KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING

TOPIC: IMPROVING WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM IN MUKURA SUB

COUNTY, NGORA DISTRICT
SUBMITTED

BY

OPIO RUPINY RICHARD

19/U/ECW/17607/WKD

SUPERVISED

BY

ENG. MWENZE RESTY

A final year individual research report submitted to the Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of
Bachelor of Engineering in Civil and Building engineering Degree of Kyambogo
University.

March 2023
 INFORMATION PAGE

NAME: OPIO RUPINY RICHARD REGISTRATION

NUMBER: 19/U/ECW/17607/WKD
EMAIL: rupinyrichard@gmail.com

CONTACT: 0773137449/ 0700523368

TOPIC: IMPROVING THE WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM CASE STUDY MUKURASUBCOUNTY/ NGORA
DISTRICT

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DECLARATION
This final year individual project proposal submitted to the Department of civil and environmental
engineering of Kyambogo University is mine and has not been previously published.

Signature: ……………………….……......……. Date: ………...…………………….…

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APPROVAL
This final year individual project proposal has been submitted for supervision with my approvalas the
supervisor.

Signature: ……………………….……......……. Date: ………...…………………….…

ENG. MWENZE RESTY

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My first and foremost thanks go to the Almighty God for providing me with the strength and
wisdom to undertake this program. I am most grateful to my supervisor, Eng. Mwenze Resty, for
her constant guidance and support. I am also grateful to the local council one of Mukura village
for hospitality and allowing me to carry out my survey and so many help pertaining information
on the village. I would like to extend my gratitude to the Mukura sub county authority for sign of
willingness shown in this study.
Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for their care, support and encouragement.

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DEDICATION
I dedicate this project proposal to my family members, all my friends, relatives and all my mentors
at each stage of compiling it

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ABSTRACT
The project is aimed at accessing the best way of supply safe water to Mukura village in Mukura
sub county Ngora district by improving a safe water supply system in order to combat the alarming
situation of water shortages in the village which is the most populated village in the whole sub
county. Accessibility to clean and safe water is a global problem and a lot of resources have been
pumped into water related projects in order to improve it.
The project is mainly concerned with the improving water supply system, from underground water
due to high quality and sustainable pumping.

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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Background of the study ............................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Statement of the problem .............................................................................................................................. 2
1.4 Objectives of the study .................................................................................................................................. 3
1.4.1 General objective ................................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.2 Specific Objectives................................................................................................................................. 3
1.5 Research questions ........................................................................................................................................ 3
1.6 Justification of the study ............................................................................................................................... 4
1.7 Significance of the study ............................................................................................................................... 4
1.8.0 Scope of the study .................................................................................................................................. 5
1.8.2 Geographical scope ................................................................................................................................ 5
1.8.3 Content scope ......................................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 6
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 6
COLOUR. ............................................................................................................................................................. 15
2.1 Biological Parameters ..................................................................................................................................... 15
2.2 Coliforms ........................................................................................................................................................ 15
CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS AND METHOD .................................................................................................. 16
3.2 Research design ........................................................................................................................................... 16
3.3 Research approach ...................................................................................................................................... 16
Physical parameters of water ................................................................................................................................ 23
Colour.................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Total Suspended Solids. ........................................................................................................................................ 23
Determination of Chemical Parameters ................................................................................................................ 23
Water PH. .............................................................................................................................................................. 24
CHAPTER 4 EXPECTED RESULTS AND OUTCOMES ............................................................................ 25
4.1 4.1 Population Data ......................................................................................................................................... 27
4.2 4.2 Design period ............................................................................................................................................ 28
4.3 4.3 Population Projection ................................................................................................................................ 28
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................... 34

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5.1 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 34
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................................................ 34

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Average day unit demand figures ........................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 2: Average day unit demand figures ........................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 3: Peak hour factors .................................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 4: showing some of the existing water sources........................................................................................................... 25
Figure 5: showing some of the community vendors fetching water ...................................................................................... 27
Figure 6: Population project ................................................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 7: Present, future and ultimate water demand ............................................................................................................. 30
Figure 8: showing the yield for Awojja River for the whole months..................................................................................... 31
Figure 9: Testing for physical parameters. ............................................................................................................................. 32
Figure 10: National water and sewerage corporation standards............................................................................................. 32
Figure 11: showing the laboratory test results ....................................................................................................................... 33

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LIST OF ABBREVATIONS/ACRONMYS

UBOS : Uganda Bureau of Statistics

M3 : Cubic meters

HDPE : High Density Polyethylene

PVC : Polyvinyl chloride
LDPE : Low density Polyethylene
PP : Polypropylene
PS : Polystyrene

USAID : United State Agency for International Development

WHO : World Health Organization
UN : United Nations
NWSC : National Water and Sewerage cooperation
UNICEF : United Nation International Children Emergency Fund
BOQ : Bill OF Quantity
GPS : Global Positioning System

HIDS : Human Immune Deficiency Syndrome

No : Number

FY : Financial Year
Km : Kilometer
M : Meter
Kwh : Kilowatt hour

AC : Alternating Current
MWE : Ministry of Water and Environment
mm : Millimeter
OLS : Old Land Surface
M/S : meter per second

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

This chapter comprised the background of the study, the main objective of the study; the specific
objective of the study; the scope of work which was categorized into time, content, and
geographical scopes; and the significance of the study. Water supply system is a combination of
system for gravity flow from the established source and conveying water from one point to
another in an enclosed conduit which is the pipes.

