FUELS AND COMBUSTION

Definition: Fuels are the substances containing carbon as a main constituent and other
elements or atoms, which on combustion (reaction with oxygen) produce heat energy that can
be utilized economically for domestic and industrial purposes.
Fuel + Oxygen Combustion products + Heat

Classification of fuels: Based on.

(1) Physical state (Solid, Liquid, Gaseous).
(2) Occurrence (Primary or Secondary).
Natural fuels occur in nature and they are also called primary fuels, whereas artificial
fuels are prepared by further processing of primary fuels and they are also called secondary
fuels.
The classification is represented as follows:

1
 Classification of fuels

Characteristics of a good fuel:

1. It should have a high calorific value.
2. It should have low moisture content.
3. It should have a low ignition point, which is not lower than room temperature (so that it
does not catch fire at room temperature).
4. It should not burn too fast or too slowly.
5. The combustion of the substance should not produce harmful substances like soot and
poisonous gases.
6. No residues should be left on combustion.
7. It should be safe to store, handle and transport.
8. It should be easily available.
9. It should be cheap.

Ref.: https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/science/what-makes-a-good-fuel-explained-with-
diagram/31590

Units of heat: The most important property of a fuel is the amount of heat produced
form it. The units of heat are,
(i) kilocalorie per kilogram or kcal/kg,
(ii) calorie per gram or cal/g,
(iii) British Thermal Unit per pound or B.Th.U./lb,
(iv) Centigrade heat unit per pound or (C.H.U.).
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 Calorific value: The calorific value of the fuel is defined as the amount of heat
generated when unit mass of fuel is completely combusted.
During the combustion, depending upon whether the combustion product of hydrogen
i.e. H2O is condensed or allowed to escape, calorific value is of two types- Higher or Gross
calorific value (HCV or GCV) and Lower or Net calorific value (LCV or NCV).
Gross calorific value is defined as the amount of heat generated, when a unit mass or
volume of the fuel is completely burnt and the products of the combustion are cooled down to
room temperature (18°C).
Net calorific value is defined as the amount of heat generated, when a unit mass or
volume of the fuel is completely burnt and the products of the combustion are allowed to
escape.

Comparison of HCV and LCV:

Sr. No. HCV LCV
1. It is defined as the amount of heat It is defined as the amount of heat
generated, when a unit mass or generated, when a unit mass or volume
volume of the fuel is completely burnt of the fuel is completely burnt and the
and the products of the combustion products of the combustion are
are cooled down to room temperature allowed to escape.
(18°C).
2. It is also known as GCV. It is also known as NCV.
3. It is the total energy released when the It is the energy released when the
products are cooled down to the room products are hot.
temperature and water has been
condensed out.
4. Byproducts are allowed to condense. Byproducts are allowed to escape.
5. Some of the heat or energy in Heat or energy in byproducts escapes
byproducts can be recovered through the system.
condensation.
6. It has high value compared to LCV. It has low value compared to HCV.

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Refs.:

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fpediaa.com%2Fwhat-is-the-difference-
between-hcv-and-
lcv%2F&psig=AOvVaw0N5Qfdn5P5B1Te84QDFkTS&ust=1622529078325000&source=images&c
d=vfe&ved=0CAkQjhxqFwoTCNCdgbel8_ACFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD

https://www.google.com/search?q=high+calorific+value+fuel&safe=strict&source=lnms&tbm=isch&
sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj7safypfPwAhUbIbcAHQ1GD0UQ_AUoAnoECAEQBA&biw=1366&bih=65
7#imgrc=VMx4zRMzLzgRCM

Dulong’s formula: Dulong’s formula is used to calculate Higher or Gross calorific

value (HCV or GCV) and Lower or Net calorific value (LCV or NCV).
Unit: kcal/kg or cal/g

To calculate HCV:
Calorific value of the fuel is the sum of calorific values of each element (heat produced
by the combustion of each element) present in the fuel. When the % composition of elements
present in the fuel is given, Dulong’s formula is as follows:

HCV = 1/100 calorific value of + calorific value of + calorific value of

Carbon Hydrogen available Sulphur
for combustion

∴ HCV = 1/100 [8080 C + 34500 (H – O/8) + 2240 S]

Where C, H, O and S are expressed in percentages.

