COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

Seminar Report

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING

by

DASARI NAVYA (B160562CE)

BHAWANI SAINI (B160450CE)
SUSHIL INANIYAN (B160305CE)

Department of Civil Engineering

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY CALICUT

November 2019

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We take this opportunity to express our intense gratitude to the faculty in
charge for his guidance in the selection and preparation of the seminar topic report.

We also thank our parents, brothers, sisters and friends for their support and
encouragement in the making of this seminar report.

We would also like to express my gratitude towards all the authors of the
journal papers referred, for the provision of precise and accurate information.

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 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the seminar work entitled “COASTAL

ECOSYSTEMS” submitted to the National Institute of Technology Calicut, is a
record of an original work done by us under the guidance of Faculty-in-charge for the
course (CE4023), Dept. of Civil Engineering and this seminar work is submitted in
partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Civil Engineering. The results embodied in this seminar work have not
been submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any degree or
diploma.

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Table of Contents

1.INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................1

1.1 ECOSYSTEM:...................................................................................................................1

1.2 ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES.................................................................................................1

1.3 COASTAL ECOSYSTEM:...................................................................................................2

2.COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND ITS COMPONENTS......................................4

2.1 FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS.......................................................................................4

2.1.1 Streams...................................................................................................................4

2.1.2 Lakes:.......................................................................................................................5

2.1.3 Wetlands.................................................................................................................6

2.2 COASTAL INTERFACE ECOSYSTEMS...............................................................................9

2.2.1 Sand Beaches And Dunes........................................................................................9

2.2.2 Rocky Beaches.......................................................................................................10

2.2.3 Headlands..............................................................................................................12

2.3 ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEMS.........................................................................................14

2.3.1 Estuaries................................................................................................................14

2.3.2 Coastal Lagoons.....................................................................................................16

2.3.3 Tidal Wetlands.......................................................................................................16

2.3.4 Mangroves.............................................................................................................17

2.4 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS.................................................................................................20

2.4.1 Coral Reefs............................................................................................................20

2.4.2 Macroalgal Forests................................................................................................22

2.4.3 Seagrass Meadows................................................................................................23

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3.COASTAL ECOSYSTEM SERVICES................................................................25

3.1 SUPPORTING SERVICES.................................................................................................25

3.2 REGULATING SERVICES:................................................................................................25

3.3 CULTURAL SERVICES:....................................................................................................25

3.4 PROVISIONING SERVICES..............................................................................................25

4.THREATS TO COASTAL ECOSYSTEM..........................................................26

4.1 EUTROPHICATION:.......................................................................................................26

4.2 WATER POLLUTION:.....................................................................................................26

4.3 FISHING:.......................................................................................................................26

4.4 CLIMATE CHANGE:.......................................................................................................27

5.PROTECTION MEASURES................................................................................28

SUMMARY................................................................................................................29

REFERENCES..........................................................................................................30

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 List Of Figures
Figure 1. Coastal Ecosystem processes.................................................................................3
Figure 2.A Stream in Wayanad, Kerala...............................................................................5
Figure 3.Pookode lake, Kerala..............................................................................................6
Figure 4.Female Moose at wetland in Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada......8
Figure 5.Wooded wetland, near the Stillaguamish River in Washington..........................9
Figure 6.Rossbeigh Sandy Beach and Dunes in Ireland....................................................13
Figure 7.El Matador Rocky Beach, Los Angeles, California............................................13
Figure 8.Marin Headlands, San Francisco.........................................................................13
Figure 9.Estuary found where Parker River meets the Atlantic Ocean...........................18
Figure 10 Chilika lagoon, Orissa, India..............................................................................19
Figure 11.Tidal Wetland, Darwin, Australia.....................................................................19
Figure 12.Mangroves on the Indian coast of Mozambique...............................................19
Figure 13.Coral Reefs..........................................................................................................24
Figure 14.Giant Kelp found in Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary.................24
Figure 15.Seagrass found near Mediterranean..................................................................24
Figure 16.Protection Measure...............................................................................................28

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 ECOSYSTEM:
An ecosystem can be visualised as a functional unit of nature, where living
organisms interact among themselves and also with the surrounding physical
environment. Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a large forest or a
sea. Many ecologists regard the entire biosphere as a global ecosystem, as a
composite of all local ecosystems on Earth. Since this system is too much big and
complex to be studied at one time, it is convenient to divide it into two basic
categories, namely the terrestrial and the aquatic. Forest, grassland and desert are
some examples of terrestrial ecosystems; pond, lake, wetland, river and estuary are
some examples of aquatic ecosystems. Crop fields and an aquarium may also be
considered as man-made ecosystems.

The structure of an ecosystem includes Productivity, Decompostion, Energy

flow and Nutrient Cycling. A constant input of solar energy is the basic requirement
for any ecosystem to function and sustain.

Healthy ecosystems are the base for a wide range of economic,

environmental and aesthetic goods and services. Healthy forest ecosystems purify air
and water, mitigate droughts and floods, cycle nutrients, generate fertile soils, provide
wildlife habitat, maintain biodiversity, pollinate crops, provide storage site for carbon
and also provide aesthetic, cultural and spiritual values. Though value of such
services of biodiversity is difficult to determine, it seems reasonable to think that
biodiversity should carry a hefty price tag.