1.2 Background of the study

Water is an essential element in the life of people and contamination of such vital resource due to
intensive population growth, industrialization and urbanization is a serious health concern (Velea
et., 2009) . About 75% of the earth’s surface is water but obtaining portable water is a big problem.
Making portable water available to the increasing population is quite a challenge even though it’s
plenty. Water is “life” but it quality is “health”. Clean and safe drinking water is the key to good
health (Tahir, 2004).
Over 50,000 people die daily due to water borne diseases (Herschy,1999) and mortality rate in
children under five years from water related diseases annually is estimated to be about 4 million
in developing countries (USAID,1990; Warner,1998).Worst still,2.3 billion people worldwide
have mortality and morbidity associated with water related aliment (WHO 1997).
These diseases are commonly reported in low-income countries as provision of safe water,
sanitation and hygiene is sub-optimal (Rana, 2009). In developing countries, accessibility of safe
drinking water is still a problem and people are forced to use available unimproved water sources.
These water sources are often microbiologically unsafe and as a result, the most well-known
waterborne diseases such as cholera, amoebic dysentery and typhoid are reported from almost all
African countries especially in tropical areas of the region including Uganda (Chabalala and
Mamo, 2001, CNN Wire staff, 2010; Onah, 2010; Mugalura, 2010; WASH plus, 2010, WHO,
2010).
In Uganda, diarrheal disease is one of the leading causes of child mortality, accounting for anestimated 24
per cent of child deaths (WHO, 2006).
Besides these facts, Uganda is one of the world fast growing countries having about 35million

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people of which about (43%) do not have access to clean water (UBOS 2014 Census). For decades,
water scarcity has been a major issue in Uganda, caused mainly by years of recurrent droughts,
poor management of water supply, contamination of available water, and a sharp increase in water
demand resulting from relatively high population growth.
In many areas, the shortage of water in Uganda has been amplified by the government’s lack of
investment in water, especially in rural areas. [Samantha, 2011]
Most of urban poor Ugandans only have access to polluted water, which has caused cholera
epidemics and multiple other diseases that affect health and livelihoods. Despite the critical
shortage of clean water in Uganda urban slums, there is also a large rural to urban discrepancy in
access to clean water [Samantha, 2011]. According to World Bank (2010), slightly less than half
of the rural population has access to safe water including Mukura Sub County, as opposed to the
urban population where 85% have access to safe water. Alternative ways of sourcing for portable
water by designing water supply system which is affordable for Mukura village Mukura Sub
Countyis very paramount.

1.3 Statement of the problem

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that every year there are 1.7 million deaths
related to unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene, mainly through infectious diarrhea. Approximately
4 billion cases of diarrhea annually account for over 82 million disability adjusted life years
(DALYs), representing 5.7% of the global burden of disease and placing diarrheal diseases as the
third highest cause of morbidity and sixth highest cause of mortality (Pruss and Havelaar, 2001).
Effort has been made by the United Nations (UN) to provide potable water to Africa. One of the
millennium development goals is to reduce the number of people without safe drinking water by
half by the year 2025 (United Nations, 2007).
A study by (Gasana et al., 2002) investigated the impact of water supply and sanitation on diarrheal
morbidity in young children in Rwanda. The results from this study showed that contaminated
water and high open defecation affected young children rendering them more susceptible to
diarrhea. Access to safe drinking water sources in Uganda significantly increased from 54% in
2001 to 76% in 2015 because of high level investment in water sector by the government and other
development partners.

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In addition, Uganda has a target of providing safe water and sanitation to all Ugandan by 2040
(NWSC 2010). However, the country still has a long way to go as many rural areas have
insufficient inadequate unsafe water to meet the most basic drinking and households’ needs. Many
people have to travel great distances to the water source. Despite the abundance of water in Mukura
village mainly open surface water, unprotected well, it is not portable and it is unsafe for human
consumption.
Design of water supply system that can provide clean, safe and adequate water to the people will
be of great value to them. The sources available are not reliable and adequate, since they are
seasonal. Therefore, looking for a cheaper alternative method for sourcing the water will be of
great benefit to the people. It is the target of the government and the world at general to ensure
that all people are able to access basic needs where portable water is one of them.
Therefore in order to meet the target this study is urgently needed in order to come up with the
most economical design of water supply system for Mukura village in Mukura sub county Ngora
district.

1.4 Objectives of the study

1.4.1 General objective
To improve safe water supply system that can improve accessibility to clean, safe and adequate
water for use in Mukura sub county, Ngora district
1.4.2 Specific Objectives
1. To identify the possible water source
2. To determine the population and water demand category of Mukura Sub County.
3. To determine the physical, biological and chemical parameters of the existing water source.
4. To design a water supply system for Mukura Sub county

1.5 Research questions

a. Is there need to identify a suitable water source?

b. What is the population of the different water demand category?
c. What is the quality of water in Mukura Sub County?

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1.6 Justification of the study
Unfortunately, there is inadequate data on the design of water supply system in rural areas in
Uganda to provide a solid scientific base to speed-up and scale-up preventive measures of water
borne diseases. However, sub-standard water distribution systems, illegal connections to the
distribution system, pressure changes due to power outages, and other disruptions often lead to the
introduction of faecal contamination. Thus, microbiologically contaminated water is delivered to
consumers’ taps or collection points (Clasen et al., 2008; Sobsey et al., 2008). Waterborne diseases
outbreaks are common in the village of Mukura as seen from the various report from the health
centers in the village. Thus, establishing improved safe source of water from the sources is strongly
encouraged and methods of water collection and storage which may affect the quality of drinking
water.
Maintaining high level of drinking water quality is a major key practice in reducing diseases
associated with unsafe drinking water (Sobsey 2002). Additionally, a systematic review by
different researchers in 2005 concluded that diarrhea can be reduced by 56% through using safe
drinking water and safe storage (Fewtrell et al., 2005). According to ―The networks,‖ (2011),
Ugandan government acknowledged her early stage in use of safe drinking water and stressed the
need for immediate research into the new development. Therefore immediate research in order to
improve a safe economical water supply system to prevent the water borne diseases is paramount.

