PHYSICS 21.

01
MODULE 1
LESSON 1 OSCILLATORY MOTION
(Chapter 16)

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson the students are expected to

a. define simple harmonic motion (SHM)

b. interpret the F vs. x plot of a spring and calculate its spring constant
c. define the following terms used to characterize an oscillating and vibrating systems –period,
frequency, angular frequency, and amplitude;
d. state Hooke’s Law;
e. state the equation and describe how the variables affect the period of oscillation of a simple
pendulum and a spring-mass system;
f. calculate the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum and a spring-mass system from the
position vs. time graph;
g. differentiate natural oscillation and forced oscillation; and
h. explain the occurrence of resonance

What we will study in this lesson are objects and systems that undergo OSCILLATORY MOTION. An
example of an oscillatory motion is an object which undergoes a PERIODIC MOTION. In this type of
motion the object retraces its path and goes back to where it started after an elapsed time then repeats
the same pattern. The motion may go through several cycles.

Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is a type of periodic motion where the RESTORING FORCE applied on the
object/system is directly proportional to the object’s/system’s displacement. We will consider two
examples: motion of a spring-mass system and the motion of a simple pendulum.

A. The Spring-Mass System

Springs are ubiquitous objects; their uses are endless. The figure below shows two common uses of the
spring. You can find a small spring inside a ball pen. It allows the ball point to retract once you are

finished writing. A spring is used in a motorcycle. The spring allows a smoother ride when going through
humps and potholes on the road.

A spring may be made to compress or expand upon the application of an external force. The amount of
compression or expansion depends on the type of spring and the magnitude of the force. When the
external force is removed, the spring goes back to its original form (assuming that it was not
permanently deformed when the external force was applied).

The internal force on the spring which causes it to go back to its original form is called the restoring
force F. Experiments have shown that the magnitude of F is directly proportional to the amount of
elongation or expansion, Δx, of the spring:

F = - k Δx

or simply F = -k x

if we assume the equilibrium position of the spring to be x =0. There is a – sign since the force and the
change in length are in opposite directions. For example, when the spring is compressed, the spring’s
restoring force is outward while the length becomes smaller (inward).

The constant of proportionality k is called the SPRING constant. The unit is newton/meter. So the
SPRING CONSTANT is the amount of force needed to stretch or compress a spring by a given length.

Take two springs, A and B. Spring A requires 50 N to compress by 0.5 cm while spring B requires 25 N to
compress by the same amount. Spring A has a larger spring constant. So the spring constant is a
measure of the stiffness of the spring.

Question 1: Compare the springs on the figures in the previous page. Which spring has a larger spring
constant? The one used in a motorcycle or the one used in a ball pen?
Question 2: I did a simple experiment to find the approximate value of the spring constant of the
motorcycle spring. I compressed it by 1 cm against a bathroom scale. The scale read 16 kg. What is the
spring constant of the spring in N/cm and N/m?

In the laboratory, to find the k value, we usually apply different amounts of force and measure the
corresponding amount of expansion. The absolute values of the force and the lengths are then plotted.
The SLOPE of the F vs. x plot is equal to the SPRING CONSTANT k. The graph below is an example of the F
vs. x of a hypothetical spring.

The slope of the plot of the red spring is

Slope = (30 N – 0 N) / (0.06 m – 0 m)
= 500 N/m
The slope of the red line is 500 N/m, therefore the spring constant of this spring is 500 N/m 5 N/cm. This
means that stretching/compressing the spring by 1 cm will require 5N of force.
F vs. x Plots of 2 Springs
40
Force (N)

20

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Elongation (m)

Question 3: What is the value of the spring constant of the blue spring? Which of the two springs has a
larger spring constant? By just comparing the plots, without doing any calculations, how would you
know if the k value of one spring is larger than the other spring?

Consider this set-up. An object of mass m is attached to one end of a spring with a spring constant k. The
other end of the spring is attached to a rigid support. There is negligible friction between the block and
the base. The block is at rest and the spring is unstretched/uncompressed when the center of mass of
the block is at the x= 0 m mark.

x=0m

The system may be set into oscillation by pulling the block to the right, thus displacing it from the
equilibrium position, then releasing it. Without friction we would expect the block to move back and
forth relative to the equilibrium position due to the restoring force of the spring.
The system will follow a SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) since the spring’s restoring force is directly
proportional to the displacement. The block goes through a motion that repeat itself (called a CYCLE) at
regular time intervals.