1.2 ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES

Productivity, decomposition, energy flow, and nutrient cycling are the four
important processes of an ecosystem.

Primary productivity is the rate of capture of solar energy or biomass

production of the producers. It is divided into two types: gross primary productivity
(GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). Rate of capture of solar energy or total

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production of organic matter is called as GPP. NPP is the remaining biomass or the
energy left after utilisation of producers. Secondary productivity is the rate of
assimilation of food energy by the consumers.

In decomposition, complex organic compounds of detritus are converted to

carbon dioxide, water and inorganic nutrients by the decomposers. Decomposition
involves three processes, namely fragmentation of detritus, leaching and catabolism.

Energy flow is unidirectional. First, plants capture solar energy and then,
food is transferred from the producers to decomposers. Organisms of different trophic
levels in nature are connected to each other for food or energy relationship forming a
food chain.

The storage and movement of nutrient elements through the various

components of the ecosystem is called nutrient cycling; nutrients are repeatedly used
through this process. Nutrient cycling is of two types—gaseous and sedimentary.
Atmosphere or hydrosphere is the reservoir for the gaseous type of cycle (carbon),
whereas Earth’s crust is the reservoir for sedimentary type (phosphorus). Products of
ecosystem processes are named as ecosystem services, e.g., purification of air and
water by forests.

1.3 COASTAL ECOSYSTEM:

Coastal ecosystems are the areas where land and water join to create an
environment with a distinct structure, diversity, and flow of energy. They include salt
marshes, mangroves, wetlands, estuaries, and bays and are home to many different
types of plants and animals. However, coastal ecosystems are also very sensitive to
changes in the environment, and there is concern that some areas are now struggling
to maintain their diversity due to human activity, the introduction of non-native
species, and other factors.

Marine and coastal ecosystems are highly valuable due to their richness in
productivity and diversity. The huge list of Ecosystem Services provided includes
habitats for flora and fauna, floods and storms mitigation, sediment retention, erosion

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control and carbon storage . In parallel, they have a beneficial impact on the people
living in coastal areas and small islands, which account for one third of the global
human population. The overexploitation of these areas results in habitat destruction,
climate change, pollution and invasive species growth. A further expansion of
urbanization and economic development has significantly influenced coastal
sustainability.

This report provides information to understand about various coastal

ecosystems and its components, ecosystem services, threats to the coastal ecosystems
and respective preventive measures.

Figure 1. Coastal Ecosystem processes

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 CHAPTER 2
COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND ITS COMPONENTS
The Coastal Ecosystems are classified into four types based on the temperate
and tropical climates. [1] They are as follows

1. Fresh water Ecosystems

2. Coastal Interface Ecosystems
3. Estuarine Ecosystems
4. Marine Ecosystems

2.1 FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS

Freshwater ecosystems are found throughout the world. They include
Streams, Ponds or Lakes and Wetlands. Its Components are Plants, birds, fish,
amphibians, reptiles, mammals and fish migration. It has little or no salt content. The
plants and animals of freshwater region are adjusted to the low salt content and could
not be able to survive in areas of high salt concentration. Various processes involved
are Surface and ground water recharge, food web resources, nutrient assimilation and
sedimentation in floodplains. They helps in Nutrient and sediment trapping and
protects downstream waters. They provide various provisional, regulating, cultural
and supporting services like Water supply for drinking, agriculture, industries,
fisheries and Mining resources Tourism, Flood protection in extensive floodplains,
Recreational fishing, Enjoyment of unique natural landscapes, Camping Traditional
lifestyles and Interception of pollutants thus protecting the Food web resources,
Habitat and biodiversity.

2.1.1 Streams
These are called lotic systems which are flowing water bodies. They usually
starts at a mountain. Water flows in one direction from upstream to downstream.
These are oxygen rich due to the constant mixing, shallower than lakes but narrower
and longer. Stream continually cuts into the channel, making it deeper and wider as it
ages. As these are wider and longer, wide range of species rely on these lotic
ecosystems. These include fishes,molluscs, insects, reptiles, plants and algae. Animals

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gets adapted to the strong currents. Insects and other animals have hooks to help them
cling to rocks. Fish have streamlined body inorder to swim in the strong current.
Several streams joins together to form a river.

Figure 2.A Stream in Wayanad, Kerala

2.1.2 Lakes:
These are standing water habitats or lentic systems. They form naturally
where ground water reaches the earth’s surface. These regions range from just a few
square meters to thousands of square kilometers. Ponds and lakes may have limited
species diversities since they are often isolated from one another and other water
sources like river and ocean. It consists of several species of algae,  several species of
algae, Rooted and floating aquatic plants, Grazing snails, Clams, Insects, crustaceans
Fishes and Amphibians. lakes consist of two zones. Top most zone is the Littoral zone
in which aquatic plants and animals live. Benthic zone is the bottom zone in which
bacteria, decomposers and bottom feeding fish lives. Lakes with an abundant amount
of nutrients, causing overgrowth of plants, algae and bacteria are called Eutrophic
lakes. Rainwater runoff carrying sewage,fertilizers and animalwastes from land into
the water results in the depletion of oxygen in the lakes which is called
Eutrophication.

