‘ וִ ינְקֶ ר‬indicator light’, ‫‘ טֶ ְמּבֶ ל‬fool’, ‫‘ מַ עלֵיׁש‬whatever’, !‫‘ סַ ּבַ ּבָ ה‬cool!’
3. Some other words stress the pre-penultimate syllable:
  
‫‘ אּונִיבֶ ְרסִ יטָ ה‬university’, ‫‘ אִ ינְטֶ ְרנֶט‬Internet’, ‫‘ טֶ לֶפוֹן‬telephone’,

‫‘ גֶיאוֹמֶ ְט ִריָה‬geometry’
Pre-penultimate stress also serves to keep the stress off ‘ic’ in words
such as:
   
‫‘ מּוסִ יקָ ה‬music’, ‫‘ פִ יסִ יקָ ה‬physics’, ‫יטיקָ ה‬
ִ ִ‫‘ ּפוֹל‬politics’, ‫‘ אֶ קוֹנו ִֹמיקָ ה‬bleach’
In any event, the stress in modern borrowings rarely falls on a plural or
other ending – it stays where it is, hence:
     
,‫מֵ יילִ ים‬-‫ אִ י‬,‫ וִ יזוֹת‬,‫ אִ ינְסְ טַ לַטו ִֹרים‬,‫ אּונִיבֶ ְרסִ יטוֹת‬,‫טּודנ ְִטים‬
ֶ ְ‫ ס‬,‫ּפְ ר ֹוי ְֶק ִטים‬
  
‫סּוטים‬
ִ ְ‫ מַ ּב‬,‫סּוטית‬ִ ְ‫ מַ ּב‬,‫ּפְ לַקַ ִטים‬
Children’s words and names of places and peoples

Stress tends to fall on the syllable before last in children’s words, as well
as in many given names and old-time Israeli localities:
  
‫גּולוֹת‬ marbles ‫סַ בְ תָ ה‬ grandmother (pl.: ‫)סַ בְ תוֹת‬
 
‫מֹ שֶ ה‬ Moshe ‫ִרבְ קָ ה‬ Rivka
 
‫יָפָ ה‬ Yafa ‫ְרחוֹבוֹת‬ Rehovot
 
‫ַר ְמלֶה‬ Ramle ‫זִ כְ רוֹן‬ Zichron
The -i is not usually stressed when added to names of towns in Israel and
the region:
    
‫ ּבַ גְ ָד ִדי‬,‫ ח ֲֵד ָרתִ י‬,‫ ְרחוֹבוֹתִ י‬,‫ יְרּוׁשַ לְ ִמי‬,‫אֲבִ יבִ י‬-‫ּתֵ ל‬
But note that for these purposes, the names of most major foreign nation­
alities that were on the Jewish ‘radar screen’ in the early twentieth century
are treated as native and so they stress a final i, e.g.:
   
‫‘ ג ְֶרמַ נִי‬German’, ‫‘ ַאנְגְ לִ י‬English’, ‫‘ צַ ְרפָ תִ י‬French’, ‫‘ רּוסִ י‬Russian’,
 
66 ‫‘ ִמצְ ִרי‬Egyptian’, ‫‘ ע ֲָרבִ י‬Arab’
 37 ‫‘ יֵׁש‬there is, there are’ ‘I have’:
.  .  .  ‫יֵש לִ י‬
For ‘there is, there are’ (i.e. ‘there exists’), Hebrew uses the verbal particle
‫יֵׁש‬. It generally precedes its noun, like English ‘there is’, and is uninflected
for feminine or plural:

‫יֵׁש ּבְ עָ יָה‬ There’s a problem

‫יֵׁש ּבְ עָ יוֹת‬ There are problems

For ‘there isn’t, there aren’t’, one uses the verbal particle ‫אֵ ין‬. It is positioned
and uninflected just like ‫יֵׁש‬:

‫אֵ ין גִ יּבּוי‬ There isn’t a back-up

‫אֵ ין צִ 'ּפְ סִ ים‬ There aren’t any french fries

For other tenses, Hebrew simply uses the verb ‫הָ יָה‬, preceding the noun
and generally agreeing with it:

‫הָ יָה ּפְ קָ ק‬ There was a jam

‫הָ יְתָ ה ּתְ אּונָה‬ There was an accident
‫ֹלא יִהְ יֶה גִ יּבּוי‬ There won’t be a back-up
‫ֹלא יִהְ יּו צִ 'ּפְ סִ ים‬ There won’t be any french fries

Similar to ‫ יֵׁש‬is the particle ‫‘ הִ נֵה‬here is, here are’:

‫הִ נֵה הַ ּכַפְ ּתוֹר‬ Here’s the switch

!‫הִ נֵה הּוא‬ Here he is!
‫הִ נֵה הֵ ם‬ Here they are

38 ‘I have’: .  .  .  ‫לִ י‬ ‫יֵש‬

For ‘have’ in the present tense, Hebrew again makes use of the verb ‫יֵׁש‬
(see 37). For ‘x has  .  .  .’, the word order will usually be ‫  יֵׁש‬.  .  .   ְ‫‘( ל‬to x
there is  .  .  .’):

‫לְ ִרבְ קָ ה יֵׁש ִד ָירה‬ Rivka has an apartment

Notice that, as in English, the possessor (Rivka) comes before the verb,
and the possessed (an apartment) comes after the verb, while ‫ יֵׁש‬itself
does not inflect.