If the block is initially moved to x = +0.20 m then released, then it will move to the left, go past the
equilibrium position, momentarily stop, the move to the right and stop at x = +0.20 m. At this point the
block has gone through ONE CYCLE, then the next cycle begins.

The TIME it takes for the object to complete ONE cycle is called the PERIOD (T). The NUMBER OF CYCLES
that the object completes in a given time is called FREQUENCY (f). You will note that the FREQUENCY (f)
is just the INVERSE of the PERIOD (T).

Frequency = 1 / Period

f=1/T

or equivalently, T = 1 / f.

The SI UNIT OF FREQUENCY is cycles/second and 1 cycle/s is called hertz (Hz).

1 Hz = 1 cycle/s

or simply 1 Hz = 1/s.

Question 4: If the block undergoes 15 cycles in 3 seconds, what is its period T in seconds and frequency f
in hertz?

In simple harmonic motion the PERIOD of oscillation depends on the properties of the system. In the
case of the spring-mass system, the PERIOD is given by

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 2𝜋 √𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑚
or 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑘

The equation says that the PERIOD (T) is DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL to the square root of the MASS (m)
and INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL to the square root of the SPRING CONSTANT k.

Since the frequency is the inverse of the period,

1 1
𝑓= =
𝑇 𝑚
2𝜋√
𝑘

1 𝑘
or 𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝑚

The equation says that the FREQUENCY (f) is DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL to the square root of the SPRING
CONSTANT (k) and INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL to the square root of the MASS (m).
Take note of the following:

1. When the PERIOD is LARGE, the object will appear to move relatively slower since it takes a
larger or longer time to complete a cycle. The FREQUENCY will be smaller since there will be
fewer cycles completed per unit time.

2. When the PERIOD is SMALL, the object will appear to move relatively faster since it takes a
smaller or shorter time to complete a cycle. The FREQUENCY will be larger since there will be
more cycles completed per unit time.

Before proceeding further, open the PhET simulation related to springs from this link and click on the
Lab.
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/masses-and-springs/latest/masses-and-springs_en.html

This is what will appear on the screen of your computer.

There are many features of this simulation but we will initially concentrate on visualizing the effect of
the MASS and the SPRING CONSTANT on the PERIOD and FREQUENCY of the system.

Before you start do the following: SET the GRAVITY to EARTH (9.8 m/s2) and DAMPING to NONE.

Initially set the value of the known mass to 50 g then attach it to the spring. Fix the spring constant to
SMALL. Then set the system into oscillation. Do not change the setting of the spring constant.

Question 5: What happens to the motion of the spring-mass system when you increase the mass of the
object? (Do this by moving the slider towards 300 g)? Describe your observation.

Question 6: What happens to the period of oscillation when the mass of the object is increased while the
spring constant remains unchanged?

Question 7: What happens to the frequency of oscillation when the mass of the object is increased while
the spring constant remains unchanged?

This time fix the value of the mass to 50 g. Attach it to the spring. Initially set the spring constant to
SMALL. Then set the system into oscillation.

Question 8: What happens to the motion of the mass when you increase the spring constant? (Do this by
moving the slider towards large). Describe your observation.
Question 9: What happens to the period of oscillation when the spring constant is increased while the
mass remains constant?

Question 10: What happens to the frequency of oscillation when the spring constant is increased while
the mass remains constant?

Now let’s do a virtual experiment. Let’s find the spring constant when the setting is SMALL. Fix the mass
to 100 g. Set the system into oscillation.

Question 11: What is the period and frequency of oscillation?

Question 12: What is the spring constant of the spring? Explain how you got your answer.

Astronauts at the International Space Station have to monitor their health. They have to measure their
masses regularly. They can’t use the ordinary bathroom scale in such an environment. So they attach
themselves to a spring and let oscillate. Based on the measured period and frequency of oscillation they
are able to calculate their mass. This video shows how they do it.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oU3pp_4n84U

Let’s simulate this situation in the PhET simulation. Let the blue object of unknown mass be the
astronaut whose mass is to be calculated.

Set GRAVITY to zero and DAMPING still at ZERO. Set the SPRING CONSTANT to SMALL and use the value
you got in question 12.

Connect the blue object to the spring and set the system into oscillation.

Question 13: What is the period and frequency of oscillation of the system?

Question 14: What is the calculated mass of the “astronaut”?

Graphical Representation of Simple Harmonic Motion

A mass is attached to a spring as shown in the picture on the following page. A motion detector is used
to plot its position (relative to the motion detector).
 Spring

Mass

Motion detector

The plot of the position vs. time of the oscillating system is shown below. The values of 3 data points, A,
B and C are given. From these values we can calculate the amplitude A, period T and the frequency f.