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 Figure 3.Pookode lake, Kerala
2.1.3 Wetlands
Wetlands are the areas of lands covered by water for part of the year. They are two
types of wetlands. They are

1. Marshes
2. Swamps

2.1.3.1 Marshes
Marshes are defined as wetlands frequently or continually inundated with
water, characterized by emergent soft-stemmed vegetation adapted to saturated soil
conditions. There are many different kinds of marshes, ranging from the prairie
potholes to the Everglades, coastal to inland, freshwater to saltwater. All types receive
most of their water from surface water, and many marshes are also fed by
groundwater. Nutrients are plentiful and the pH is usually neutral leading to an
abundance of plant and animal life. Non Tidal Marshes are Freshwater Marshes.

Marshes recharge groundwater supplies and moderate streamflow by

providing water to streams. This is an especially important function during periods of
drought. The presence of marshes in a watershed helps to reduce damage caused by
floods by slowing and storing flood water. As water moves slowly through a marsh,
sediment and other pollutants settle to the substrate or floor of the marsh. Marsh
vegetation and microorganisms also use excess nutrients for growth that can
otherwise pollute surface water such as nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilizer.

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 Non-tidal marshes are the most prevalent and widely distributed wetlands in
North America. Water levels in these wetlands generally vary from a few inches to
two or three feet. Due to their high levels of nutrients, freshwater marshes are one of
the most productive ecosystems on earth. They can sustain a vast array of plant
communities that in turn support a wide variety of wildlife within this vital wetland
ecosystem. Highly organic, mineral rich soils of sand, silt, and clay underlie these
wetlands, while lily pads, cattails, reeds and bulrushes provide excellent habitat for
waterfowl and other small mammals, such as Red-winged Blackbirds, Great Blue
Herons, otters and muskrats. Examples of non-tidal marshes are Prairie potholes,
playa lakes, vernal pools and wet meadows.

 2.1.3.2 Swamps
A swamp is any wetland dominated by woody plants. There are many
different kinds of swamps, ranging from the forested Red Maple swamps of the
Northeast to the extensive bottomland hardwood forests found along the sluggish
rivers of the Southeast. Swamps are characterized by saturated soils during the
growing season and standing water during certain times of the year. The highly
organic soils of swamps form a thick, black, nutrient-rich environment for the growth
of water-tolerant trees such as Cypress, Atlantic White Cedar, and Tupelo. Some
swamps are dominated by shrubs, such as Buttonbush or Smooth Alder. Plants, birds,
fish, and invertebrates such as freshwater shrimp, crayfish, and clams require the
habitats provided by swamps. Many rare species, such as the endangered American
Crocodile, depend on these ecosystems as well. Swamps may be divided into two
major classes, depending on the type of vegetation present: shrub swamps and
forested swamps.

Forested swamps are found throughout the United States. They are often
inundated with floodwater from nearby rivers and streams. Sometimes, they are
covered by many feet of very slowly moving or standing water. In very dry years they
may represent the only shallow water for miles and their presence is critical to the
survival of wetland-dependent species like Wood Ducks, River Otters and

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Cottonmouth Snakes. Some of the common species of trees found in these wetlands
are Red Maple and Pin Oak in the Northern United States, Overcup Oak and Cypress
in the South, and Willows and Western Hemlock in the Northwest.

Shrub swamps are similar to forested swamps except that shrubby vegetation
such as Buttonbush, Willow, Dogwood and Swamp Rose predominates. In fact,
forested and shrub swamps are often found adjacent to one another. The soil is often
water logged for much of the year and covered at times by as much as a few feet of
water because this type of swamp is found along slow moving streams and in
floodplains. Mangrove swamps are a type of shrub swamp dominated by mangroves
that covers vast expanses of southern Florida.

Swamps serve vital roles in flood protection and nutrient removal.

Floodplain forests are especially high in productivity and species diversity because of
the rich deposits of alluvial soil from floods. Many upland creatures depend on the
abundance of food found in the lowland swamps, and valuable timber can be
sustainably harvested to provide building materials for people.

Figure 4.Female Moose at wetland in Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario,

Canada.

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Figure 5.Wooded wetland, near the Stillaguamish River in Washington

2.2 COASTAL INTERFACE ECOSYSTEMS

Various Coastal Interface Ecosystems are Sand Beaches, Dunes, Rocky Beaches and
Headlands. Sand Beaches and Dunes are found Throughout. Rocky Beaches are
determined by Geometry while Headlands are most prevelant in the East coast. Its
Components are Bird resting, breeding Rock, sand crabs and Iconic species like
penguins and seals. Various Processes involved are Equilibrium in erosion, Proper
deposition to form coastline, vegetation and wrack stabilise coast.They provide
Provisional services, regulatory services, cultural and supporting services like Water
supply in industries, Port infrastructure, service development, Aesthetics, Tourism,
Shoreline stabilisation, Recreation like fishing, Research in geological processes,
intertidal ecosystems and iconic species, Fish migration passage, Coastal habitat and
Coastal breeding areas.

2.2.1 Sand Beaches And Dunes

The most important coastal systems are beaches and coastal dunes. These
are important ecosystems in their own right, but also serve as important habitats for a

number of organisms that are residents in other ecosystems. These ecosystems are
also highly attractive for human development. The Beach along the coast isformed by
the build up of tiny pieces of rock.Rocks that fall into the sea are tossed around and
broken down by waves into shingle (small pebbles) and sand. These lighter pieces are
swept away by waves, until the waves reach calmer and shallower shores and drop or

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deposit their load to form beaches. Beaches are constantly reshaped by the waves. On
some beaches,wind blows off the sea and rolls dry sand inland, creating hills of sand
called sand dunes. Sandy Beaches that do not lie at the foot of cliffs often have sand
dunes at the back of them.