67
Level One For ‘I have, you have’, etc., one uses ‫ לִ י‬,‫לְ ָך‬, etc., generally placed after
‫יֵׁש‬, but generally preceding the possessed thing or person:
‫יֵׁש לִ י ִד ָירה‬ I have an apartment
!‫יֵׁש לָה חּוצְ ּפָ ה‬ She has nerve!
‫יֵׁש לָנּו ִד ָירה‬ We have an apartment
!‫יֵׁש לָהֶ ם חּוצְ ּפָ ה‬ They have nerve!

For ‘don’t have’, one uses  .  .  .  ‫  אֵ ין‬.  .  .   ְ‫ל‬, thus:

‫ל ְַׁש ֵכנִים אֵ ין ִמ ְקלָט‬ The neighbors don’t have a shelter

‫אֵ ין לִ י ִד ָירה‬ I don’t have an apartment

Colloquial Hebrew treats the possessed as a sort of direct object (rather

than as a subject), hence the use of ‫ אֶ ת‬when the possessed is ‘definite’ –
just like any other definite direct object:

?‫יֵׁש לְ ָך אוֹתָ ם‬ Do you have them?

‫אֵ ין לִ י אֶ ת הַ ִמסְ ּפָ ר‬ I don’t have the number

For ‘have’ in other tenses, Hebrew simply uses the verb ‫ הָ יָה‬in place
of ‫יֵׁש‬, keeping the word order and everything else the same. Notice
that the verb agrees with the thing possessed, thus literally ‘to me were
worries’:

‫ל ְַׁש ֵכנִים יִהְ יֶה ּפִ תָ רוֹן‬ The neighbors will have a solution
‫הָ יְתָ ה לִ י חֲבֵ ָרה‬ I had a girlfriend
‫הָ יּו לִ י ְדָאגוֹת‬ I had some worries

39 Questions

a Questions of the type ?‫ָאבִ יב‬-‫יו ָֹרם ּבְ תֵ ל‬

For questions that expect the answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ (as against ‘what, when,
where’ questions), everyday spoken Hebrew simply uses tone of voice to
distinguish the question from a statement. Word order is unchanged:

?‫ָאבִ יב‬-‫יו ָֹרם ּבְ תֵ ל‬ Is Yoram in Tel Aviv?

In writing, it is important to remember the question mark. In formal

usage, one can also start a question with the particle ‫הַ אִ ם‬. See 101 for
68 details.
 b ‘What, where, when’ Negation,
or how to
In questions of the ‘what, where, when, how?’ sort, the ‘question word’ say ‘no’
(‫ אֵ יפֹ ה‬,‫ ִמי‬,‫מַ ה‬, etc.) usually comes first, as in English. But, unlike English,
the rest of the sentence can remain unchanged: the verb need not leapfrog
over the subject:

?‫ִמי צוֹעֵ ק‬ Who’s shouting?

?‫מַ ה הַ ּבוֹס אוֹמֵ ר‬ What does the boss say?
?‫אֵ יפֹ ה הּוא גָר‬ Where is he living?
?‫ַארגָז נָעּול‬
ְ ָ‫לָמָ ה ה‬ Why is the trunk locked?

But observe that if there is a preposition (as in ‫‘ עִ ם סַ ּכִ ין‬with a knife’, ‫לְ ַדנִי‬
‘for Danny’), it must remain in front of its noun; it cannot go to the end
of the question as in English.

? ָ‫עִ ם מַ ה נָעַ לְ ּת‬

What did you lock up with?

?‫אֵ צֶ ל ִמי הֵ ם ָאכְ לּו‬

Whose place did they eat at?

? ְ‫ּבִ ְׁשבִ יל ִמי ּבִ ַיר ְרּת‬

Who were you checking for?

‫הַ ְשׁאֵ לָה מֵ אֵ יפֹ ה הֵ ם ּבָ אִ ים‬

The question is where they’re coming from.

40 Negation, or how to say ‘no’

a ‘I’m not, he isn’t, they didn’t’

To negate most types of sentence, colloquial Hebrew simply inserts ‫ֹלא‬

after the subject (or, more accurately, in front of the predicate):

‫הַ מֵ יכָל ֹלא ֵריק‬ The tank isn’t empty

‫הּוא ּבְ עֶ צֶ ם ֹלא ּפֹ ה‬ He’s actually not here
?‫אַ ּתָ ה ֹלא מַ ְדלִ יק אֶ ת הָ אוֹר‬ You aren’t turning on the light?
‫ֹלא ׁשָ ַאלְ ּתִ י‬ I didn’t ask

Formal Hebrew, as we shall see in 99, sometimes uses ‫ אֵ ין‬instead of ‫ֹלא‬. 69

Level One b ‫ אֵ ין‬as the opposite of ‫יֵׁש‬

For ‘there isn’t, there aren’t, I haven’t’, etc., Hebrew uses the verbal particle
‫אֵ ין‬. This word is the opposite of ‫( יֵׁש‬see details in 37, 38), thus:
‫אֵ ין זְ מָ ן‬ There isn’t time
‫אֵ ין לָנּו מָ קוֹם‬ We don’t have room

c Dangling ‫ ֹלא‬and ‫אֵ ין‬

‫ אֵ ין‬and ‫ ֹלא‬can be left to dangle without a predicate when the meaning is
clear, thus:

?‫יֵׁש זְ מַ ן א ֹו אֵ ין‬ Is there time or isn’t there?

