STATISTICS REVIEWER

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION AND GRAPHS

RAW DATA- DATA COLLECTED IN ORIGINAL FORM

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION – RAW DATA ARE ORGANIZED INTO A TABLE

• USING CLASSES AND FREQUENCIES

FREQUENCY – NUMBER OF VALUES IN A SPECIFIC CLASS OF DISTRIBUTION

TYPES OF FREQUENCIES:

• CATEGORICAL FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

• UNGROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
• GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

WHY CONSTRUCT FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION?

• TO ENABLE READER TO MAKE COMPARISONS AMONG DIFFERENT SETS OF DATA

• TO FACILITATE COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURES FOR MEASURES OF AVERAGE AND SPREAD
• TO ENABLE READER TO DETERMINE THE NATURE OR SHAPE OF THE DISTRIBUTION
• TO ENABLE THE RESEARCHER TO DRAW CHARTS AND GRAPHS FOR THE PRESENTATION OF DATA

CATEGORICAL FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

- if sample size (n) is large, data must be grouped in categorical
- used for data that can be placed in specific categories, such as nominal or ordinal level data

UNGROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

- ARE USED FOR DATA THAT CAN BE NUMERATED

- USED WHEN THE RANGE OF VALUES IN THE DATA SET IS SMALL AND SAMPLE SIZE (n) IS
LARGE
 GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
- WHEN THE RANGE OF DATA IS LARGE,
- DATA MUST BE GROUPED INTO CLASSES THAT ARE MORE THAN ONE UNIT E.G., 24-30

LOWER CLASS LIMIT

– REPRESENTS THE SMALLEST DATA VALUE THAT CAN BE INCLUDED IN CLASS

- EXAMPLE: 24 IN THE CLASS LIMIT 24-30

UPPER CLASS LIMIT

- REPRESENTS THE LARGEST DATA VALUE THAT CAN BE INCLUDED IN CLASS

- EXAMPLE: 30 IN THE CLASS LIMIT 24-30

CLASS BOUNDARIES

- USED TO SEPARATE THE CLASSES SO THAT THERE ARE NO GAPS IN THE FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION
- BY SUBTRACTING 0.5 FROM LAST DIGIT OF THE LOWER CLASS
- AND ADDING 0.5 TO THE LAST DIGIT OF THE UPPER CLASS
EX:

YOUR CLASS LIMIT IS 24-30

LOWER CLASS LIMIT = 24

LOWER LIMIT – 0.5 = 24-0.5 = 23.5

UPPER CLASS LIMIT = 30 (JUST ADD .5)

UPPER CLASS LIMIT = 30.5

CLASS BOUNDARIES = 23.5-30.5

NOTE:
- CLASS LIMIT SHOULD HAVE THE SAME DECIMAL PLACE VALUE AS THE DATA.
- CLASS BOUNDARIES HAVE ONE ADDITIONAL PLACE VALUE AND END IN .5

FINDING CLASS BOUNDARIES

CLASS WIDTH
- SUBTRACTING THE LOWER OR UPPER CLASS LIMIT OF ONE CLASS FROM THE
LOWER OR UPPER CLASS LIMIT OF THE NEXT CLASS

CLASS MIDPOINT

- ADDING THE LOWER AND UPPER LIMITS AND DIVIDING BY 2

CLASS RULES:
- THERE SHOULD BE BETWEEN 5 AND 20 CLASSES

FORMULA FOR NUMBER OF CLASSES

NUMBER OF CLASSES = 1x3.3log(n)

- CLASS WIDTH SHOULD BE ODD

- MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE
- MUST BE CONTINUOS
- MUST BE EXHAUSTIVE
- MUST BE EQUAL WIDTH

PROCEDURE FOR CONSTRUCTING A GROUPED FRQUENCY DISTRBUTION

- FIND THE HIGHEST (H) AND LOWEST (L) VALUE

FORMULA FOR RANGE

RANGE= H-L

- SELECT NUMBER DESIRED USUALLY BET. 5 AND 20

- WIDTH IS BY DIVIDING THE RANGE BY THE NUMBER OF CLASSES AND
ROUNDING UP
FORMULA FOR CLASS WIDTH

CLASS WIDTH = RANGE/NUMBER OF

CLASSES
 1. SELECT A STARTING POINT (LOWEST VALUE), ADD THE WIDTH TO GET
LOWER LIMIT
2. FIND THE UPPER CLASS LIMITS
3. FIND THE BOUNDARIES
4. TALLY THE DATA
5. FIND NUMERICAL FREQUENCIES FROM THE TALLIES
6. FIND THE CUMULATIVE FREQUENCIES

GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

ROLE OF GRAPHS

- REPRESENT THE DATA TO THE VIEWER IN PICTORIAL FORM

- USEFUL IN GETTING THE AUDIENCE’S ATTENTION IN A PUBLICATION OR A
PRESENTATION

THE MOST COMMON GRAPHS

HISTOGRAM

- DISPLAYS THE CONTINOUS DATA THAT ARE ORGANIZED IN A GROUPED FREQUENCY

DISTRIBUTION BY USING VERTICAL BARS OF VARIOUS HEIGHTS TO REPRESENT THE
FREQUENCIES
FREQUENCY POLYGON

- USING LINES THAT CONNECT POINTS PLOTTED FOR THE FREQUENCIES AT THE MIDPOINT OF
THE CLASS

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY GRAPH OR OGIVE

- REPRESENTS CUMULATIVE FREQUENCIES FOR THE CLASSES IN A GROUPED FREQUENCY

DISTRIBUTION

RELATIVE FREQUENCY GRAPH

- USED INSTEAD OF FREQUENCIES WHEN THE PORTION OF DATA VALUES THAT FALL INTO A
GIVEN CLASS IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE ACTUAL NUMBER OF DATA VALUES THAT
FALL INTO THE CLASS.

-
OTHER TYPES OF GRAPH

BAR CHARTS

- DISPLAYS THE DATA BY USING VERTICAL BARS OF VARIOUS HEIGHTS TO REPRESENT THE
FREQUENCIES OF DISCRETE OR CATEGORICAL VARIABLES
PARETO CHART

- FOR CATEGORICAL VARIABLE

- FREQUENCIES ARE DISPLAYED BY HEIGHTS OF VERTICAL BARS WHICH ARE ARRANGED IN
ORDER FROM HIGHEST TO LOWEST

PIE GRAPH

- CIRCLE DIVIDED INTO SECTION

TIME SERIES GRAPH

- REPRESENTS DATA THAT OCCUR OVER A SPECIFIC PERIOD OF TIME

STEAM-AND-LEAF PLOT

- USES PART OF DATA VALUE AS STEM,

- MOST SIGNIFICANT DIGITS ‘TENS’
 - PART OF THE DATA VALUE AS LEAF
- LESS SIGNIFICANT DIGIT – UNITS

STEPS IN CREATING FREQUENCY TABLE

A. CLASS LIMITS
– SMALLEST AND LARGEST VALUES IN CLASS
- ALSO CALLED “CLASS BOUNDARIES”
- EX: 0-10, 0 IS LOWEST 10 IS HIGHEST
B. CLASS INTERVALS
- DIFFERENCE BETWEEN UPPER AND LOWER LIMIT OF CLASS
FORMULA:
i= L-S/R

where;
L = LARGEST VALUE
S= SHORTEST VALUE
R= NO. OF CLASS

METHODS OF FORMING CLASS INTERVAL

A. EXCLUSIVE METHOD (OVERLAPPING)
- upper limits of one class-interval are the lower limit of next class. This method makes
continuity of data.

B. INCLUSIVE METHOD (NON-OVERLAPPING)

-
CLASS FREQUENCY

- NUMBER OF OBSERVATION FALLING WITHIN CLASS-INTERVAL

-
MAGNITUDE OF CLASS INTERVAL

- DEPENDS ON THE RANGE AND NUMBER OF CLASSES

- RANGE IS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HIGHEST AND SMALLEST VALUE IS DATA SERIES
FORMULA TO FIND NUMBER OF CLASSES:

K = 1 + 3.322 log N

K = NO. OF CLASS
log N = LOGARITHM OF TOTAL NO. OF OBSERVATIONS

CLASS MIDPOINT OR CLASS MARKS

- MID VALUE OR CENTRAL VALUE OF CLASS INTERVAL

 STURGES FORMULA TO FIND SIZE OF CLASS INTERVAL

- SIZE OF CLASS INTERVAL (h) = RANGE/ 1+3.322log N

CONSTRUCTING A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

1. CLASSES SHOULD BE CLEARLY DEFINED

EACH OBSERVATION MUST BELONG TO ONE AND TO ONLY ONE INTERVAL
INTERVAL CLASSES MUST BE INCLUSIVE AND NON OVERLAPPING
2. NUMBER OF CLASSES SHOULD BE NEITHER TOO LARGE NOR TOO SMALL
TOO SMALL RESULT GREATER INTERVAL WIDTH WITH LOSS OF FREQUENCY
TOO MANY RESULT COMPLEXITY
3. INTERVALS SHOULD BE SAME WIDTH.
WITDTH OF INTERVAL = RANGE/NUMBER OF CLASSES

4. OPEN END CLASSES SHOULD BE AVOIDED SINCE CREATES DIFFICULTY IN ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION
5. INTERVALS WOULD BE CONTINOUS THROUGHOUT DISTRIBUTION
6. LOWER LIMITS OF THE CLASS INTERVALS SHOULD BE SIMPLE MULTIPLES OF THE INTERVAL.

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

- INDICATING DIRECTLY THE NUMBER OF UNITS THAT LIE ABOVE OR BELOW THE SPECIFIED
VALUES OF THE CLASS INTERVALS.
- SIMPLY MEANS THAT SUMMING UP THE CONSECUTIVE FREQUENCY.