A 5 cycles
C

Vp-p

A (0.25 s, 0.621 m)
B (0.65 s, 0.427 m)
C (4.40 s, 0.616 m)
From the values of A and B, we can calculate the amplitude. The peak-to-peak (p-p) height of the
waveform is

Pp-p = 0.621 m – 0.427 m

= 0.194 m
One half of the Pp-p value is equal to the amplitude A of the waveform. So,

A = Pp-p / 2
= 0.194 m/2
= 0.097 m or 9.7 cm
The amplitude, or the maximum displacement of the oscillating system, is 9.7 cm.
From the values of A and C we can calculate the period and frequency of the oscillation. The time
difference between the two points is
∆t = tc – tA
= 4.40s -0.25s
= 4.15s

Since there are 5 cycles in this time interval, the period is

T = ∆t / 5 cyles
= 4.15s/5 cyles
= 0.83s/cycle
It takes the oscillating system 0.83s to complete a cycle. The frequency is equal to the reciprocal of the
period. Therefore,
f = 1/T
= 1/(0.83s/cycle)
= 1.20 cycles/s or 1.20 Hz

The frequency of oscillation of the system is 1.20 Hz or 1.20 cycles per second.

Damped Oscillations

In real life we don’t see spring-mass systems that oscillate indefinitely. Frictional forces within the
system and outside the system dampen the oscillation and ultimately the system comes to rest.

Play the PhET simulation again and see the effect of adding some DAMPING in the oscillating system.

A DAMPED OSCILLATION happens when the AMPLITUDE (maximum displacement) continually decreases
in each cycle before it finally comes to rest.

An UNDERDAMPED OSCILLATION happens when the system moves quickly to equilibrium but will
experience few oscillations about the equilibrium point until it comes to rest.

An OVERDAMPED OSCILLATION occurs when the system moves slowly toward equilibrium.

A CRITICALY DAMPED OSCILLATION happens when the system moves very quickly towards equilibrium
without oscillating about the equilibrium.
 Damped oscillation (Credit: College Physics by OpenStax)

Displacement versus time for a critically damped harmonic oscillator (A) and an overdamped harmonic oscillator
(B). The critically damped oscillator returns to equilibrium at X = 0 in the smallest time possible without
overshooting

(Credit: College Physics by OpenStax)

The coils springs or the leaf springs in vehicles have shock absorbers which dampen the oscillation of
caused by the springs. With the dampers the vehicle will undergo damped oscillations or even critically
damped oscillations.

The figures below show the typical damper or shock absorber attached to the spring of a motorcycle.
The figure on the left shows how the shock absorber is fitted in the spring. The figure on the bottom
right shows how they are attached to the rear side of the motorcycle. The rightmost figure shows part of
the suspension system of a car which has similar features.
You may view this video link if you want to know more about the mechanism inside the shock absorber.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fd8Ng5ll9Jk

High rise buildings are constantly buffeted by strong winds or earthquakes that cause the structure to
oscillate. Taipei 101, once the tallest building in the world, has a damping mechanism (shown below) to
minimize this oscillation.

Taipei 101 damping mechanism

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Taipei_101_Tuned_Mass_Damper_2010.jpg

Elastic potential energy in a spring

To stretch or compress a spring requires an external force. Parts of the spring are displaced and thus,
work is done on the spring by the force. A stretched or compressed spring therefore gains elastic
potential energy, PEel, and this is given by the equation
1
𝑃𝐸𝑒𝑙 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2
where k is the spring constant of the spring

x is the amount of elongation/compression with respect to the equilibrium position

In an oscillating system (without damping) there is a continuous transformation of elastic potential

energy of the spring and the kinetic energy of the moving mass. When the elastic potential energy of the
spring decreases, there is an increase in the kinetic energy of the mass, and vice-versa.
Next, we will discuss another example of a simple harmonic motion - a simple pendulum.

B. The Simple Pendulum

A SIMPLE PENDULUM is made of an object, called the pendulum bob, tied to a string whose mass is
much, much smaller than that of the bob. When the simple pendulum swings the angular displacement
Δθ is not more than 100. At this small angular displacement the restoring force provided by the
gravitational force is then directly proportional to the angular displacement. So the simple pendulum
undergoes simple harmonic motion.

Δθ

Equilibrium position

The period of oscillation T of a simple pendulum is given by

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 2𝜋√
𝑎𝑐𝑐. 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

where L is the length of the strength from the center of mass of the pendulum bob to the
point where the string is tied to the support

g is the acceleration due to gravity at the place where the pendulum is located.

