DEFINITIONS & OTHER CONTENT TO **** LEARN!!

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Section 1 Mechanics
1. The centre of mass – The point through which a single force on the body has no turning effect.
2. The moment of a force about a pivot – force x perpendicular distance from the line of action of the
force to the pivot.
3. The Moment of a couple – force times by the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of
the forces.
4. The Principle of Moments – in equilibrium, the sum of the moments clockwise are equal to the sum
of the moments anticlockwise.
5. Stable Equilibrium – A body will return to its equilibrium position after being displaced slightly.
6. Unstable Equilibrium – A body will NOT return to its equilibrium position and does NOT remain in
the displaced position after being displaced slightly.
7. Conditions for Equilibrium –
(a) The sum of the total clockwise moment about any axis is equal to the sum of total anti-clockwise
moments about the same axis (Principle of Moments)
(b) The resultant force at the centre of mass is zero
(c) The resultant of three must equal zero and form a closed triangle when added together.
8. Work done – Force on an object times distance object moves in the direction of the force. (Fdcosθ)
9. A vector – a quantity with both direction and magnitude.
10. Newton's 1st law of motion – an object will remain at rest or continue at constant velocity in a
straight line until acted on by an external resultant force. (The law of Inertia)
11. Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion – Resultant Force on a object is equal to the rate of change of
momentum in the direction of the force.
12. Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion – If object A exerts a force on object B, object B will exert a force on
object A that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. (Note: the forces do NOT cancel each
other as the two forces act on different objects)
13. The Law of Conservation of Momentum – For a system of interacting objects, the total momentum
remains constant, provided no external force acts on the system.
14. An elastic collision – A collision where both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved
15. An inelastic collision – A collision when only momentum is conserved, kinetic energy is NOT
conserved (Kinetic Energy is converted into another form of energy)
16. Acceleration – The rate of change of velocity
17. Impulse Force – The change in momentum (From Newton’s Second Law equation)
18. Power – the rate of transfer of Energy
Section 2 Materials
1. Hooke's Law – The force (Load) needed to stretch a spring is directly proportional to the extension
of the spring from its natural length, so long as the elastic limit is not exceeded.
2. Elastic limit – the point beyond which a wire is permanently deformed.
3. The limit of proportionality – The point beyond which a wires extension is no longer proportional
to the force applied.
4. Plastic deformation – Deformation where the material does not return to its original shape/length
5. Tensile Stress – Tensile Force (Tension) per unit cross sectional area
6. Tensile Strain – The ratio of extension to original length (no units)
7. Breaking Stress – Maximum Stress applied to a material (also called Ultimate Tensile Strength)
8. Breaking Point (B) – The point at which a material breaks
9. Brittle behaviour – A material that does not exhibit plastic behaviour/deformation (Breaks soon
after elastic limit reached, very difficult to compress)
10. The Young Modulus – Unit Tensile Stress per Unit Tensile Strain within elastic limit.
11. Ductile – A material that can be permanently stretched and so drawn into wires
12. Yield point (Yield stress) – The point at which the stress in a wire suddenly drops when subjected to
increasing strain, so rapid extension. (Example steel, when internal structure has changed)
Section 3 Electricity
1. Electrical Current –The amount of charge passing a point per second
2. Electrical Potential – The work done per unit charge by the electrons at a point in a circuit.
3. Electrical Potential Difference – The work done per unit charge between two points in a circuit i.e.
the electrical potential energy transferred to a component in a circuit.
4. Electrical Resistance – The ratio of energy transferred (work done) per unit charge in a component
(P.d.) to the amount of charge passing through the component per second (current)
5. The Volt – When one Joule of work is done (or energy transferred) to move one Coulomb charge
between two points
6. The Amp – One Coulomb of charge passing a point in one second
7. The Ohm – Resistance of a conductor when 1 Amp of current flows through the conductor has a
potential difference of 1 Volt across the conductor.
8. Ohm’s Law – The current flowing through an Ohmic conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference applied so long as physical conditions remain constant (e.g. Temperature).