‫אִ יצִ יק ּבָ א אֲבָ ל צִ יּפִ י ֹלא‬ Itzik’s coming but Tzipi isn’t
!‫נּודנִיק – ֲאנִי ֹלא‬ ְ ‫אַ ּתָ ה‬ ‘You’re a pain.’ – ‘I’m not.’

d Negative instructions

When using the infinitive to issue an instruction (in lofty or detached

requests), use ‫ ֹלא‬in the normal way to make it negative:

‫ֹלא לָזּוז‬ No moving or Don’t move!

However, the commonest form of negative request is to use ‫( ַאל‬not ‫)ֹלא‬

plus the future tense. The imperative form of the verb cannot be used in
the negative.

!‫ַאל ּתָ זּוז‬ Don’t move!

!‫ַאל ּתִ ְׁשּפְ כִ י‬ Don’t spill!
By contrast, ‫ ֹלא ּתָ זּוז‬would mean ‘you won’t move’, i.e. a prediction rather
than a request.

e Countering a negative: ‘He did, I do’

To counter a negative notion, colloquial Hebrew will insert an emphatic ‫ּכֵן‬:

‫ֲאנִי ּכֵן ׁשָ ַאלְ ּתִ י‬ I did ask

‫הּוא ּבְ עֶ צֶ ם ּכֵן ּפֹ ה‬ He actually is here
!‫זֶה ֹלא פֵ ייר! – זֶה ּכֵן‬ It isn’t fair! – It is!
70 ?‫יֵׁש ּכֵן ִמיׁשֶ הּו ׁשֶ מֵ בִ ין אוֹתִ י‬ Is there someone who understands me?
 f ‘Isn’t he, aren’t you?’ Degree words:
‫ ַדי‬,‫ּכְָך‬-‫ ּכָל‬,‫ ְמֹאד‬,
For negative questions, such as ‘Isn’t he going? Aren’t you asleep?’, simply etc.
add ‫ ֹלא‬or ‫ אֵ ין‬to the question (details in 101a), thus:

?‫  אַ ּתְ ֹלא יְׁשֵ נָה‬ Aren’t you asleep?

41 ‘The cake in the fridge, some news from Israel’

For phrases such as ‘the cake in the fridge, some news from Israel’, Hebrew
closely resembles English:

‫הָ עּוגָה ּבַ ְמקַ ֵרר הִ יא לְ ׁשַ ּבָ ת‬

The cake in the fridge is for Shabbat

?‫יֵׁש לְ ָך ח ֲָדׁשוֹת ִמי ְִׂש ָראֵ ל‬

Do you have some news from Israel?

?‫אֵ יפֹ ה הָ ָאדוֹן עִ ם הַ ְׁש ְט ַריימֶ ל‬

Where’s the gentleman in the shtreimel?

Elegant Hebrew often prefers to insert ֶ‫ׁש‬, thus:

‫הַ ּפְ גָם ׁשֶ ּבַ ּתוֹכְ נִית‬ the flaw (which is) in the plan

42 Degree words: ‫ַדי‬ ,‫ּכְָך‬-‫ ּכָל‬,‫ ְ ֹמאד‬, etc.

To convey degree, such as ‘very, a bit, quite, so, more, less, too’, Hebrew
often uses degree words (also termed intensifiers). They usually stand before
their adjective in colloquial usage, thus:

‫ְ ֹמאד יָקָ ר‬ very expensive ‫ּכְָך יָפֶ ה‬-‫ּכָל‬ so nice

‫ְקצָ ת יָקָ ר‬ a bit expensive ‫נו ָֹרא יָפֶ ה‬ real nice
‫ִטיּפָ ה יָקָ ר‬ a tiny bit expensive ‫ּפָ חוֹת יָפֶ ה‬ less nice
‫יוֹתֵ ר יָקָ ר‬ more expensive ‫ַדי יָפֶ ה‬ quite nice
?‫ּכַמָ ה יָקָ ר‬ how expensive? ‫יוֹתֵ ר ִמ ַדי יָפֶ ה‬ too nice

However, ‫‘ ְ ֹמאד‬very’ and ‫‘ ִמ ַדי‬too’ equally well follow the adjective:

‫ יָפֶ ה ְ ֹמאד‬ very nice ‫ יָפֶ ה ִמ ַדי‬ too nice 71
Level One Indeed, in formal Hebrew, most degree words tend to follow the adjective,
e.g. ‫‘ קָ ׁשֶ ה יוֹתֵ ר‬harder’, ‫‘ קָ ׁשֶ ה ִמ ַדי‬too hard’. Very colloquial ‫ ּפַ חַ ד‬and
‫‘ ֶרצַ ח‬really, terribly’ similarly follow their adjective: ‫‘ ְמבָ אֵ ס ּפַ חַ ד‬terribly
disappointing’, ‫‘ מַ עַ פַ ן ֶרצַ ח‬really pathetic’.