Sandy beaches and dunes are the sentinels of the coast. They act like shields
that bear all the heavy impacts of the waves and prevent the furious winds from
destroying homes and crops. They also prevent the seawater from entering into wells
and ponds. They also protect us from salt laden winds that could cause serious
damage to crops and buildings. Beaches are also ideal places to get some fresh air,
play around with friends and explore. This space is also valuable to everyone who
depends on fishing for a living. They are highly dynamic systems. They provide
habitat for variety of species. Unique Vegetation occurs over sand dunes like sea

grape, saw palmetto, Cabbage palm, Prickly Pear Cactus and live Oak Hammock. A
number of terrestrial vertebrates make their home in sandy coastal ecosystems. A
number of birds, like the Least tern, require large empty stretches of beach for

nesting. One of the organisms that is most closely tied to sandy coastal ecosystems
are the sea turtles. Beach and dune habitats have relatively low-moderate
physical/topographical and functional group diversity, but moderate component
species diversity, and feature key species such as sand crabs and talitrid amphipods.
Overall, beach and dune habitats are highly valued and can recover quickly if they
have space to migrate or have enough sediment supply to keep up with sea level rise
and erosion. Potential management measures include beach nourishment and
protection of retreat areas.

2.2.2 Rocky Beaches

Rocky shore ecosystems are coastal shores made from solid rock. They are a
tough habitat to live on yet they are home for a number of different animals
and algae.Rocky shore ecosystems are governed by the tidal movement of water. The

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tides create a gradient of environmental conditions moving from a terrestrial to
a marine ecosystem.

 The distribution of different species across the rocky shore is influenced by

biotic and abiotic factors from above high tide to the sub-tidal zone. Different species
are adapted to different environmental conditions. Some organisms can withstand
being exposed to the sun for most of the day and live in the upper parts of the rocky
shore. Other organisms need to be covered by the tide for most of the day and are
only found lower on the rocky shore.

Supralittoral zone which is above littoral ore intertidal zone is virtually a

terrestrial environment. Species found within the supralittoral zone must be tolerant
to high levels of salt caused from wave spray. Here it is common to find periwinkles
(little snails with elongated shells) and lichens on the rocks but the diversity of
species in the supralittoral zone is fairly limited. The regular covering and uncovering
of the shore by the waves provides a regular income of food and nutrients for plants
and animals in the intertidal zone. The density of plant and animal communities in the
intertidal zone are often very high. Due to the high levels of nutrients, the distribution
of many species is limited by competition with other species for space.

The animal populations on the rocky shore are dominated by invertebrates

such as barnacles, mussels, oysters, tubeworms, limpets, chitons, snails, crabs and
starfish. They obtain their food by filtering for phytoplankton and edible particles
straight from the water above them while they are submerged beneath the
tide. Limpets, chitons, and various gastropods (snails) belong to another very
important group of animals that live on the rocky shore which are mobile grazers.
These grazers move around the intertidal zone and scrape the rocky shore free of any
algae and settled juvenile shellfish. By scraping off algae they maintain the structure
and diversity of rocky shore ecosystems by preventing algae from dominating the
intertidal zone.  Starfish and gastropods are the most effective predators on the rocky
shore and have significant abilities to control grazer and filter-feeder abundance.

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 It is also common to find a number of algae on rocky shores. Seaweeds are
most abundant in the sub-tidal zone where they often form dense kelp forests and
provide habitats for many fish, worms, crustaceans, gastropods, and many more
marine animals. Green species of algae such as sea lettuce can be found. The rocky
shore is also visited by many birds and marine animals as a place to rest, warm up and
to breed. Many seabird species, such as penguins, shags, gannets, and albatross, use
the rocky shore as a nesting area and to dry off and warm up after a cold swim.

2.2.3 Headlands
Bays and headlands are two coastal features which are closely related. These features
are always established on the same coastline. Bays are water bodies (either fresh
water or salt water) which are bordered by land on three sides, and the water regions
are referred to as gulfs. Headlands are land bordered by either salt or fresh water on
three sides; these lands are referred to as capes. Bays are made up of soft rocks while
headlands are made up of hard rocks. Bays are water bodies located on a land next to
the sea or a lake located between two headlands. Bays are usually formed where
weaker rocks like clay and sand are eroded leaving a band of harder rocks. Bays and
headlands are formed where the parallel bands of harder and softer rocks are
perpendicular to the coastline.

The wave refraction breaks the wave energy through the bays, and the sheltering
effect of the headlands protects the bay from storms. This means that the waves
which reach the shores of the bay are weaker than the ones reaching the headland thus
creating a perfect condition for various water activities like swimming and surfing.
Headlands are home to a diversity of animal species. Local mammals include coyotes,
deer, rabbits, and bobcats. Due to the close proximity of the Pacific Flyway, the
headlands also hosts a large variety of owl, song and shore birds. Egrets, grebes, and
mallard ducks can be found year-around patrolling the waters of Rodeo Lagoon. Bird
Island along the coast of Rodeo Beach is one of the largest roosting sites in northern
California for the endangered brown pelican.

