Planning Theories and Techniques (ARN-657)

Assignment 5

Evolution of Cities in India

Most cities in India, today, are seen to be evolving around the core cities
established ages ago. We can see layers of development corresponding to
different periods of Indian history. The Evolution of Indian cities can thus be
broadly divided into four stages –

- Origin
- Colonial Influence
- Industrial Influence
- Post-Independence Development

Hence, to begin with, it is needed to understand what lead to the origin of

those core cities. Hence, we need to study the Origin of cities in a Historical
perspective.

Stage 1 : Origin of cities (Historical Perspective)

To study the Evolution of cities, it is necessary to understand the factors that

lead to the origin of the cities. The growth of primary human settlements into
villages, towns and cities can be understood better, when dealt in relation with
their origin. This origin can be dated back to the ancient civilization, to Vedic
Hindu and Buddhist periods or to the medieval period dominated by Muslim
rulers.

The major factors that gave rise to new towns can be broadly classified into
two categories –

 Topography
 Functions
 Topography –

Based on the primary function, certain groups of humans chose a favourable

Topographical area to set up their settlements. Since the topography
supported that function, the settlement gradually flourished and grew larger
and larger, converting into a village, a town and ultimately a city. This can be
understood by the following examples –

 River banks – The banks of rivers provide a fertile land and ample water
for irrigation. Hence, agriculture based groups set up their settlements
along the river banks. Besides, availability of water is an essential
requisite for many human needs. Hence, it is observed that most
primitive cities were set up along the river banks. In addition, rivers have
assumed a major pedestal in the hindu mythology, traditions and
customs. This is another reason for growth of towns along the rivers in
India. Examples of this type of cities include Varanasi, Prayagraj, Ujjain,
Lucknow etc.

 Hilly Areas – Hilly areas provide a natural defence mechanism against

invaders. Hence many fort – cities have been developed in the hilly
areas. Some examples include Jodhpur, Amer, Chittorgarh etc.

 Plains – Plains allow for easy transportation to and from the city. Hence,
cities established on the plains were likely to grow as business hotspots.
Trade and commerce flourished in such cities.

 Sea or Ocean fronts – Coastal regions provided a conducive environment

for occupations like fishing. In addition, waterways remained the most
prominent and the only means of trade and transportation between
countries for a long time in human history. Hence the port cities also
came up along the coastal areas.

 Functions –

Several cities in India originated around some specific man made function. The
reason of origin of these cities can be said to be social rather than
topographical as seen in the first case. Some major functions which gave rise to
new cities are –
  Educational – As can be seen in the case of the ancient university of
Nalanda, which operated between the 5th and 13th centuries, certain
cities are born around eminent educational institutes. A relatively
modern example of such a city is Roorkee, which grew as a city by virtue
of the IIT established here. Several other institutes also came up in this
area, making it a majorly educational city.

 Political – Several cities in India were born as the administrative capitals

of different rulers throughout the history, some examples being
Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi) established by Shah Jahan, Fatehpur Sikri
built by Akbar, etc. Many more of these cities continue to live upto this
date. A characteristic feature of these cities is a complex and intricate
pattern of narrow roads with several dead ends, designed to confuse
any invading army.

 Religious – Many cities in India came up around temples, and came to be

known as the Temple towns of India. Some examples include Madurai,
Thanjavur, Kanchipuram, Badrinath, Puri, etc.

As mentioned before, most cities in India are seen to be growing around the
cores originated ages ago. Hence, in these cities, we can evidently see layers of
development as we move away from the core.

The central core is generally characterized by any one of the aspects listed
above. The next layer of development in such cities is, in most cases, a
reflection of the colonial age.

Stage 2 : The Colonial Influence

When the Europeans arrived in India in the 18th century with the idea of
colonization, they started developing the Indian towns to serve their purposes
better. They started with establishing strongholds on the port cities like Surat,
Daman, Pondicherry, Goa etc. The British established their supremacy over the
three most important nodes – Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai. Port cities was
the first step, as they acted as gateways into the Indian subcontinent.

As they drew inwards, they started sabotaging other major commercial and
political cities. Along the process, they developed these cities by establishing
administrative and military centres, improving road infrastructure and
connectivity, introducing rail network, etc. The Cantonment areas developed
by the British were generally located across the railway line in order to
demarcate a physical barrier between the Indians and the British. Their
outright rejection of the vernacular Indian styles of city building and
architecture and introduction of bungalows and an altogether different built
environment in order to emphasize their supremacy changed the face of Indian
cities.

This can be marked as the second stage of evolution of Indian cities.

Chronologically, this stage might overlap with the next one to some extent, but
there is a major difference in the evolutionary aspects discussed in these two
stages. This stage mainly highlights the spatial, infrastructural and aesthetic
change in the Indian cities, while the Industrialization stage, dealt with in the
next part, highlights the socio-economic and demographic aspects of evolution
in the cities.

Stage 3 : The Industrial Influence

As a result of Industrialization in the 18th and 19th centuries, India saw a large
scale migration of people towards the urban areas. Another reason for this
urbanization was that the traders, nobles and other citizens dependant on the
princely states of India and their rulers lost livelihood opportunities due to
their dethroning by the British. They seized the opportunities borne in the
cities out of the freshly introduced industrial setup. Hence, these people
migrated to larger cities where opportunities of livelihood were more.

The increasing load on the cities was never dealt by the foreign rulers in a
systematic way, and the cities grew organically. The migrants started setting up
settlements on the outskirts of the cities and they started expanding in an
organic fashion.

Another effect of urbanization was that the Indian cities stepped into an era of
social mixing. Prior to this, the Indian cities were majorly stratified in terms of
caste, occupation, economic classes, religions and many other differentiating
factors. These factors are into play to some extent even today, but
industrialization paved the way for the first step towards a more inclusive
societal setup. Also, the atrocities of the British united the Indians to some
extent against a common enemy. As the oppression under the British rule was
becoming unbearable, the Indians saw a foundational change in the Indian
society.
All these factors gave rise to a new phase in the evolution of Indian cities. The
spatial as well as socio-economic and demographic composition of the cities
was readjusted.

Stage 4 : Post-Independence Development

During Independence, the Indian population was forced to undergo a major

reshuffling on account of the partition. A large number of refugees from East
and West Pakistan were left homeless in India. The Government was left with
the gigantic task of housing this population. This population was gradually
settled in different cities across the country. Next, the government had to
ensure the supply of basic amenities and infrastructural facilities throughout
the organically developed cities. It had to introduce some sort of planning to
control any organic development in the future and provide for the already
existing unplanned settlements.

This was for the first time, when the development of Indian cities was being
planned with the intention of welfare of the Indian citizens. The Indian cities
can be said to be in this phase of evolution to this date. In some cities, the
government has not yet been able to provide basic amenities, but efforts are in
progress. The uncontrolled urbanization still continues and the government
now needs to provide for the ever increasing load on the cities in addition to
the backlog of the previous stage. However, any new development which is
now being added as an additional layer to the existing cities is planned; the
efficiency of planning still being debatable.

Planned Greenfield Cities

Some Indian cities do not comply with the stages of evolution mentioned
above as they are infant cities, born as a result of a planned effort by the
Government. New Delhi is one such planned city built by the British Indian
Government. Other examples include Chandigarh, Naya Raipur, Gandhinagar,
Bhubaneshwar, etc.

- Manan Monga
(M.U.R.P. Semester 1)