9. EMF – The Electromotive Force of a cell or any other source of electrical energy (generator) is the
Energy converted to electrical Energy from other forms (Chemical – cell, Mechanical – Generator)
when a Unit Charge passes through the source.
10. Lost volts – The transfer of energy (potential drop) in the internal resistance inside a battery
 11. Internal resistance – The resistance created by electrolytes and materials inside a battery.
12. Terminal P.D. (V) – The actual terminal electrical Energy per Unit charge less the electrical energy
per unit charge already converted to thermal energy in the internal resistance
13. Resistivity – A characteristic of a conducting material = the constant of proportionality in
Resistance (R) = constant (Resistivity ρ) x Length of conductor (L) divided by Cross Sectional Area (A)
Section 4 Waves
1. The Amplitude of a wave – The maximum displacement from equilibrium of an oscillating object.
2. The Wavelength of a wave – The least distance between two adjacent particles in a wave with the
same displacement and velocity.
3. The frequency of a wave – The number of full cycles of a vibration or full wavelength passing a
point per second.
4. Phase difference – the fraction of a cycle between two vibrating particles measured in radians.
5. A radian – The angle subtended by an arc-length of a circle that is equal to the radius.
6. A Transverse wave – A wave where particle vibration or oscillation is perpendicular to direction of
propagation and energy transfer 
7. A Longitudinal wave – A wave where particle vibration or oscillation is along the direction of
propagation and energy transfer 
8. Plane Polarised waves – Transverse waves where the displacement of the wave is fixed in a plane
i.e. Electromagnetic Waves where Electric field in xy plane, Magnetic Field in xz plane (90 degrees)
9. Diffraction – Where a wave spreads out after passing through a gap or around an object of similar
dimensions to its wavelength
10. Coherence – When two waves have a constant phase difference and so have the same frequency.
11. Superposition – Where vector displacements of 2 waves add or subtract to create a resultant wave.
12. Interference – Occurs when two coherent waves of similar amplitude superpose constructively to
create Maxima or destructively to create Minima.
13. Path length – The distance from a source to a point, measured in metres or number of wavelengths
14. Path difference – The difference in two path lengths, measured in number of wavelengths
15. A Progressive Wave - A wave that transfers energy from one point to another without causing
permanent displacement of the medium
16. A Standing wave – created by a progressive wave that is reflected of a surface or fixed point
creating a second wave in the opposite direction, that is out of phase but of same frequency and
speed. The two waves superpose and interfere destructively to create Nodes & constructively to
create Anti Nodes. This resultant wave does NOT travel and so does NOT transfer energy.
17. Node – A point of zero amplitude on a standing wave from destructive interference or a fixed point
18. Antinode – A point of maximum amplitude on a standing wave from constructive interference.
Section 5a Quantum
1. The Photoelectric effect – Where a single Photon, above a minimum energy, transfers energy to a
single electron in the conduction band of a metal, raising its potential (equal to the work function)
to reach the surface of the metal and be emitted as a Photo Electron from its surface.
2. Work Function - the minimum energy required to lift an electron from the conduction band to the
surface of a metal (different for each metal).
3. Threshold frequency – The frequency of light above which Photoelectrons are emitted from the
surface.
4. The electron volt – The work done on a single electron (fundamental charge, e) when it is moved
through a potential difference of 1 volt. 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 Joules
5. Ground State – The lowest energy state an electron can occupy in an Atom
6. Excitation – an orbiting or valency electron is raised to a higher energy level or state in an atom by
electron collision or transfer of energy from a photon.
7. De-excitation – an electron in an excited state drops back to its ground state, or an intermediate
energy state, emitting a photon of energy equal to the difference in the energy states.
8. Ionisation energy – the energy required to remove an electron completely from the Atom.
9. De Broglie wavelength – The wavelength of a particle travelling at very high speed
10. Wave Particle Duality – A particle at very high speed that exhibits wavelike properties and
quantum properties.
11. Stopping Potential – The minimum potential needed to stop a photo electron. The electrical energy
must equal the kinetic energy of the photo Electron. eVs = 1/2mv2