Degree words also go with verbs:

‫ֲאנִי ְ ֹמאד ִמצְ טַ עֵ ר‬ I very much regret it

‫זֶה ְקצָ ת מַ פְ ִריעַ לִ י‬ It’s bothering me a bit
‫זֶה ִמתְ חַ ּכְֵך יוֹתֵ ר ִמ ַדי‬ It’s rubbing too much

Some of these degree words can take complements:

1. ‫‘ יוֹתֵ ר‬more’ and ‫‘ ּפָ חוֹת‬less’ can take a comparative phrase or clause
such as in ‫‘ יָפָ ה יוֹתֵ ר ִמ ָרחֵ ל‬lovelier than Rachel’ – see comparatives in
87a, b for details.
2. ‫‘ ִמ ַדי‬too’ and ‫‘ מַ סְ ּפִ יק‬enough’ can take a clause, such as ‫עָ ייֵף ִמ ַדי‬
ַ‫‘ לִ ְׁשמוֹע‬too tired to listen’ – see 87c for details.
3. ‫ עַ ד ּכְ ֵדי ּכְָך‬,‫ּכְָך‬-‫ ּכָל‬and ‫‘ ָּכזֶה‬so’ can take a clause beginning with ֶ‫ׁש‬:

‫ּכְָך חַ ם ׁשֶ ֹלא עָ זַבְ נּו אֶ ת הַ ּבַ יִת‬-‫הָ יָה ּכָל‬

It was so hot that we didn’t leave the house

‫הָ יִיתִ י עַ ד ּכְ ֵדי ּכְָך ּתָ ִמים ׁשֶ ֹלא ּבָ ַד ְקּתִ י‬
I was so innocent that I didn’t check

Colloquial usage also has ‫‘ לְ הַ ְח ִריד‬incredibly’ (literally, ‘to scare’):

‫זֶה ִמסְ ּתוֹבֵ ב ָּכזֶה לְ ַאט לְ הַ ְח ִריד‬
It goes round so incredibly slowly

Hebrew can repeat certain basic adjectives to convey ‘real, very’, thus:

‫ּתִ ְרּכוֹס טוֹב טוֹב אֶ ת הַ ְמעִ יל‬

Zip your coat up real well

‫גַלְ גַלִ יוֹת ּבְ מַ צָ ב חָ ָדׁש חָ ָדׁש‬

Roller-skates in brand new condition

‫מָ ׁשַ כְ ּתִ י חָ זָק חָ זָק‬

I pulled really hard

‫ּתַ ְמ ִׁשיכִ י יָׁשָ ר יָׁשָ ר‬

72 Keep going absolutely straight
 43 Adverbs of time and place in the sentence The pattern
‫ֲאנִי רוֹצֶ ה‬
Adverbs of time and place can safely be positioned as in English: first, ‫לְ הִ תְ עַ טֵ ׁש‬:
last or (for some time adverbs) right after the subject. The only difference ‘I want to
this usually makes is in foregrounding or in rhythm: sneeze’

‫עַ כְ ׁשָ יו הּוא יָׁשֵ ן‬ Now he’s asleep

‫הּוא עַ כְ ׁשָ יו יָׁשֵ ן‬ He’s now asleep
‫הּוא יָׁשֵ ן עַ כְ ׁשָ יו‬ He’s asleep now
‫ׁשָ ם ֲאנִי ק ֹונָה ּבַ ד‬ There I buy cloth
‫ֲאנִי ק ֹונָה ּבַ ד ׁשָ ם‬ I buy cloth there

Unlike English, Hebrew adverbs can regularly also come between verb and
object:

‫ֲאנִי ק ֹונָה ׁשָ ם ּבַ ד‬ (lit.: I buy there cloth)

44–9 EMBEDDED CLAUSES

44 The pattern ‫ ֲאנִי רוֹצֶ ה לְ הִ תְ עַ טֵ ׁש‬: ‘I want to sneeze’

Many Hebrew verbs and adjectives take an infinitive, just like English
‘want to’ – for example, ‫‘ ָרצָ ה‬want’, ‫ירב‬
ֵ ִ‫‘ ס‬refuse’, ‫‘ נִיסָ ה‬try’, ‫‘ נָחּוׁש‬deter­
mined’, ‫‘ ָאמּור‬supposed’:

‫ֲאנִי רוֹצֶ ה לְ הִ תְ עַ טֵ ׁש‬ I want to sneeze

‫הּוא ְמסָ ֵרב לָבוֹא‬ He refuses to come
‫הּוא נָחּוׁש לְ הַ עֲבִ יר אֶ ת הַ חוֹק‬ He is determined to pass the law
‫זֶה ָאמּור לִ הְ יוֹת ּפַ טֶ נְט גְ א ֹונִי‬ It’s supposed to be a brilliant gadget

In fact, Hebrew commonly has an infinitive even where English has

-ing:

ַ‫לִ פְ עָ ִמים הֵ ם ְמנַסִ ים לִ בְ רוֹח‬ Sometimes they try escaping

‫הּוא ִמתְ עַ קֵ ׁש לִ ְׁשרוֹק‬ He insists on whistling
‫יָעֵ ל ח ֹולֶמֶ ת לִ הְ יוֹת ׂשַ ְחקָ נִית‬ Yael dreams of being an actress
‫הּוא אוֹהֵב ָלטּוס ָאז הּוא הִ פְ סִ יק לִגְלוֹׁש‬ He loves flying so he’s stopped surfing
‫אֵ ין לִ י ּבְ עָ יָה לְ הֵ ָיר ֵדם‬ I don’t have a problem falling asleep 73
Level One Many verbs and adjectives have a corresponding noun, which can similarly
take an infinitive:

ַ‫נִסָ יוֹן לִ בְ רוֹח‬ an attempt to escape

‫סֵ ירּוב ֹו לָבוֹא‬ his refusal to come
‫אֶ פְ ׁשָ רּות לְ הו ִֹריד‬ a capability for downloading

For infinitives with adverbial verbs such as ‫יטיב‬

ִ ֵ‫ה‬ ‘do well’, ‫ִמיהֵ ר‬
‘do quickly’, ‫‘ ִמיעֵ ט‬do little’, see 91.