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Figure 6.Rossbeigh Sandy Beach and Dunes in Ireland

Figure 7.El Matador Rocky Beach, Los Angeles, California

Figure 8.Marin Headlands, San Francisco

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2.3 ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEMS
Estuarine Ecosystem include wave dominated estuaries, coastal lagoons, Tidal
Wetlands and Mangrove Habitats. They are found in Gulf of Carpentaria, South east,
South west, North west and North east coasts. Its Components are Fringing plants,
submerged vegetation, Aquatic invertebrates, Migratory birds, residents birds and
Fish nursery.Processes involved in this ecosystem are accumulation of organic
material which supports high productivity, food web interactions, floodplains and
carbon in the sediments. Nutrient and sediment trapping protects water quality. They
also acts as Fish migration pathways. They provide provisional, regulating, cultural
and supporting services like water supply to industries, Commercial fishing, Urban
development space, Flood protection, retention of runoff, storm surge waters, Carbon
sequestration, Recreation facilities like birdwatching, fishing, aesthetics and water
sports, Research in flora and fauna, processes and eutrophication, Interception of
pollutants, Nutrient cycling, Primary production, Food web resources and Fish and
bird habitat.

2.3.1 Estuaries
An estuary is an area where a freshwater river or stream meets the ocean.
In estuaries, the salty ocean mixes with a freshwater river, resulting in brackish water.
Brackish water is somewhat salty, but not as salty as the ocean. Water
continually circulates into and out of an estuary. Tides create the largest flow of
saltwater, while river mouths create the largest flow of freshwater.

When dense, salty seawater flows into an estuary, it has an estuarine current.
High tides can create estuarine currents. Saltwater is heavier than freshwater, so
estuarine currents sink and move near the bottom of the estuary.
When less dense freshwater from a river flows into the estuary, it has an anti-
estuarine current. Anti-estuarine currents are strongest near the surface of the water.
Heated by the sun, anti-estuarine currents are much warmer than estuarine currents.

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 In estuaries, water level and salinity rise and fall with the tides. These
features also rise and fall with the seasons. During the rainy season, rivers may flood
the estuary with freshwater. During the dry season, the outflow from rivers may slow
to a trickle. The estuary sinks and become much more saline. During a storm
season, storm surges and other ocean waves may flood the estuary with saltwater.
Most estuaries, however, are protected from the ocean's full force. Geographical
features such as reefs, islands, mud, and sand act as barriers from ocean waves and
wind.

There are five different kinds of estuaries. They are as follows

1. coastal plain estuaries

2. tectonic estuaries
3. bar-built estuaries
4. fjord estuaries
5. Freshwater estuaries

Coastal plain estuaries are created when sea levels rise and fill in an existing river
valley. The shifting together and rifting apart of the Earth's crust, creates tectonic
estuaries. When a lagoon or bay is protected from the ocean by a sandbar or barrier
island, it is called a bar-built estuary. Fjord estuaries are a type of estuary created by
glaciers. These freshwater estuaries are created when a river flows into a freshwater
lake.

Many plant and animal species thrive in estuaries. The calm waters provide a safe
area for small fish, shellfish, migrating birds and shore animals. The waters are rich in
nutrients such as plankton and bacteria. Decomposing plant matter, called detritus
provides food for many species. The estuarine crocodile is the largest reptile in the
world. Oysters are a keystone species in the estuary and  filter feeders naturally helps
to regulate toxins in the water. Estuaries are excellent sites for community living.
They provide freshwater for drinking and hygiene. Access to both rivers and oceans
helps the development of trade and communication.

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Destroying the estuary also creates the conditions for flooding. Estuaries provide a
natural barrier to ocean waves, which can erode the shoreline and destroy coastal
homes and businesses. Many estuaries have been overfished. 

2.3.2 Coastal Lagoons

A lagoon is a shallow body of water protected from a larger body of water (usually
the ocean) by sandbars, barrier islands, or coral reefs. Lagoons sheltered by sandbars
or barrier islands are called coastal lagoons. Coastal lagoons form along coastal plains
, flat or gently sloping landscapes. They form in areas with small tidal ranges. Coastal
lagoons are created as a shallow basin near the shore gradually erodes, and the
ocean seeps in between the sandbars or barrier islands.

The Outer Banks are actually enormous sandbars. They are not anchored to the earth,
and suffer from coastal erosion during storms. The protection they offer the shores
and lagoons is vital to the environment and economy of the region. Engineers
continually monitor and maintain the Outer Banks by dredging sand from the seafloor
to fortify the islands.

Coastal lagoons are rich in biodiversity. waterfowl and fish from flounder to bass
thrive in the region. The tourism industry also thrives in the coastal lagoons of the
Outer Banks. Besides fishing, visitors enjoy boating and recreational activities such
as water skiing and parasailing.

2.3.3 Tidal Wetlands

Tidal Wetlands or marshes can be found along protected coastlines in
middle and high latitudes worldwide. Some are freshwater marshes, others are
brackish (somewhat salty), and still others are saline (salty), but they are all
influenced by the motion of ocean tides. Tidal marshes are normally categorized into
two distinct zones, the lower or intertidal marsh and the upper or high marsh.