Section 5b Particles
1. Hadrons – Large and medium mass particles made up of Quarks
2. Baryons – Hadrons that decay directly or indirectly into protons. Proton is the only stable Baryon
Characteristic: Large mass made up of 3 Quarks e.g. Neutrons & Protons
3. Mesons – Hadrons that do NOT decay into Protons
Characteristic: Medium mass made of 2 Quarks (one quark, one anti quark) e.g. Kaons & Pions
4. Leptons – Low mass Fundamental Particles (no quarks) e.g. Electrons, Muons & Neutrinos
5. Exchange Bosons – Force carriers - transfer of momentum between two interacting particles
 Virtual Photon γ = Electromagnetic Interaction have zero rest mass, long range
 W+ Boson, W- Boson, Z Boson = Weak Interaction have non zero rest mass, very short range
 Pions, Gluons (Strong Interaction)
6. Anti-Particles – Matter of exactly the same mass but opposite charge. N.B. an Anti-Neutrino and
Anti Neutron have no charge but their ISO SPIN is reversed (not covered in the exam!!)
7. Strangeness – Strange particles are created in the strong interaction BUT decay through the weak
interaction. E.g. A Kaon or a Sigma (Σ)
8. Strangeness Number (S) – Kaons have a Strangeness = -1, Anti Kaons have a Strangeness = +1
Strangeness is ALWAYS CONSERVED in STRONG interaction but NOT ALWAYS in WEAK
9. Lepton Number (L) – The number associated with Leptons and Anti Leptons and electrons &
Muons. E.g. An electron has Lepton number, Le = +1, an anti-Muon has Lepton Number, Lμ = -1.
Hadrons & Mesons have a Lepton Number, L = 0.
Lepton Number is ALWAYS CONSERVED

10. Baryon Number (B) – The number associated with Baryons and Anti Baryons. E.g. a Neutron has
Baryon Number, B = +1, an Anti-Neutron has a Baryon Number, B = -1.
Leptons have a Baryon Number, B = 0.
Baryon Number is ALWAYS CONSERVED
11. Annihilation – Where a particle meets its anti-particle and are converted into 2 equal gamma
photons in opposite directions due to conservation of momentum and which have energy equal to
the two rest energies. 2Eo = 2hfmin
12. Pair Production – A photon when passing close to a nucleus creates a Particle and Anti Particle
13. Weak Nuclear Force/Weak interaction –The force responsible for changes in the Nucleus – e.g.
Neutron to Proton, creating beta minus decay
Leptons interact through the Weak interaction and electromagnetic interaction if charged.
The force carrier is the W- Boson.
14. The Nuclear strong force/Strong Interaction – Force that holds Baryons together range of 2-3 fm.
Strong Interaction occurs when e.g. fast protons collide with nuclei
Leptons do NOT experience the Strong Force
The force carrier is the virtual pion.
15. LEARN the quark composition of the Pions (not in formula booklet!!)
0