45 The pattern ‫טוֹב לְ חַ ייְֵך‬: ‘It’s good to smile’

Where English has ‘It is good <or other adj.> to’, Hebrew often leaves out
‘it is’:

‫ּכַאן ְמסּוּכָן לִ גְ לוֹׁש‬ It is dangerous to ski here

ַ‫קָ ׁשֶ ה לָנּוח‬ It’s hard to rest

Similarly for the construction ‘it’s good <or other adj.> that’:

ָ‫טוֹב ׁשֶ ּבָ את‬ It’s good you’ve come

‫מּוזָר ׁשֶ אֵ ין ל ֹו‬ It’s weird that he doesn’t have
‫ּבָ רּור ׁשֶ יַסְ ּכִ ימּו‬ It’s obvious they’ll agree

Hebrew sometimes puts the infinitive clause first. In this case, ‘is’ is
generally ‫זֶה‬:

‫לִ הְ יוֹת ָאחוֹת ּבְ י ְִׂש ָראֵ ל זֶה מַ מָ ׁש ֹלא קַ ל‬

To be a nurse in Israel really isn’t easy

46 Reported thoughts and object clauses

To lead into reported statements, beliefs, feelings, etc., one generally inserts
ֶ‫ׁש‬, which is equivalent to ‘that’. (For the tense, see 82c.)
‫הּוא מַ ְרגִ יׁש ׁשֶ יֵׁש עוֹד זְ מַ ן‬ He feels that there’s still time
‫ֲאנִי חוֹׁשֵ ב ׁשֶ זֶה ּבְ סֵ ֶדר‬ I think it’s O.K.

74
With a verb or adjective that would normally require an indirect object Reported
marker, e.g. ‫ ּפָ חַ ד ִמ‬or ְ‫( ּבָ טּוחַ ּב‬see 34b), this object marker is generally thoughts and
omitted when a ֶ‫ ׁש‬or ְ‫ ל‬is going to follow: object clauses

‫ֲאנִי ְמפַ חֵ ד ׁשֶ הּוא יִבְ ַרח‬

I’m afraid he might run away

ַ‫ֲאנִי ּבָ טּוחַ ׁשֶ זֶה יַצְ לִ יח‬

I’m certain it’ll work out

‫הּוא מַ ְמּתִ ין ׁשֶ הַ רוֹקֵ חַ יְמַ לֵא אֶ ת הַ ִמ ְרׁשָ ם‬

He’s waiting for the pharmacist to fill the prescription

However, - ְ‫ ִמל‬is possible in formal Hebrew – and ְ‫ ּבְ ל‬is common in col­
loquial language:

‫הָ יִיתִ י עָ סּוק ּבְ ַלעֲׂשוֹת סְ ּפ ֹו ְנ ָז'ה‬ I was busy (with) mopping
‫ֲאנִי ִמתְ ַרׁשֵ ל ּבְ לִ כְ ּתוֹב ּבָ רּור‬ I’m careless about writing clearly
The corresponding noun can similarly take a clause with ֶ‫ׁש‬, thus:
‫ יֵׁש הַ ְרגָׁשָ ה ׁשֶ הִ יא עוֹד ּבַ חַ יִים‬ There’s a feeling that she’s still alive

Some verbs and prepositions cannot take a clause beginning with ֶ‫ׁש‬. Instead,
one can use ֶ‫( ּכְָך ׁש‬particularly after ‫ על‬,‫ ל‬,‫ )ּב‬or ֶ‫ – זֶה ׁש‬or an action noun
in place of a clause, as in the final example:

‫ּתִ תְ חַ ׁשֵ ב ּבְ כְָך ׁשֶ זֶה עֵ ֶרְך וִ ִיקיּפֶ ְדיָה‬

Keep in mind that this is a Wikipedia entry

‫ִדּבַ ְרנּו עַ ל ּכְָך ׁשֶ הַ לְ ִחימָ ה נ ְִמׁשֶ כֶת‬

We talked about the fact that the fighting is going on

‫סו ְֹמכִ ים עַ ל ּכְָך ׁשֶ יִהְ יֶה לּוחַ מָ ִחיק‬

We’re relying on there being an erasable board

‫ֲאנִי לְ ג ְַמ ֵרי ִמתְ ַנגֵד לְ כְָך ׁשֶ יַתְ ִחילּו קּונץ ָּכזֶה‬
I’m totally against them starting such a gimmick

In journalistic or formal Hebrew, ‫ ּכִ י‬is sometimes used in place of ֶ‫ׁש‬. (Do
not confuse this with the ‫ ּכִ י‬that means ‘because’.)

‫ָארץ ְׁשנֵי ּכוֹכְ בֵ י סַ יינְפֶ לד‬

ֶ ָ‫הָ עִ ּתוֹן ְמ ַדווֵחַ ּכִ י ּבָ ַאחֲר ֹונָה נ ְִראּו ּב‬
The paper reports that the two Seinfeld stars were recently sighted in Israel

75
Level One 47 Relative clauses with ֶ‫ׁש‬
Relative clauses (‘the guy who called, the room that I painted’) are commonly
introduced by the conjunction ֶ‫ׁש‬. It is always prefixed to the next word.
For the moment, regard ׁ ֶ‫ ש‬as the equivalent of ‘who, which, that’:

‫הִ נֵה הָ אוֹטוֹּבּוס ׁשֶ נוֹסֵ עַ לְ גִ יֹלה‬ Here’s the bus that goes to Gilo
?‫אֵ יפֹ ה הַ ל ְַחמָ ִניָה ׁשֶ ָאכַלְ ּתִ י‬ Where’s the roll I was eating?
?‫ִמי הַ גְ בֶ ֶרת ׁשֶ ּפָ ג ְַׁשּתָ קו ֶֹדם‬ Who’s the lady whom you met earlier?