In saline tidal marshes, the lower marsh is normally covered and exposed
daily by the tide. It is predominantly covered by the tall form of Smooth Cordgrass.
The saline marsh is covered by water only sporadically and is characterized by Short

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Smooth Cordgrass, Spike Grass and Saltmeadow Rush. Saline marshes support a
highly specialized set of life adapted for saline conditions.

Tidal marshes serve many important functions. They buffer stormy seas,
slow shoreline erosion and are able to absorb excess nutrients before they reach
oceans and estuaries. Tidal marshes also provide vital food and habitat for clams,
crabs and juvenile fish, as well as offering shelter and nesting sites for several species
of migratory waterfowl.

Pressure to fill in these wetlands for coastal development has led to

significant and continuing losses of tidal marshes, especially along the Atlantic coast.
Pollution, especially near urban areas, also remains a serious threat to these
ecosystems. Fortunately, most states have enacted special laws to protect tidal
marshes, but diligence is needed to assure that these protective measures are actively
enforced.

2.3.4 Mangroves
A mangrove is a shrub or small tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish
water. Mangroves occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics, mainly between
latitudes 25° N and 25° S. Mangroves are extremely important to the coastal
ecosystems they inhabit. Physically, they Serve as a buffer between marine and
terrestrial communities and protect shorelines from damaging  winds,  waves,
and floods. Mangrove thickets improve water quality by filtering pollutants and
trapping sediments from the land, and they reduce coastal erosion. Ecologically, they
provide habitat for a diverse array of terrestrial organisms, and many species of
coastal and offshore fish and shellfish rely exclusively on mangroves for their
breeding, spawning, and hatching grounds. Because of their high salt tolerance,
mangroves are often among the first species to colonize mud and sandbanks flooded
by seawater, but an increase in coastal development and altered land use led to a
decline in global populations.

The trunks and branches of most mangrove species constantly produce

adventitious roots, which, descending in arched fashion, strike at some distance from

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the parent stem and send up new trunks.The common mangrove grows to about 9
metres (30 feet) tall. The leaves are 5 to 15 cm (2 to 6 inches) long, opposite, oval or
elliptic, and smooth-edged. They are thick, have leathery surfaces, and are borne on
short stems. The flowers are pale yellow while the fruit is still attached to the parent
branch, the long embryonic root emerges from the seed and grows rapidly downward.
When this propagule falls, the young root is in the correct position to be driven into
the mud, the plant being thus rooted, the shoot makes its appearance. The young root
may grow to such a length that it becomes fixed in the mud before the fruit separates
from the parent tree.

The black mangrove, usually of moderate height, sometimes grows 18 to 21

metres (59 to 69 feet) tall. The leaves are 5 to 7.5 cm (2 to 3 inches) long, opposite,
oblong or spear-shaped; the upper surface is green and glossy, the lower surface
whitish or grayish. The white flowers are small, inconspicuous, and fragrant and are
frequented by honeybees for their abundant nectar.

The wood of some species is hard and durable. The astringent bark yields a

water-soluble tanning substance. The fruit of the common mangrove is sweet and
wholesome. Mangrove forests stabilize the coastline, reducing erosion from storm
surges, currents, waves, and tides. The intricate root system of mangroves also makes
these forests attractive to fish and other organisms seeking food and shelter from
predators.

Figure 9.Estuary found where Parker River meets the Atlantic Ocean

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Figure 10 Chilika lagoon, Orissa, India

Figure 11.Tidal Wetland, Darwin, Australia

Figure 12.Mangroves on the Indian coast of Mozambique

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2.4 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
Marine Ecosystems include Coral reefs, Temperate reefs, macroalgal forests
and Seagrass meadows. Coral reefs are found in North west and north east coasts
and Gulf of Carpentaria. Temperate reefs and macroalgal forests are found in
Southern coastal zone. Seagrass meadows are Widespread and more abundant and
diverse in south east and south west coasts. Its Components are Macroalgae,
seagrass, rock habitat, open waters, fish, seahorses, seadragons, molluscs, crustaceans,
marine mammals. Processes involved in this ecosystem are Reef dissipates wave
action, seagrass wrick to beach, food web interactions and carbon in seagrasses. Wave
dissipation protects seagrass. Water quality influences seagrass and microalgal
growth. It provides provisional, regulating, cultural and supporting services like
Commercial fishing, aquaculture Tourism, fishing, surfing, Transport routes, Carbon
sequestration mainly seagrasses, also macroalgae, Wave dissipation , Recreation
facilities like fishing, diving and water sports. Research in marine ecosystem biota
and processes and iconic marine species. Primary production and Ocean currents
support migration and lifecycles.

2.4.1 Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are immense structures built over hundreds and thousands of
years by tiny animals called corals. They are the largest structures built by organisms
(other than humans) on Earth and offer an exquisite amount of beauty and animal
diversity that can compete with any ecosystem from all environments. Over 100,000
marine species call coral reefs home and humans receive a range of both ecological
and economic benefits due to the presence of coral reefs and the ecosystems they
support.

Coral reefs are important for a number of reasons. Firstly, they are one of
the most diverse habitats on Earth. Over 4000 fish species and more than 750 species
of coral are found in coral reefs around the world. They are also important sinks for
carbon dioxide as corals use carbon to form calcium carbonate. Coral reefs provide a

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long list of important benefits to humans such as food, tourism, medicine and
protection from the ocean. They can also be important nursery grounds for
commercially important fish species.