π−¿=d u ¿ π
+¿=u d π =uu , d d ,s s ¿

16. LEARN the quark composition of the Kaons (not in formula booklet!!)
0
−¿=s u ¿
k k + ¿=u s k =d s , s d ¿
17. LEARN the Feynman diagrams for a Beta plus decay, a Beta minus decay, Electron Capture and an
electromagnetic repulsion.
Section 6a Thermal Physics
1. 1st Law of Thermodynamics – The change of internal energy of an object ΔU = sum of the energy
transfer due to work done on the object (ΔW) and heat energy supplied to the object ΔQ (heating).
(Positive internal energy change = energy added, negative internal energy change = energy lost)
When the internal energy of a system changes, the change depends only on the initial and final
states of the system BUT NOT on how the changes occurred.
2. Internal Energy - The sum of the random distribution of the Kinetic and Potential energies of the
molecules of a substance.
3. Specific Heat Capacity – The energy required to raise 1 kg (unit Mass) of a substance by 1 degree
centigrade or 1 degree kelvin with NO change of state.
4. Specific Latent Heat of Fusion – The energy required or released when converting 1 kg (unit Mass)
of a substance from a solid state to a liquid state (Melting) or liquid state to solid state (Freezing)
without change in temperature at Melting or Freezing point.
5. Specific Latent Heat of Vaporisation – The energy required or released when converting 1 kg (unit
Mass) of a substance from a liquid state to a gas state (Boiling) or gas state to liquid state
(Condensing) without change in temperature at Boiling or Condensing point.
6. Boyle’s Law – The Volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the Pressure applied to
it, if its Temperature and Mass are kept constant.
7. Charles’ Law – The Volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
Temperature, if its Pressure and Mass are kept constant
8. The Pressure Law – The Pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature, if its Volume and Mass are kept constant
9. The assumptions of an ideal gas are:
a) A large number of molecules
b) All molecules are identical
c) The molecules are point molecules, so the volume of each molecule is negligible compared
with the volume of the gas.
d) Collisions between molecules and with the sides of the container are perfectly elastic
e) No intermolecular forces act, i.e. no electrostatic attraction or repulsion between molecules
f) The time for collision with the sides is negligible compared to the time taken between sides
g) Molecules move in straight lines at constant speed
h) The motion molecules of particles is random
Section 6b Simple Harmonic Motion and circular motion
1. A Free Oscillation is:  
The oscillation of a body or system with its own natural frequency and under no external influence
other than the impulse that initiated the motion. 
or 
If an Oscillator is displaced and then released it will begin to vibrate. If no more external forces are
applied to the system it is a free oscillator.  
2. A Forced Oscillation - If a force is continually or repeatedly applied to keep the oscillation going, it
is a forced oscillator. 
3. Angular Displacement - θ (in radians)θ=ωt
θ
4. Angular velocity – The rate of change of angular displacement (in radians per second) ω= - so
t
2π
the Angular Displacement of 1 circle (2π) per time for 1 circle (T – time period) ω=
T
5. The conditions required for simple harmonic motion. – The acceleration of an object is
proportional to the displacement from a fixed point (equilibrium) and acts in the opposite direction
to the displacement, i.e. towards the equilibrium position.
6. Resonance – Where the driving frequency matches the natural frequency of an object to create
extra large amplitude vibrations and so maximum energy is transferred, when the driving frequency
π
is approximately radians out of phase with the natural frequency.
2

Section 7a Gravitational Fields

1. Gravitational Radial Field - The Field strength decreases with increasing distance from a large mass,
as field lines diverge.
2. Gravitational Uniform Field - The Field strength is constant in Magnitude and Direction throughout
the field, as field lines the field lines are parallel.
3. Newton’s Law of Gravitation – Every particle in the universe attracts every other with a
gravitational force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and indirectly
proportional to the square of the separation of their centres.
4. Gravitational field strength – At a point in a gravitational field is the Force per unit mass at that
point. Field strength is a Vector whose direction is always towards the larger mass.
5. Gravitational potential – At a point in a gravitational field is the work done per unit mass in
bringing a small test mass from infinity (where potential = 0) to that point.
 6. Equipotential – A surface of constant potential, so no work is done when you move along this
surface. This will be a continuous spherical surface or equal radius around a large single mass. Lines
of gravitational force are always PERPENDICULAR to the equipotential surface.
7. Potential Gradient – At a point in a gravitational field is the change of potential per unit length at
that point and is equal to minus the Gravitational field strength, as the direction of the field is the
−∆ V
same as the direction of decreasing potential. g=
∆r
8. Escape velocity – The minimum velocity required for a small mass to completely escape the
gravitational field of a large mass. Enough kinetic energy at the surface to at least equal the work
done to remove a small mass from the surface of a large mass to infinity.
9. Geostationary satellite – A satellite that has an orbital period of 24 hours and orbits in the same
plane as the equator – hence does not appear to move from its position over the earth.
10. Kepler’s third law – For any planet the cube of the radius of its orbit, around the sun, is equal to the
square of the orbital period.
Section 7b Electric Fields
1. Permittivity of free space – The charge per unit area in coulombs per square metre on two
oppositely charged plates when the electric field strength between them is 1 volt per metre
2. Electrical Radial Field - The Field strength decreases with increasing distance from a large charge,
as field lines diverge.
3. Electrical Uniform Field - The Field strength is constant in Magnitude and Direction throughout the
field, as field lines the field lines are parallel.
4. Coulomb’s Law – The electrostatic force between two point charges is directly proportional to the
product of their charge and indirectly proportional to the square of their separation.
5. Electrical field strength – At a point in an electric field is the Force per unit positive charge at that
point. Field strength is a Vector whose direction is always towards negative charge.
6. Electrical potential – At a point in an electric field is the work done per unit charge in bringing a
small positive test charge from infinity (where potential = 0) to that point.
7. Equipotential – A surface of constant potential, so no work is done when you move along this
surface. This will be a continuous spherical surface or equal radius around a large single charge.
Lines of electrical force are always PERPENDICULAR to the equipotential surface.
8. Potential Gradient – At a point in an electric field is the change of potential per unit length at that
point and is equal to minus the Electric field strength, as the direction of the field is the same as the
−∆ V
direction of decreasing potential E=
∆r
Section 7c Capacitors
 1. Capacitance – The amount of charge stored per unit Volt across the plates of a capacitor, a Farad is
1 Coulomb per Volt.