For more details on relative clauses, see 105.

48 Adverbial clauses: ‫ּכִ י‬ ,‫ אִ ם‬, ֶ‫ ּבִ גְ לַל ׁש‬, ֶ‫ַאח ֲֵרי ׁש‬, etc.
Adverbial clauses – clauses expressing time, cause, purpose, etc. – generally
require the insertion of a conjunction ֶ‫ׁש‬. Although this ֶ‫ ׁש‬is the same
ֶ‫ ׁש‬that is used in relative clauses and reported thoughts (see 46, 47), it
doesn’t translate as ‘that’. It has the very broad task of marking where
a subordinate (i.e. embedded) clause begins.

‫ הּוא ּפִ יהֵ ק‬,‫ַאח ֲֵרי ׁשֶ הַ ּתּוּכִ י ָאכַל‬

After the parrot ate, it yawned

‫ אֵ ין לִ י זְ מַ ן‬,‫עַ כְ ׁשָ יו ׁשֶ ֲאנִי ּבְ תַ פְ ִקיד‬

Now that I’m on duty, I have no time

?‫אֵ יפֹ ה אַ ּתְ ג ְַרּתְ לִ פְ נֵי ׁשֶ ּבָ אתְ לְ כָאן‬

Where did you live before you came here?

‫ֲאנִי ה ֹולְֵך ל ְַמרוֹת שֶ ׁגַם הּוא ה ֹולְֵך‬

I’m going despite the fact that he’s also going

!‫זֶה נ ְִדפַ ק לְ ָך ּבַ ֶד ֶרְך ּבִ גְ לַל ׁשֶ ֹלא אִ כְ ּפָ ת לְ ָך‬
It got ruined on the way because you just don’t care!

However, ‫ּכִ י‬, a common word for ‘because’, has no ֶ‫ׁש‬:

‫ֲאנִי ְמצַ לְ צֵ ל ּכִ י יֵׁש ּתַ קָ לָה‬
I’m calling because there’s a hitch

ֶ‫ ׁש‬can also be omitted after the time expressions ‫‘ ּכָל עוֹד‬as long as’ and
‫‘ מֵ ָאז‬since’:
.  .  .  ‫הִ תְ י ַַד ְדנּו‬
‫מֵ ָאז‬ since becoming friends, .  .  .
76 .  .  .  ,‫ּכָל עוֹד ֹלא ּתּוקַ ן הַ ַדף‬ as long as the page has not been corrected, .  .  .
For ‘if ’, colloquial Hebrew generally uses ‫אִ ם‬. However, in formal style Adverbial
an unreal ‘if ’ is commonly ‫ לּו‬or ‫ אִ לּו‬rather than ‫אִ ם‬: clauses:
, ֶ‫ַאח ֲֵרי ׁש‬
‫ ָאז זֶה ָדפּוק‬,‫אִ ם הַ נְייָר ֹלא יוֹצֵ א‬ ,‫ אִ ם‬, ֶ‫ּבִ גְ לַל ׁש‬
If the paper won’t come out, it’s broken
‫ּכִ י‬, etc.
?‫ מַ ה הָ יְתָ ה הַ ּתוֹצָ ָאה‬,‫אִ לּו הִ תְ ַגלָה נֵפְ ט ּבְ י ְִׂש ָראֵ ל‬
If oil were discovered in Israel, what would be the outcome?

For the use of the past tense in unreal conditionals, see 82b.

A quite distinct, two-word conjunction is ‫‘ אִ ם ּכִ י‬although’, which has

nothing to do with either ‫ אִ ם‬or ‫ּכִ י‬. It means ‘although’ in the sense of
‘though admittedly’:

‫ אִ ם ּכִ י ֹלא ּכְ מ ֹו ּבְ ּפַ ִריז‬,‫יֵׁש לָנּו חֲנּויוֹת ֶנה ֱָדרוֹת‬
We have great stores, though not like in Paris

As for ֶ‫ּכְ ׁש‬, the usual word for ‘when, while’, treat it as one word (not as
ֶ‫ ׁש‬+ ְ‫)ּכ‬:
‫ הָ אוֹר הַ ְׂשמָ אלִ י ֹלא נ ְִדלַק‬,‫ּכְ ׁשֶ עָ צַ ְרּתִ י‬
When I stopped, the left-hand light didn’t come on

Even for English ‘after eating’, ‘while watching’, Hebrew regularly uses
a whole clause (or an ‘action noun’, see 64):

‫הּוא יָׁשֵ ן ַאח ֲֵרי ׁשֶ הּוא א ֹוכֵל‬

He sleeps after eating

‫ל ְַמרוֹת ׁשֶ נִיצַ ְחנּו חָ תַ ְרנּו לִ פְ ׁשָ ָרה‬

Despite winning, we worked for a compromise

‫מֵ ָאז הִ תְ ּפַ ְטרּות ֹו ֹלא נ ְִרָאה ּבַ טֶ לֶוִ יזְ יָה‬
Since resigning he hasn’t been seen on TV