1.7 Significance of the study

The study will help to know if water used by the community is safe and if the community in
Mukura is aware of the causes of waterborne diseases and what can be done to reduce the
prevalence of waterborne diseases.
The results will assist in improving the safe water supply system and provision of water and
sanitation in the community by the sub county water authority.
The study results will provide information that aid in formulating policies and guideline on safe
drinking water in rural area in Uganda and the world at large.
The results of this study will assist the relevant authorities concern with water supply and
distribution in designing appropriate mitigation measures to ensure that domestic water supplies

4
Are protected and will enable policy makers to decide and implement best practices that protect
human beings from dangers resulting from drinking contaminated water.
The result of the study will help water department for the government, district authorities and the
sub county to make their budget easily because they can use the BOQ rates in this report as
reference.
The result of the study will help the students to understand the procedures to be followed when
improving water supply system.
1.8.0 Scope of the study
1.8.1 Time scope
The study will be carried out in the period of nine months commencing in June 2022 to February
2023.
1.8.2 Geographical scope
The study will be conducted basing on water quality, its reliability and demand in Mukura sub
county, Ngora district.
The water for the study will be sampled from various sources in different villages within Mukura
Sub County and will be transported for test from one of the most reliable registered laboratory in
Kampala. The research is to be carried out within the population size of 39,300 according to (UBOS,
2020).
1.8.3 Content scope
The population of the different water demand category for examples human population will be
obtained from the area local council one office, livestock population from the agricultural officer
of Mukura sub county, the school population and patient at the different health centres will as well
be obtained from office of the head teacher of each schools and office of in charges of each health
Centre respectively.

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

According to Amin (2005:138), literature review involves the systematic reviewing of different
books that will aid us to obtain information that will be looking at or assessment of textbooks that
will aid in the project. This was a review of literature on design of water distribution using Epanet,
need for water supply, burden of water borne diseases, surveying, identification, location and
analysis of documents containing information related to the research problem.