Coral reefs are found in a relative restricted area due to the biology of the
corals and the bacteria that live within them. Their distribution is generally limited to
within 30 degrees either side of the equator where the water is warmest. The largest
coral reef system is the Great Barrier Reef found of the north-east coast of Australia.
Other significant reefs are found through the Pacific, south-east Asia, the Caribbean
and the Indian Ocean.

Coral reefs are built through the deposition of calcium carbonate (limestone)
by corals over very long periods of time. Corals are invertebrate animals from the
phylum Cnidaria which also contains jellyfish and anemones. Reef building corals are
generally very small but large colonies of corals can over time produce vast areas of
limestone. Corals extract bicarbonate ions (HCO3–) from the water and use it to create
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) which is used to build a limestone skeleton. Over time the
limestone accumulates and creates magnificent structures that can span thousands of
square miles. Each coral lays down the limestone in a different way which is why
there is such a wide range of structures found within coral reefs.

In order for corals to quickly and efficiently receive the nutrients they
require, they have formed a symbiotic relationship with phytoplankton from the genus
Symbiodinium, although they are more commonly known as zooxanthellae. The
zooxanthellae are photosynthetic, so are able to produce carbohydrates from carbon
dioxide within the water. Corals receive most of their energy from the zooxanthellae
and in return the coral provides the zooxanthellae with inorganic nutrients.

Coral reefs are under serious threat due to lowering pH levels of the world’s
oceans combined with various more local effects. The oceans act as a giant sink for
CO2 absorbing atmospheric CO3 and increasing CO2 concentrations within the water.
The resulting change in the waters chemistry makes it harder for corals to form
calcium carbonate, create limestone skeletons and therefore build reefs. Other factors

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such as pollution and sedimentation can reduce the light availability for zooxanthallae
which depend on sufficient access to light in order to photosynthesize.

2.4.2 Macroalgal Forests

Macroalgal or Kelp forests are among the most unique and ecologically diverse
ecosystems in coastal temperate oceans and are found globally. In the eastern Pacific
ocean, they occur from Alaska and Canada to the waters of Baja California in the
northern hemisphere, and along the southern coast of Chile in the southern
hemisphere. These forests are tiered like a terrestrial rainforest with a canopy and
several understory layers below.

These brown algae communities live in clear water conditions through which light
penetrates easily. Kelp recruits most successfully in regions of upwelling (regions
where the ocean layers overturn, bringing cool, nutrient-rich bottom waters to the
surface) and regions with continuously cold, high-nutrient waters. kelp experiences
reduced or negative growth rates in warm water as dissolved inorganic nitrogen
decreases.

Much of the extraordinary production of kelp falls to the ocean floor, like leaf litter in
terrestrial forests. There, it either remains to support productive and species rich
detritus-based forest food webs, or is exported by currents to adjacent ecosystems
where it fuels food webs on sandy beaches, deep rocky reefs or submarine canyons.
These forests have a wide variety of economically important species such as sea
urchins, abalone, lobster, sea cucumbers, rockfishes and other finfishes, as well as
some endangered species including abalone and southern sea otters. The kelp itself is
harvested to feed abalone in aquaculture facilities and for use in a number of human
products. The forests also support economically important eco-tourism, including
kayaking, bird and marine mammal watching and scuba diving.

California sea lions, harbor seals, sea otters, and whales may feed in the kelp or
escape storms or predators in the shelter of kelp. On rare occasions gray whales have
been spotted seeking refuge in kelp forests from predatory killer whales. All larger

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marine life, including birds and mammals, may retreat to kelp during storms or high-
energy regimes because the kelp helps to weaken currents and waves.

2.4.3 Seagrass Meadows

Seagrasses are found in shallow salty and brackish waters in many parts of the world,
from the tropics to the Arctic Circle. Seagrasses are so-named because most species
have long green, grass-like leaves. They are often confused with seaweeds, but are
actually more closely related to the flowering plants that you see on land. Seagrasses
have roots, stems and leaves, and produce flowers and seeds. Seagrasses can form
dense underwater meadows, some of which are large enough to be seen from space.  
Although they often receive little attention, they are one of the most productive
ecosystems in the world. Seagrasses provide shelter and food to an incredibly diverse
community of animals, from tiny invertebrates to large fish, crabs, turtles, marine
mammals and birds. Seagrasses provide many important services to people as well,
but many seagrasses meadows have been lost because of human activities. 

Many seagrass species live in depths of 3 to 9 feet (1 to 3 meters), but the deepest
growing seagrass (Halophila decipiens) has been found at depths of 190 feet (58
meters). While most coastal regions are dominated by one or a few seagrass species,
regions in the tropical waters of the Indian and western Pacific oceans have the
highest seagrass diversity with  as many as 14 species growing together. Antarctica is
the only continent without seagrasses. 