‫ְמבַ ְׁשלִ ים עַ ל אֵ ׁש נְמּוכָה ּתוְֹך ּכְ ֵדי עִ ְרּבּוב‬

Cook on a low flame while stirring

‫ עָ בַ ְרנּו עוֹד ּבְ ִדיקוֹת‬,‫לִ פְ נֵי עַ לִ ייָתֵ נּו לַמָ טוֹס‬

Before boarding the plane, we went through more checks

There are several other prepositions that take ֶ‫ ׁש‬or ְ‫ ל‬where English might
use -ing, notably ‫‘ ּבְ לִ י‬without’ and ‫‘ ּבִ ְמקוֹם‬instead of’, thus:

‫עָ ִׂשינּו אֶ ת זֶה ּבְ לִ י ַלחֲׁשוֹב‬ We did it without thinking

‫נִכְ נַסְ ּתִ י ּבְ לִ י ׁשֶ הִ בְ ִחינּו ּבִ י‬ I went in without them spotting me
‫חַ ּכֵה ְׁש ִניָה ּבִ ְמקוֹם ַלחֲטוֹף‬ Wait a second instead of grabbing 77
Level One Some prepositions take a noun but not a clause, e.g. ‫‘ לְ ֹלא‬without’, ‫לְ ׁשֵ ם‬
‘for the purpose of’, ‫‘ עַ בּור‬for’, ‫‘ ּבְ עַ ד‬in favor of’, ‫‘ ּתוְֹך ּכְ ֵדי‬while’ and
‫‘ אוֹדוֹת‬concerning’, thus:
‫ֲאנִי ּבְ עַ ד ּבִ יטּול גִ יל הַ ּפְ ִריׁשָ ה‬
I’m in favor of abolishing the age of retirement

‫הַ מַ ֲענָק הּוא עֲבּור ּפִ יתּוחַ אַ ּפְ לִ יקַ צְ יוֹת‬

The grant is for developing apps

‫ּתִ תְ קַ ֵדם ּתוְֹך ּכְ ֵדי ּתְ נּועַ ת הַ מוֹתְ ַניִים‬

Walk forward while moving your hips

In formal style, the preposition ‫‘ ּבִ גְ לַל‬because’ can only take a noun, but
colloquially it can also take a clause:

‫ֲאנִי הִ סְ ּכ ְַמּתִ י ּבִ גְ לַל ׁשֶ ֲאנִי אוֹהֵ ב אוֹתָ ְך‬

I agreed because I love you

Conversely, a few prepositions only take a clause, among them ‫ּכְ ֵדי‬
‘in order to or that’. And instead of ֶ‫ ׁש‬the conjunction ְ‫( ו‬no connection
with ְ‫ ו‬meaning ‘and’) is often used in the expressions ְ‫ידה ו‬ ָ ‫‘ ּבְ ִמ‬if’ and
ְ‫‘ ּבְ ִמ ְק ֶרה ו‬in the event that’:
.  .  .  ‫שׁמָ עּותִ י‬
ְ ַ‫ּבְ ִמ ָידה וְ יֵׁש ִדימּום מ‬
If there is significant bleeding, .  .  .  .

When ֶ‫ ׁש‬is not preceded by a preposition, it may mean ‘in order that’
whereas ֶ‫ ּכְָך ׁש‬denotes ‘and as a result’:

‫ ׁשֶ יֵצֵ א לְ ָך לִ ְקרוֹא אֶ ת זֶה‬,‫ֲאנִי מַ עֲתִ יק וְ מַ ְדּבִ יק‬

I’m copying and pasting so you manage to read it

‫ ּכְָך ׁשֶ ֹלא אֶ הְ יֶה ּבַ ִׂשיחָ ה‬,‫פִ סְ פַ סְ ּתִ י אֶ ת הַ ְט ֶר ְמּפ‬

I missed the lift, so I won’t be at the talk

To convey ‘as’ or ‘like’ with a clause, Hebrew generally uses ֶ‫ּכְ מ ֹו ׁש‬ or
ֶ‫ּכְ פִ י ׁש‬:
‫מּודָאגִ ים הַ יוֹם‬
ְ ‫ ּכְ פִ י ׁשֶ ּכּולָם‬,‫מּודָאג‬
ְ ‫ֲאנִי‬
I’m worried, like everyone’s worried today

ַ‫ ּכמ ֹו ׁשֶ אַ ּתָ ה יו ֵֹדע‬,‫זֹאת ּכִ יתָ ה קָ שָ ׁה‬

This is a difficult class, as you know

‫ חֶ בְ רוֹן הָ יְתָ ה ּבִ ָירת ֹו הָ ִראׁש ֹונָה ׁשֶ ל ָדוִ ד‬,‫ּכְ פִ י ׁשֶ צִ יַינְּתִ י‬
78 As I noted, Hebron was David’s first capital
For hypothetical ‘like’ and ‘as if’, Hebrew uses ‫ּכְ אִ לּו‬: Sentences
without
‫הִ יא רוֹעֶ ֶדת ּכְ אִ לּו חָ ְטפָ ה ׁשוֹק‬ a subject
She’s shaking as if she had a shock

Certain adverbial clauses can be appended as a rider or a reinforcement

after a comma or a pause, notably  .  .  .   ֶ‫ֹלא ׁש‬,  .  .  .   ֶ‫ַאפִ ילּו ׁש‬,  .  .  .   ֶ‫ּבִ פְ ָרט ׁש‬,
.  .  .   ֶ‫אֶ לָא ׁש‬,  .  .  .   ֶ‫ ַרק ׁש‬:

‫ ַרק ׁשֶ ֲאנִי ְממַ הֵ ר‬,‫ֲאנִי אֶ עֱזוֹר ּבְ כֵיף‬

I’d be happy to help, except that I’m in a hurry

‫ ּבִ פְ ָרט ׁשֶ זֶה ְמאּוחָ ר ִמ ַדי‬,‫ֲאנִי ֹלא רוֹצָ ה לִ ְׁשּפוֹט‬

I don’t want to judge, especially as it’s too late

‫צּורה נו ָֹרא גַסָ ה‬

ָ ְ‫ ַאפִ ילּו ׁשֶ אַ ּתָ ה ִמתְ ּבַ טֵ א ּב‬,‫ֲאנִי ס ֹולֵחַ לְ ָך‬
I forgive you, even though you talk so rudely

‫ֹלא ׁשֶ יֵׁש לִ י מַ ׁשֶ הּו נֶגְ ד ֹו‬

Not that I have anything against him

49 Sentences without a subject

a The ‘general’ plural: !‫ֹׁשבִ ים‬

ְ ‫חו‬ ,‫‘ ׁשֶ קֶ ט‬Quiet, people are thinking!’

To express ‘one forgets, people forget, you forget’ – that is, an open-ended,
non-specific subject – Hebrew has a special construction: the verb is used
in the masculine plural, without a subject:

?‫אֵ יְך הוֹלְ כִ ים‬ How does one go?

‫הֶ ְחלִ יפּו אֶ ת הָ ַרמַ ְט ָּכ''ל‬ They’ve changed the Chief of Staff

b ‫ אֶ פְ ׁשָ ר‬,‫ ּכְ ַדאי‬,‫צָ ִריְך‬, etc. without a subject

Several adjectives, verbs and other words can (in some cases, must)
be used without a subject, among them ‫‘ אֶ פְ ׁשָ ר‬you may, it’s possible’,
‫‘ ּכְ ַדאי‬you’d better’, .  .  .  ‫‘ יֵׁש ל‬it is necessary to  .  .  .’, ‫‘ צָ ִריְך‬it’s necessary,
you must’, ‫‘ עָ ִדיף‬it’s better, preferable’, ‫‘ חֲבָ ל‬it’s a pity’, ‫ִמַאס לִ י‬ ְ ‫‘ נ‬I’m
fed up’, ‫‘ חַ ם‬it’s hot’, ‫‘ קַ ר‬it’s cold’, ‫‘ סָ פֵ ק‬it’s doubtful’, ‫‘ ָאסּור‬it’s
forbidden’, ‫ זְ כּותְ ָך‬,‫‘ זְ כּותִ י‬it’s my right, your right’, etc., ‫ עָ ַליְִך‬,‫‘ עָ לַי‬I must,
you must’, etc. 79
Level One ‫ֲאנִי חוֹׁשֵ ב ׁשֶ אֶ פְ ׁשָ ר‬ I think you can
‫אֶ פְ ׁשָ ר‬-‫עַ כְ ׁשָ יו ּכְ בָ ר אִ י‬ By now it’s impossible
‫צָ ִריְך ּפָ ׁשּוט חּוׁש‬ You just need a feel
‫יֵׁש לְ הִ ימָ נַע ִמ ְׁשתִ ייַת מֵ י ּבֶ ֶרז‬ One should avoid drinking tap water
‫ּבָ רּור ׁשֶ צָ ִריְך‬ Sure you must
‫חֲבָ ל עַ ל הַ ּכֶסֶ ף‬ It’s a waste of money
‫ּכֵיף לִ ְראוֹת אוֹתָ ם‬ It’s fun to see them
‫סָ פֵ ק אִ ם מַ מָ ׁש ָאסּור‬ I’m doubtful if it’s really forbidden
‫לְ ּבִ יּבִ י מַ תְ ִחיל לְ הִ ימָ אֵ ס‬ Bibi’s starting to get fed up
‫ֲאנִי רוָֹאה שֶ ׁקַ ר ּבַ חּוץ‬ I see it’s cold outside
‫ּבְ מו ִֹדיעִ ין ּכְ בָ ר מַ ְרּבִ יץ‬ In Modi’in it’s already pelting down
‫עָ לָיו לְ ׁשַ לֵם לָנּו‬ He has to pay us

c Point of time, passage of time

To convey ‘It’s [point of time]’, everyday Hebrew has no equivalent to ‘it’.

The sentence has no subject, but there is usually a ‫ ּכְ בָ ר‬or ‫עַ כְ ׁשָ יו‬:

‫ ּכְ בָ ר ַאח ֲֵרי חַ צוֹת‬,‫ קָ ִדימָ ה‬ Get a move on, it’s already past midnight
‫ עַ כְ ׁשָ יו ׁשֵ ׁש וְ עֶ ְׂש ִרים‬ It’s now 6:20

A similar construction can be used to express ‘it’s been [x amount of time]

that  .  .  .’:

‫ׁשָ עָ ה ׁשֶ ֲאנִי ְמחַ ּפֵ ׂש אֶ ת הַ יָם‬

I’ve been looking for the sea for an hour

‫ּכְ בָ ר ׁשָ נָה ׁשֶ ֲאנִי סוֹבֶ לֶת ִמהַ ּכְ אֵ בִ ים‬
It’s already a year that I’ve been having the pains

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