2. Dielectric – An insulator placed between the plates of a capacitor to increase capacitance by

(a) keeping the plates a fixed distance apart to maintain the electric field
(b) enabling a much greater field strength so much greater potential difference between the plates
and so greater charge to be stored
(c) using a polarised material, to induce a field in the insulator that opposes the electric field so
reducing the resultant electric field and so increasing the capacitance.
3. Relative Permittivity – also called the Dielectric constant, is the ratio of the capacitance with a
dielectric between the plates to the capacitance with air between the plates (approx. 1.00)
4. Time constant – The time taken for the charge on a capacitor to fall to 37% of its original value,
equal to Resistance x Capacitance (RC) of the circuit.
Section 8a Magnetic Fields
1. Magnetic flux Density (Magnetic field Strength) – The force per unit length per unit current on a
current-carrying conductor at right angles to the direction of the magnetic field lines.
2. The Tesla - The Tesla is the strength of the Magnetic field that produces a Force of 1 newton in a
wire of Length 1m, perpendicular to the magnetic field, with a current of 1 amp flowing through it.
3. Magnetic Flux – The product of the Magnetic flux Density and the area through which it acts
4. The Weber – The amount of Magnetic Flux when a Magnetic Field of strength 1 Tesla passes
through an area of 1 m2 at right angles.
5. Flemings left hand rule – The Motor Rule
a. Thumb = FORCE created on wire – F
b. First Finger = MAGNETIC FIELD – B
c. Second finger = CURRENT - I
6. Flemings right hand rule – The Generator Rule
d. Thumb = Externally applied FORCE - F
e. First Finger = MAGNETIC FIELD – B
f. Second finger = INDUCED CURRENT - I
7. Faraday’s Law – The Magnitude of the induced EMF is directly proportional to the rate of change of
flux (linkage) [or the rate of cutting Magnetic flux).
8. Lenz’s Law – The direction of the induced EMF,(when there is a change of flux linkage, and direction
of the current it causes to flow are such that they will oppose the change of flux that is producing it
Section 8b Nuclear Physics
1. Activity – The number of disintegrations per second measured in Becquerels.
2. Binding energy – The work done in separating a nucleus into its component protons and neutrons
or How much energy would be released if the nucleons lost potential energy and
fell back into a stable potential well.
3. Mass defect – Δm is difference between mass of nucleus and total mass of nucleons can be
expressed as Binding Energy EB  = Δmc2
4. Decay constant – The time taken for 37% of the initial number of Nuclei to decay
or the constant of proportionality  between the rate of radioactive decay and the number of
(unstable) nuclei