All sources of fresh water originate from rainfall, which is slightly acidic due to dissolution of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. In the form of surface run off, it will gather considerable amount
of organic and mineral matters, soil particles, and microorganisms. When surface run off infiltrates
into subsoil it forms groundwater. The ground water oozes out as springs. Perennial springs are
the fountain of surface water bodies e.g. streams, rivers, and lakes. Water source has a major effect
on water system design and hence costs. Different water sources require varying degrees of
treatment [Sundaravadivel et al., 2014]
Water supply has been a primary logistical challenge since the down of civilization. Where water
resources are insufficient for the population, people fall prey to diseases, dehydration, and in
extreme cases death. People tended to settle where fresh water was plentiful.
WATER SOURCES
The selection of a suitable source or combination of sources of water is one of the initial steps in
designing a water supply scheme. The source or sources must be capable of supplying sufficient
water of acceptable quality for the scheme. The selection of the most suitable water source involves
taking into account a number of general factors as follows:
Quantity: Is the quantity of water available at the source sufficient to meet present and future
demand? Water extraction permits from the Directorate of Water Resources Management in
Entebbe are required for water abstraction in Uganda.
Quality: Is the raw water quality such that, water which meets the quality standards specified in
MWE water supply design manual. Drinking water sources must meet the minimum WHO water
quality standards.
Cost: Are the capital as well as the operation and maintenance costs of the source acceptable?
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Technology: Is there appropriate technology and expertise to exploit and maintain the source of
water and associated water treatment and transmission facilities?
Protection: Can the water source be protected from present and future pollution and
contamination and can the catchment area be protected effectively to ensure the sustainability of
the quantity and quality of the raw water? The freshwater sources of Uganda include surface water
(rivers, streams and swamps), ground water (deep and shallow wells, springs) open water bodies
(lakes) and rainfall. Water sources can be broadly divided into
▪ Surface water sources
▪ Groundwater sources
▪ Rainfall water.
SURFACE WATER SOURCES
Surface water is exposed to the atmosphere and subject to surface runoff. It comes from rains,
surface runoff and groundwater, and includes rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, impounding reservoirs,
seas, and oceans. The quantity of surface runoff depends on a large number of factors; the most
important of which are the amount and intensity of rainfall, the climate and vegetation, and the
geological, geographical, and topographical features of the catchment area. The quality of surface
water is determined by the amount of pollutants and contaminant picked up by the water in the
course of its travel. While flowing over the ground, surface water collects silt, decaying organic
matter, bacteria and other microorganisms from the soil. Thus, all surface water sources should be
presumed to be unsafe for human consumption without some form of treatment. For rural water
supply systems, surface water that is determined to need treatment is normally not a viable source
because of the high cost of treatment and the general lack of expertise for the maintenance and
operation of the appropriate treatment facilities
Where no other source is available, some form of subsidy may need to be arranged to set up and
operate the treatment facilities. For these reasons, surface water is usually a last priority in
selecting sources for rural water supply systems.
GROUND WATER SOURCES
Groundwater is that portion of rainwater which has percolated beneath the ground surface to form
underground deposits called aquifers. The upper surface of groundwater is the water table.
Groundwater is often clear, free from organic matter and bacteria due to the filtering effect of soil
on water percolating through it. However, groundwater almost always contains minerals dissolved
from the soil.
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Groundwater is often better in quality than surface waters, less expensive to develop for use, and
usually provides more adequate supply in many areas in the country. For rural water supply
systems, groundwater is generally preferred as a water source (MWE, 2013) The types and
extraction methods are as follows:
Wells
It is a hole constructed by any method such as digging, driving, boring, or drilling for the purpose
of withdrawing water from underground aquifers Wells can vary greatly in depth, water volume
and water quality. Well water typically contains more minerals in solution than surface water and
may require treatment to soften the water by removing minerals such as arsenic, iron and
manganese.
Well water may be drawn by pumping from a source below the surface of the earth. Alternatively,
it could be drawn up using containers, such as buckets that are raised mechanically or by hand.
Infiltration Galleries/Wells
Infiltration galleries are horizontal wells, constructed by digging a trench into the water-bearing
sand and installing perforated pipes in it. Water collected in these pipes converges into a “well”
from which it is pumped out.
Springs
It is point where groundwater flows out of the ground, and is thus where the aquifer surface meets
the ground surface. A spring may be ephemeral (intermittent) or perennial (continuous). Springs
can be developed by enlarging the water outlet and constructing an intake structure for water
catchment and storage.
Springs are found mainly in mountainous or hilly areas. A spring can be defined as a place where
rock or clay layers block the flow of underground water, forcing it upwards where the outflow
emerges in the open at the ground surface.
In Uganda, there are two main types of springs as follows:
• Gravity springs: occurring in unconfined aquifers; and
• Artesian springs: occurring in aquifers overlain by confining impervious layers preventing the
water from rising to its free water table level, and therefore kept under pressure.
To locate good springs and to get information about their reliability especially during drought
periods the designer should consult the local people resident in the area.
For springs with high yields that may be considered for high demand pipe schemes, there should
be a provision for flow measurement to monitor the variation of the spring yield over time. It is
8
common to find springs without any flow records. (MWE, 2013)
Yield
To measure the yield of springs identified as potential sources for a water supply scheme, simple
devices such as over-flow weirs and V-notches should be installed as early as possible in the
planning process of the scheme.
Spring yield is measured in litres per second (l/s). The measurement process involves two selected
trained people who measure the discharge from the spring over the study period.
a) The process starts with the construction of an earth dam
b) Spring water retained by the dam is drained through a pipe.
c) One person collects the water with a container of a known volume while the other measures
the time needed to fill the container.
d) The pipe diameter and container size are chosen such that the water outflow will not fill the
measuring container in less than five seconds. Sometimes several pipes are used
e) Four readings are taken during the day and day averages are calculated, expressing the discharge
in l/s. This is repeated once every week for the measuring period. In this way, the minimum and
maximum yields are determined. (MWE, 2013)
Measurement of yield should be done both in the dry and wet seasons, for determination of safe
yield, the dry season yield is particularly important. In all developments on springs, there shall be
installed a flow measuring device to monitor flow rate for springs over time.
Studies of catchments with many springs channeled into a single supply point must be carried out
carefully for reasons of back-pressure effects. Simply adding the yields from each individual
spring together is not enough.
An excessive flow could build up a back pressure and cause some springs to divert their courses.
In some cases, it may lead to permanent damage to the catchment. The designer needs to study the
flow characteristics of any collection chambers or pipes and ensure that each spring outlet flows
freely.
Flows from artesian springs often fluctuate less than flows from gravity springs. Variations in
flow of gravity springs can be considerable and therefore many measurements are required to
determine if the spring can supply sufficient water for a planned scheme.
The bacteriological quality of water from artesian springs also tends to be better, because the
impervious confining layers protect the water in the spring aquifer against contamination.
Therefore, in most cases artesian springs are to be preferred to gravity springs. For water supply
9
designs purposes the safe yield of springs should be estimated as 2/3 of the dry season yield.
(MWE, 2013)
WATER DEMAND
A water supply scheme will almost without exception cater for water demand, which will be
increasing with the years to come. When designing a scheme, a decision has to be taken regarding
the time in the future, for which the various components of the scheme are to be designed.
To calculate the water demand for a water supply scheme
It is necessary to do the following:
• Determine the numbers of consumers falling within the different consumer categories at various
stages of the design period
• Determine the average day unit water demand figures for the various consumer categories
concerned.
There are different types of “water demand”. These include domestic demand, institutional
demand (educational institutions, health institutions etc), commercial demand (shops, workshops,
restaurants, bars, hotels, banks etc), industrial demand, other demands (e.g., irrigation, firefighting,
livestock demand, losses/unaccounted-for-water and internal water works demand). For water
supply, the average daily per capita consumption (ADPCC) is defined as

Average Day Unit Water Demand Figures The average day unit water demand figures, which are to be used in
conjunction with the numbers of the domestic, institutional, commercial, industrial and other consumers to calculate the
“Average Day Demands” are shown in Table 1. The average day unit water demand figures are represented as guidelines,
which may be adjusted if different figures are shown to be more appropriate in a particular situation. The figures
represent the mean values of water demands for the respective consumer types. For each given consumer type, there will
be considerable variations in water demands from member to member

10
11
Figure 1: Average day unit demand figures

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Peaking Factors
Peaking factor is defined as maximum demand over a given period of time divided by the average demand over
the same period of time