Seagrasses support commercial fisheries and biodiversity, clean the surrounding

water and help take carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. Because of these benefits,
seagrasses are believed to be the third most valuable ecosystem in the world.
Seagrasses don't just provide shelter for free-swimming animals, but also are a habitat
for non-moving organisms, such as these sea anemones. Seagrasses are known as the
"lungs of the sea" because one square meter of seagrass can generate 10 liters of
oxygen every day through photosynthesis. Seagrass leaves also absorb nutrients and
slow the flow of water, capturing sand, dirt and silt particles. Their roots trap and
stabilize the sediment, which not only helps improve water clarity and quality, but

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also reduces erosion and buffers coastlines against storms. In nutrient poor regions,
the seagrass plants themselves help nutrient cycling by taking up nutrients from the
soil and releasing them into the water through their leaves, acting as a nutrient pump. 

Figure 13.Coral Reefs

Figure 14.Giant Kelp found in Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary

Figure 15.Seagrass found near Mediterranean

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 CHAPTER 3
COASTAL ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
For assessing the value to humans of changes in the marine environment, we
need to focus primarily on changes in those ecosystem services that directly influence
human health, welfare and economic activities.

Marine environments provide ecosystem services that can be classified as:

3.1 SUPPORTING SERVICES: Ecosystem functions that support and enable

the maintenance and delivery of other services;

3.2 REGULATING SERVICES: Natural regulation of ecosystem processes and

natural cycles; such as water purification and erosion control.

3.3 CULTURAL SERVICES: These service refer to the intangible benefits

people receive from ecosystems in form of non-material spiritual, religious,
inspirational and educational experience 

3.4 PROVISIONING SERVICES:  These includes tangible products from

ecosystems that humans make use of, such as agricultural crops, timber, fish and
seafood or fresh water.

Any ecosystem processes or service contributing to the maintenance of

healthy ecosystems and human well-being can be considered ‘valuable’ to humans.
The measurement of basic ecosystem processes can be necessary for reasons other
than valuation: providing data for management decisions (for example, measuring fish
stocks for setting quotas), or for monitoring change (for example, measures of
nutrient concentrations). But for any appraisals in which we will add up values across
different service categories, focusing on final services means we avoid ‘double
counting’ the same values twice.

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 CHAPTER 4
THREATS TO COASTAL ECOSYSTEM
The composition and structure of the fauna, flora and habitats of coastal seas
has been changing at an unusual rate in the last few decades, due to changes in the
global climate, invasive species and an increase in human activities. 

Here is list of major threats to Coastal Ecosystem:

4.1 EUTROPHICATION:
It is an enrichment of water by nutrient salts that causes structural changes
to the ecosystem such as: increased production of algae and aquatic plants, depletion
of fish species, general deterioration of water quality. In such ecosystem like lake
great concentrations of algae and microscopic organisms, often develop on the
surface, preventing the light penetration and oxygen absorption necessary for
underwater life. Eutrophic waters are often murky and may support fewer large
animals, such as fish and birds, than non-eutrophic waters.

4.2 WATER POLLUTION:

Sometimes pollution affects the entire food chain. Small fishes absorb
pollutants, such as chemicals, into their bodies. Then bigger fishes eat the smaller
fishes and get the pollutants too. Birds or other animals may eat the bigger fishes and
be harmed by the pollutants. Sewage can also cause major problems in rivers.
Bacteria in the water will use oxygen to break down the sewage. If there is too much
sewage, the bacteria could use up so much oxygen that there won't be enough left for
the fish. Water pollution from major events like acid rain or oil spills can completely
destroy marine habitats.

4.3 FISHING:
It may also affect ecological processes at very large scale. They can also alter
habitats, most notably by destroying and disturbing bottom topography and the
associated habitats (e.g. sea grass and algal beds, coral reefs). Trawling is a method of
fishing that involves pulling a fishing net through the water behind one or more
boats.It cause harm to other fisheries and to the marine ecosystem by catching

26
juvenile fish, damaging the seafloor, and leading to overfishing. Bottom trawl nets
can also harm coral reefs, sharks, and sea turtles.

4.4 CLIMATE CHANGE:

It is an important environmental influence on ecosystems. Changing climate
affects ecosystems in a variety of ways. For instance, warming may force species to
migrate to higher latitudes or higher elevations where temperatures are more
conducive to their survival. Similarly, as sea level rises, saltwater intrusion into a
freshwater system may force some key species to relocate or die.

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 CHAPTER 5
PROTECTION MEASURES
The ocean is the largest ecosystem on Earth, it is the planet’s life support system.
Oceans generate half of the oxygen we breathe and, at any given moment, they
contain more than 97% of the world’s water. Oceans provide at least a sixth of the
animal protein people eat. Living oceans absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
and reduce climate change impacts. The diversity and productivity of the world’s
oceans is a vital interest for humankind

Here is the list of things that can protect marine ecosystem:

1. Pick Up Trash, and Reduce, Reuse & Recycle Plastic

2. Conserve Water
3. Use Environmentally-Friendly Products
4. Make Safe, Sustainable Seafood Choices
5. Use Fewer Plastic Products

Figure 16.Protection Measure

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 SUMMARY
Coastal environments are under increasing pressure as a result of increasing human
populations. Coastal areas, including estuaries, bays, shorelines, continental shelves,
and the Great Lakes, are used intensively and receive the byproducts of inland human
activities, from rivers and atmospheric deposition. Ecosystem Services provided
includes habitats for flora and fauna, floods and storms mitigation, sediment
retention, erosion control and carbon storage.

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 REFERENCES
[1]

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