There’s another important condition for a pendulum to be called a simple pendulum. Its angular
displacement (swing) should not be more than 10o, otherwise the equation for the period as shown a
above will not hold true anymore.

If the unit of the length of the string is meter (m) and the unit of the acceleration due to gravity is meter
per second squared (m/s2) then the unit of the period is [m/m/s2]1/2 or s. So second is the unit of period;
it’s a unit of time. Other units are minute, hours, days, years, etc.

Notice that T increases when the length increases. So it takes more time to complete a cycle when the
length of the string is long. The pendulum appears to swing slower. Conversely, when the string is short,
it takes a shorter time to complete a cycle. In this case the pendulum appears to swing faster.

You will also notice that T increases with decreasing value of g. So in a place, like the moon, where the
acceleration due to gravity is lower (1/6 of the value of g on Earth), the period will be longer. So a
pendulum of the same length will take more time to complete a cycle on the moon than on planet Earth.
Before moving on it is worthwhile watching an animation in Physics Education Technology (PhET) on the
effect of the period of oscillation on the length and the acceleration due to gravity.

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/pendulum-lab/latest/pendulum-lab_en.html

Use the simulation to answer the following questions:

Note: You will investigate the effect on the period of oscillations of three variables – the mass of the
bob, the acceleration due to gravity and the length of the string. You have to keep the values of two
variables constant while you change the third variable.

Question 15: While keeping the length and mass constant what is the effect of the acceleration due to
gravity on the period of oscillation?

Question 16: While keeping the length and acceleration due to gravity constant what is the effect of the
mass of the bob on the period of oscillation?

Question 17: While keeping the acceleration due to gravity and the mass constant, investigate the effect
of the length on the period of oscillation?

Note that the period T is easily measured using a stopwatch while the length L of the string is also easily
measured using a ruler or meter stick. So you can easily determine the acceleration due to gravity g if
you have a simple pendulum.

On the other hand, if the value of g is known, the simple pendulum can be used as a timer by simply
adjusting the length L to come up with a value of the period.

Question 18: What should be the length of the simple pendulum if its period of oscillation is 2 seconds?
Assume g =9.8 m/s2?

The frequency of oscillation f is defined as the number of cycles in a given period of time. It is just the
inverse of the period T.
1
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

1
𝑓=𝑇
1
𝑓=
𝐿
2𝜋√
𝑔

1 𝑔
𝑓 = 2𝜋 √ 𝐿

The unit is number of cycles per unit time. One cycle per second is equal to one hertz (Hz). A pendulum
that oscillates at high frequency undergoes several cycles in one second. So it appears to move fast. This
is achieved, upon examination of the equation, by increasing the value of g or making the length L
shorter or both.
Forced oscillation and Resonance

In the presence of frictional forces (e.g. air resistance), an oscillating system’s energy is dissipated
(transformed to heat) and the motion stops. Therefore, an external force will be necessary to sustain the
oscillatory motion. But when under the influence of an external force, the system will not oscillate at its
natural frequency of vibration. It’s frequency of oscillation will follow the frequency of the driving force.
This is called forced oscillation.

An example of forced oscillation happens in audio speakers, headphones and in earbuds. The cone in
the speaker is made to oscillate at a frequency of the electrical signal in the coil. In forced oscillations
the system vibrates at the frequency of the external force. However, the amplitude of the oscillation of
the system depends on how the frequency of the external forces matches that of the natural frequency
of oscillation of the system.

Resonance occurs when the frequency of the external force (acting on the system) matches that of the
natural frequency of oscillation of the system. This is evident in the increasing amplitude of oscillation of
the system.

Interesting discussions and demonstration experiments related to simple harmonic motion, resonance
and oscillating systems are shown in the following videos.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X3uKmTdgmQg (11:14)

In this video, the amplified sound of the speaker has frequency that matches that of the natural
frequency of vibration of the wine glass. Watch what happens to the wine glass. It’s video-taped in slow
motion.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j-zczJXSxnw

Watch this video and see the catastrophic effect of resonance of the structure to the wind shear.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QwgDxQ9o1XQ (48:07)

This is a full lecture of Prof. Walter Lewin at MIT on the topics: Forced Oscillations, Normal Modes,
Resonances, Musical Instruments

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pZNNWrA9MZQ

This is an old video of a fascinating character – Prof. Julius Miller – where he presents demonstration
experiments related to resonance.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h_eR7FJ_vkM (14:59)

Prof. Julius Miller’s demonstration of simple pendulum and other oscillating things.