Daily Peaking Factor

This is the maximum daily demand divided by the average annual daily demand. The value is usually between
1.1 and 1.3. The daily peaking factor reflects the seasonal variation in demand and is used to design production
and storage facilities and bulk supply mains. Its magnitude depends on climatic factors and the requirement for
seasonal uses such as garden watering. In the absence of specific local information, a value of 1.2 may be taken
Hourly Peaking Factor
This is the maximum hourly demand divided by the average hourly demand. The value is usually between 2
and 3. This reflects water use patterns through the course of a typical day and is used in the design of
distribution mains. Its magnitude depends on: the number of individual house connections; the number of stand
posts; industrial and commercial uses; and the extent to which buildings have their own water storage facilities.
For the design of a distribution system with a continuous or near continuous supply to house connections, a
factor of 2.5 should be taken if local data is not available. NB: Where water supply is intermittent and less than
about 12 hours per day, peak factors are likely to be higher. Where local data are not available, the peak factor
in such situations may be 30 taken as, where N is the number of hours of supply during the day.
Weekly Peaking Factor
This is not normally used. It is about 50% of the daily peaking factor. Note: Peaking factors vary with the
population to be served; the smaller the supply area, the larger the peak factor

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WATER QUALITY TESTS
The first and most important aspect in water supply system design is the quality of the water for human
consumption (drinking water) the quality of water provided by a municipal water system is based on three
distinct characteristics, each of which may independently govern the desirable portability of the water. These
characteristics are:
Total suspended Solids (TSS)
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) represents the amount of inorganic substance and minerals in water. It measures
all the materials dissolved in water. It may consist of carbonates, chlorides, iron, magnesium and other
parameters. TDS can be estimated by measuring conductance. Conductivity is the measure of the ability of
dissolved ions in water to conduct. Higher concentration of TDS causes gastrointestinal irritation in consumers
and kidney problems. These measures are a combined content of all inorganic and organic substances contained
in the spring water in molecular and ionized suspended form. Sources of dissolved solids in water body can
vary with the main activity of the surrounding communities and even the geological lay out of the place where
the water bodies are located.
Water pH
The water pH is the measurement of hydrogen ion concentration in water. The pH unit
measures the degree of acidity or alkalinity of water. Determination of water pH is an important
objective in order to ascertain the suitability of spring water for consumption. Water pH affects
the solubility of heavy metals in the water. PH is therefore crucial because it controls biological
and chemical processes that occur in water. According to European Union (EU) regulations for
safe drinking water pegs the minimum range is at ≥6.5 to ≤9.5 and The Ugandan water quality
standards ranges from ≥6.5 to ≤8.5. Fresh drinking water should have a pH level of 20 to 200
milligrams of calcium carbonate for a liter of water
TURBIDITY
Turbidity is the interference of light passage through water by small suspended particles such
as, silt extracted from soil and humus and mineral matters
Digital turbid meter. The light from a light source passes through the sample, and the intensity
light scattered is measured by a photoelectric cell and converted to electrical energy which is
proportional to the turbidity of the sample and the turbidity is read direct on the meter. The
meter is standardized with a prepared stock solution of hydrazinium sulphate and
hexamethylene tetramine

14
COLOUR. Colour is physical property and has a direct influence on the consumer’s attitude towards the water
they consume. It is therefore important to keep it to a minimum preferably undetectable level in treated water.
Colour is detectable to the eye when it exceeds 5 units and i have tried to reduce colour below this level.
Colour test kit consists of Comparator, Colour discs & 2 cells.
As per the procedure, the reading obtained from the scale is multiplied by 5 to obtain the apparent colour which
should not be above 5 nits.
2.1 Biological Parameters
2.2 Coliforms
The concept of Coliforms as bacterial indicators of microbial water quality is based on the idea that because
Coliforms are present in high numbers in human and other warm-blooded animal faeces. With exceptions,
Coliforms themselves are not considered to be a health risk, but their presence indicates that fecal
contamination may have occurred and pathogens might be present as a result

15
CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 Desk review

Introduction.
This chapter described the material that was used, processes and the procedures that was followed to obtain
sample from the different sources of water in the field and test carried out in the laboratory. The data that that
were acquired include:-
a) The alternative sources of water in the area
b) The geographical location of the area through the use of Google maps and Google earth
c) The socio-infrastructure which include administration, education facilities, urban centers and health
facilities
3.2 Research design
The study was an experimental research, to determine the quality of water in Mukura Sub County. The tests were
performed in accordance with the British Standard Test Procedures and any other recognized standard at the
Central Materials Laboratory (CML) bugolobi.
3.3 Research approach

The Research approach used in this study was both quantitative and qualitative approach meaning focusing on
both numerical variables and Qualitative phenomena. Water sample was collected from within MukuraSub County.

DATA COLLECTION

To ensure all the desired data was collected, a reconnaissance survey and social economic survey were conducted
in Mukura village

Reconnaissance survey

Several site visits were carried out to the Mukura community area which involved walking along the entire
Mukura community for the following reasons;

• To see the site, its surroundings and existing alignment.

• To locate the possible water sources in the area from which we can generate water to supply our reservoir.

• To acquaint ourselves with the relevant authorities from whom valuable information would be obtained.

16
• To obtain information about the area i.e., water quality and quantity of possible sources, current water and
sanitation situations.

WATER DEMAND ASSESEMENT

Design period

The DWD Water Supply design Manual (2013) gives the following timeline for the determination of the design
Horizon:

a) Initial Year- Year of Commissioning Water Supply System taken to be 5 years after commencement of
Feasibility Studies.

b) Future year-10 years ahead of initial year Ultimate Year- 20 years Design Horizon from Initial Year

Design population

The population for Mukura RGC was adopted from Uganda Bureau of Statistics based on The Uganda Population
and Housing Census 2014. Population data from the 2014 Uganda Population and Housing Census was obtained
from Ngora district planning unit and district development plan 2015/16 to 2019/2020.

For the schools, religious institutions and hospitals, field data was picked directly from their administrative offices

Population growth rate

Mukura RGC is expected to grow faster than the surrounding rural areas. It is expected that the institutional,
Industrial and commercial activity will grow at the same rate as the future domestic growth rate. The adopted
growth rate was from UBOS and DDP based on The Uganda Population and Housing Census, 2014

Population projections

Future Population estimates were calculated using the Geometrical Increase Method with the help of the
following equation:

Pn = Po * (1 + r) n

Pn: Population at time ‘n’ years,

Po: Base Population in initial year, r: Annual population growth rate (%),

17
n: The difference in years between the horizon and initial year District population growth rate of 2.33% which
was obtained from the Ngora district

Water consumption

The per capita domestic consumption rates were based on the level of service being offered. In determining the
rates of consumption for the water demand, a comparison of the rates used in previous studies in the country
with those in the DWD Water Manual 2013 was carried out

Four levels of service and corresponding per capita consumption rates were proposed and these are summarized
below.

• For House Connections in Mukura, medium income housing is predominant therefore the rate of 100 l/c/d
from the DWD Water Manual 2013 has been adopted.

• The rate of consumption at the yard tap of a Single household figure of 40 l/c/d from the DWD Water Manual
2013 was adopted.

18
19
Figure 2: Average day unit demand figures
Hydraulic peak factors
Peak day factor The Average Day Demand which depicts the daily water consumption by domestic and non-
domestic consumers is subject to seasonal climatic variations, harvest seasons, and other factors such as
transient population, and religious and cultural festivals.
To allow for increased demands during these seasons, a maximum day peak factor of 1.3 was used as shown in
the table below. Application of this factor to the Average Day Demand gives us the Maximum Day Demand
which will be used to design the capacities of the water source works, raw and treated water transmission
mains, pumping stations, water treatment plants, and reservoirs.

20
Peak hour factor
Hourly fluctuations in demand vary depending on water usage. These fluctuations are catered for by peak hour
factors which tend to be high for small rural communities and lower for larger communities. Distribution mains
have to be designed with adequate capacity to meet the peak hour demands of the consumers being supplied.
To accommodate the peak hourly flow in the major distribution mains from the reservoir to the RGC peak hour
factors based on population were chosen for each consumer category

Figure 3: Peak hour factors

Linear interpolation may be used to determine “Peak Hour Factors” for intermediate population figures. Where
reliable records of actual consumption patterns do exist, corresponding “Peak Hour Factors” should be
calculated accordingly. Large institutions and industries may have their own on-site balancing
SELECTION OF THE WATER SOURCE
The selection of the appropriate water source to be used as source of water for the water supply system was
based on several key factors among which included water quality, yield and reliability.
Source yield
The ideal and expected source should have a higher yield than average daily demand for Mukura community in
the ultimate year or should be able to satisfy the maximum daily demand in the ultimate year.
The reliability of the source
The amount of water from the source should be available throughout the year in order to constantly supply our
supply system water demand of the area. For the selected river Awoja hose yield was being monitored research
and inquiries were made about their flows through the year from the reliable locals from the area. The source
seemed to be quite reliable throughout the year even during the dry season.
Quality of the source water
The source water quality has to meet the set WHO standards and Uganda standards for drinking water quality.
Samples of raw water were collected from the above-mentioned source whose yield and reliability were
acceptable and tested in the National sewerage corporation laboratory for quality with respect to the different

21
parameters i.e. the corresponding results were compared with WHO water standards and Uganda standards for
drinking water quality.
Assessment of the Physical, Chemical and Micro Biological Water Parameters
In order to assess the water quality of the possible water source in Mukura community, samples of raw water
were collected from two of the sources whose yield and reliability was acceptable and tested in the Makerere
university public health engineering laboratory for quality with respect to the different parameters i.e. The
corresponding results were compared with WHO water standards and Uganda standards for drinking water
quality.
Sampling
Sampling was done to obtain representative samples from two possible water sources in Mukura rural growth
centre. The sampling procedures used were;
• Sampling bottles were prepared early in the morning of the sampling day by disinfecting them using boiling
water
• After disinfecting, the bottles were packed together with ice in a flask and taken to the water sources.
• At each spring, the sprout was thoroughly cleaned using a clean piece of cloth
• Then water was let to run for a minute while under observation to ensure all the contamination is eliminated
• The bottles were then filled with the water which was later poured away to ensure no contamination and a
correct representative sample.
• The bottles were then filled again with the actual samples from the spring packed in the flask with ice for
transportation to the laboratory.
• A representative sample from the River Awojja in Mukura while Population and population project

22
Determination of Physical Parameters, chemical and biological parameters
Physical parameters of water
Turbidity.
3.1.1 Digital turbid meter. As per the procedure, the light from a light source passes through the sample, and
the intensity light scattered was measured by a photoelectric cell and converted to electrical energy which is
proportional to the turbidity of the sample and the turbidity is read direct on the meter. The meter is
standardized with a prepared stock solution of hydrazinium sulphate and hexamethylene tetramine
Colour.
Is physical property and has a direct influence on the consumer’s attitude towards the water they consume.
Colour test kit consists of Comparator, Colour discs &2 cells. As per the procedure, the reading obtained from
the scale is multiplied by 5 to obtain the apparent colour which should not be above 5 nits.
Total Suspended Solids. A conductivity meter was used to read the Total Dissolved Solids (TSS) levels in the
spring water. The value of the TSS represents the amount of ions or any other charged molecules in the spring
water and it varies with the terrain and the main underlying rock in the area.
Principle
Total hardness (soluble calcium and magnesium) was determined by complexometric titration of the sample
using Ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid (EDTA) in the presence of a suitable indicator. When the indicator
Eriochrome Black T was added to a solution containing calcium and magnesium ions at pH  0.1 the solution
was pink to wine red in colour depending on the concentration of ions present. On titration with EDTA the
solution turned blue (end point), when sufficient EDTA was been added to complex all the calcium,
magnesium and other reactive ions present.
Determination of Chemical Parameters.
The analysis of Calcium and Magnesium was done using the absorption spectrophotometer machine. The
spring water samples taken will be treated using melich 3 solution, strontium chloride and distilled water
before being aspirated into the flame spectrophotometer. The readings of the concentrations will be obtained
and reported in mille-equivalents.
Total Hardness
To provide a standard operating procedure for determining the Total hardness of water and wastewater samples
following Standard Methods.

23
Water PH.
The pH of the water samples was measured using the pH meter, after using the pH meter. Water pH will be
determined at the laboratory. The pH results of the samples will be compared with those of The Ugandan water
quality standards guideline limits for drinking water to establish if the spring water is safe for human cons
Electrolytic conductivity
It reflects the extent of the amount of Total dissolved salts (TDS) or Total amounts of Dissolved ions in water.
The SI unit is Siemens per meter. Solids can be found in nature in a dissolved form. Salts that dissolve in water
break into positively and negatively charged ions. Conductivity is the ability of water to conduct an electrical
current, and the dissolved ions are the conductors. Since it is difficult to measure total dissolved solids in the
field, the electrolytic conductivity of the water is used as a measure because it is determined in a quick and
inexpensive way using portable meters
Determination of Biological Parameters
The level of micro-organism in the spring water was determined by the testing for some Coliforms in the water
samples. The levels of Coliforms in the water are a representation of the living organisms in the spring water
Determination of bacteriological contamination of water was done using the membrane filtration technique.
This technique was selected because it is an easy technique that can be performed. It is accuracy and speedy in
obtaining results. A water samples was taken and filtered through a membrane filter. The membrane with the
coliform organisms on it was then be cultured on a pad of sterile selective broth containing lactose and an
indicator and incubated. After incubation for 24 hours at 37°c Coliforms will begin to show. The Coliforms
bacteriological testing was further done through incubation of the culture for a further 24 hours at 440c. This
indicated whether there were possibilities of leaking fecal matter in the spring water.

24
CHAPTER 4 EXPECTED RESULTS AND OUTCOMES

This chapter introduces the expected results and the finding

Reconnaissance survey results
Existing water supply
There is no central piped water supply system in Mukura RGC. Point water supply is from both improved and
unimproved water sources. The mains sources are boreholes and wells and streams. Because of the not fairly
even spread of the water sources, a majority of the residents are not able to access water within a radius of 300m.

Figure 4: showing some of the existing water sources

Shallow Wells and springs
Most of the population in Mukura RGC is served by improved water sources like shallow wells and protected
dug wells. Unimproved water sources like unprotected springs and unprotected dug well are also used
Boreholes
Water supply for Mukura also comprises of eight boreholes (with hand pumps) variously located within the
village. All the boreholes are accessible by the public. There is also one privately owned boreholes

25
Household Size
Findings from the household survey indicate that the overall average household size (4.20) did not vary
significantly from that of the 2014 census (4.60). Considering the fact that 2014 Preliminary National Census
results show that the National average household size of 4.7, then the average household sizes within the project
are do not significantly differ from the national average
Household Earning
Capacity (Number of Households that earn an income) Most households had between 1 and 2 members earning
some kind of income. Very few households had more than two members earning income. On the other hand, few
of the surveyed households across the study areas claimed not to have any income earning person
Average Monthly Household Income
For purposes of analysis, household income was defined as the sum of income that accrues from economic
activities performed by household members. The average household income has been used as a surrogate
indicator for its capacity to meet domestic recurrent expenditures and sustain investments in water and sanitation
improvement. The overall average household income for the study area is Shs 100000 per month The Uganda
National Health Survey 2009/10 put the average household income for rural areas in Uganda at Shs 119,200 per
month.
The predominant income generating activity of most households was farming as reported followed by trading
and casual labor Other activities that were of marginal significance were government, shop attendant and boda-
bodas operator. Basing on the International poverty line of 1.25 dollars per day equivalent to Shs 108,000 per
month, it can be concluded that less than half of sampled household heads monthly income is below international
the poverty.
Distance to Water Source
The amount of time spent collecting water is a surrogate measure for a household’s access and attendant
consumption of water (Boot and Cairncross 1993). Distance to different water sources (other than those located
within the premises of households) varied across study areas depending nature of water sources.
Overall, most of the sampled households travelled more than 500metres to collect water, which was
uncomfortably within national requirements for rural areas and beyond the national requirements of 1 km for
rural areas

26
Figure 5: showing some of the community vendors fetching water
Travel Time Collecting Water from Different Sources
The Travel-time which is the total time to fetch water, which includes time traveling to and from the source,
queuing, and filling containers, should be as short as possible. The survey results Error! Reference source not
found. Show that cumulatively, most households spend more than 40 mins collecting water which is not
gratifying as this is not ideal travelling time in Uganda Standards
Operation and Maintenance of Community Water Sources
The status and functionality of Water supply infrastructure is critical a determinant of community’s ability to enjoy un-
interrupted access to water for domestic and production purposes. Continuity of water supply is important because access
to an improved water source as and when households require is a major indicator of sustained water supply and
effectiveness of the O & M systems in place. One of the major causes of interruption in water supply is Supply System
break down due to mechanical or other causes. The survey explored the status and functionality of the existing improved
water sources as a surrogate indicator of the effectiveness of Operation and maintenance system.
4.1 4.1 Population Data
The human population in the area is approximately 1600 (source from the office of the local council 1 office of
the study area) and 80 livestock units (sourced from area agricultural officer). The targeted Union Mission Vision
primary school has a population of 550 pupils, Mukura nursery school 43, Mukura Memorial senior secondary
school 360 students both day and boarding and King of Kings senior secondary school 262 students (source from
office of the head teacher of each school). Also, Mukura health Centre 111 30 patients, Town council medical
Centre 25 patients, Good Samaritan Uganda medical Centre 15 patients. The patients’ data include both out
patients and in patients (source from the respective in charge of the health centers above). The area is remote but
27
it’s has been reopened by construction of a tarmac road thus expecting the population growth rate of 3.0% as per
the latest census in 2016. The number of livestock units is also expected to grow at the same rate.
The study area has about 300 households and about 5 people on average per household. The human population
includes; the native of the area, working class who are staying in the village because of work and as well as the
business community who are mainly the people who have moved to the village to carryout business activities.
For livestock it comprises mainly of goats and pigs with some few cattle. The settlement pattern is mainly linear
that is to say mainly along the tarmac road which is constructed sometime in 2008 from Mbale-Lira through the
village.
4.2 4.2 Design period
The initial year is one year after fully implementation of the project while the future and ultimate years are 10
and 20 years respectively (water supply design manual, MWE 2013). The design periods are as follows:
a) Present year 2021 of project implementation
b)Initial year 2025 when the project is expected to be in operational
c) Future year 2035 year of project operation
d)Ultimate year 2045, after which the project needs rehabilitation
4.3 4.3 Population Projection
By using the geometric method of population forecasting, the human and livestock population over the design
period and based on the growth rate of 3.0% will be: - The formulae used was
Pn  P (1 r) r
Where P = population after n year
P = present population and
r = annual growth rate (%)
Calculation for human population
Given
Future population
P =1600, n = 10, r = 0.03
P =1600 (1+0.030) 10 =2151
Ultimate,
P = 1600(1+0.0.030) 20 = 2890
Repeating for the primary and nursery schools, health centers and livestock

28
 Category present future Ultimate
Human 1600 2151 2890
Livestock 80 108 145
Primary 593 797 1071
and
nursery
schools
Secondary 622 836 1124
schools
Health 70 94 127
centers
Figure 6: Population project
Water Demand
The design was based on ultimate design periods, for communal water connections (water points). The daily
water requirements were as follows;
Qn  D P  C P
For human
Qd=2890  20litres/person /day = 57800 litres/day
For livestock
Qd =145  50litre/head/day = 7250 litres/day
For primary and nursery school
Qd = 1071  10litres/head/day =10710 litres/day
For secondary schools
1124 10litres/std/day = 11240 litres/day
For health centers
= 127 70litres/head/day = 8890 litres/day

29
 Category present future Ultimate
Human 32000 43020 57800
Livestock 4000 5400 7250
Primary 5930 7970 10710
and
nursery
schools
Secondary 6220 8360 11240
schools
Health 4900 6580 8890
centers
Total 95890
(litres/day)
Figure 7: Present, future and ultimate water demand

The ultimate water demand was 95890 litres/day (95.890m3 /day) for 10 hours which was
equivalent to

30
SELECTION OF THE WATER SOURCE

Source yield
One potential source was tested for yield over a period of 1 months the source is River Awojja which is located
a distance of 3km from Mukura Sub Country.
Yield measurement the results for yield are shown in the table below.
Table 13: Yield results

Figure 8: showing the yield for Awojja River for the whole months
THE RELIABILITY OF THE SOURCE
The amount of water from the source should be available throughout the year in order to constantly supply our
supply system water demand of the area. For the selected stream whose yield was being monitored research
and inquiries were made about its flow through the year from the reliable locals from the area. The source
seemed to be quite reliable with enough amount water which was said to be constant even in the dry seasons
WATER QUALITY RESULTS.
In order to assess the water quality of the possible water source in Mukura community, samples of raw water
were collected from the source whose yield and reliability was acceptable and tested in the National water and
sewerage corporation laboratory for quality with respect to the different parameters i.e. The corresponding
results were compared with WHO water standards and Uganda standards for drinking water quality

31
Figure 9: Testing for physical parameters.

Figure 10: National water and sewerage corporation standards

32
Figure 11: showing the laboratory test results

33
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSIONS
Regardless of the many challenges and setbacks encountered mainly financial, all the project objectives were
achieved which were; To identify the possible water sources, To determine the water demand in Makura
community, To assess the physical, chemical and micro biological water parameters and To design the water
supply system components i.e. pipe network, transmission and distribution system and sizing the storage
reservoir.
The water quality from the chosen stream was in line with the Uganda standards for drinking water apart from
turbidity and colour
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Given that the positive impacts of the project outweigh the negative impacts of the project, it’s recommended
that funds should be lobbied to implement this scheme and its success will be of great help to entire Mukura
rural growth centre.
It is necessary to carry out rain water harvesting in such water constrained areas to supplement the water
supplied by this system to increase water available.
It’s also recommended that further tests be done on water quality to get a more representative idea of the
quality since the tests that were done are insufficient.
Community participation and ownership is highly recommended especially maintenance activities and
reducing the misuse of the system

34
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Appendix

37
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39