Element + O2 Combustion product + Heat generated (calories)

C + O2 CO2 + 96960
H2 + ½ O2 H2O + 69000
S + O2 SO2 + 71680

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 Since 12 g of carbon give 96960 calories of heat, 1 g of carbon would give 96960/12 =
8080 calories of heat. Similarly, 2 g of hydrogen give 69000 calories of heat, 1 g of hydrogen
gives 69000/2 = 34500 calories of heat. Also, as 32 g of sulphur gives 71680 calories of heat,
1 g of sulphur gives 71680/32 = 2240 calories of heat.
It should be noted that oxygen present in the fuel is assumed to be present in combined
state with hydrogen as water (i.e., fixed hydrogen). This fixed hydrogen does not contribute to
the calorific value of the fuel. Hence, if oxygen is present in the fuel, the amount of available
hydrogen for combustion is given by,
Amount of available hydrogen for combustion = Total hydrogen – Fixed hydrogen
= Total hydrogen – (1/8) mass of oxygen in fuel

∴ Amount of available hydrogen for combustion = H – O/8

(Since 8 parts of oxygen combine with one part of hydrogen to form water, fixed hydrogen is
equivalent to 1/8 mass of oxygen in fuel.)

To calculate LCV:
LCV = HCV – [heat lost due to vaporization of water formed (due to combustion of hydrogen)]

∴ LCV = HCV – (0.09H x Latent heat of steam)

∴ LCV = HCV – (0.09H x 587)

∴ HCV = LCV + (0.09H x 587)

If H = % of hydrogen in fuel, then total mass of H2O from 1 g of fuel = 9H/100 = 0.09H
This can be explained as,
H2 + ½ O2 H2O
2 16 18
(1 8 9)
Thus, 1 part by weight of hydrogen gives 9 parts by weight of water.
Latent heat of vaporization of water at 18°C is 587 kcal/kg or cal/g.
(The latent heat of vaporization is the amount of heat required to convert a unit mass (1 g) of
a liquid into its vapour without a change in temperature.)

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∴ Heat absorbed by water (generated as product of combustion from available hydrogen +

originally present from fixed hydrogen) in steam/ vapour formation = (0.09H x 587) kcal/kg or
cal/g.

Solved numericals:
Example 1: Calculate the HCV and LCV of a coal sample having the following composition:
C = 85%, H = 5%, O = 4%, S = 4%, N = 1.5% and remaining ash.
Solution:
To calculate HCV,
HCV = 1/100 [8080 C + 34500 (H – O/8) + 2240 S]
= 1/100 [8080 x 85 + 34500 (5 – 4/8) + 2240 x 4]
= 1/100 (686800 + 155250 + 8960)
HCV = 1/100 x 851010

∴ HCV = 8510.10 kcal/kg

To calculate LCV,
LCV = HCV – (9H/100 x 587)
= HCV – (9 x 5/100 x 587)
= 8510.10 – 264.15

∴ LCV = 8245.95 kcal/kg

Example 2: A sample of coal contains C = 75%, H = 8%, O = 6%, S = 2%, N = 1.8% and
remaining ash. Calculate the HCV and NCV.
Solution:
To calculate HCV,
HCV = 1/100 [8080 C + 34500 (H – O/8) + 2240 S]
= 1/100 [8080 x 75 + 34500 (8 – 6/8) + 2240 x 2]
= 1/100 (606000 + 250125 + 4480)
= 1/100 x 860605

∴ HCV = 8606.05 kcal/kg

To calculate NCV,
NCV = HCV – (9H/100 x 587)
= 8606.05 – (9 x 8/100 x 587)
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 = 8606.05 – 422.64

∴ NCV = 8183.41 kcal/kg

Example 3: Calculate the GCV and NCV of a hydrocarbon having the following composition:
C = 97%, H = 3%.
Solution:
To calculate GCV,
GCV = 1/100 [8080 C + 34500 (H – O/8) + 2240 S]
= 1/100 [8080 x 97 + 34500 x 3]
= 1/100 (783760 + 103500)
= 1/100 x 887260

∴ GCV = 8872.60 kcal/kg

To calculate NCV,
NCV = HCV – (9H/100 x 587)
= 8872.60 – (9 x 3/100 x 587)
= 8872.60 – 158.49

∴ NCV = 8714.11 kcal/kg

Example 4: Calculate the percentage of hydrogen and HCV of a coal containing C = 78%,
S = 5%, O = 7% and that coal is having LCV of 8449.89 kcal/kg.
Solution:
LCV = HCV – (9H/100 x 587)

∴ 8449.89 = {1/100 [8080 C + 34500 (H – O/8) + 2240 S]} – (9H/100 x 587)

= {1/100 [8080 x 78 + 34500 (H – 7/8) + 2240 x 5]} – (52.83 H)

= 6302.40 + 345 H – 301.875 + 112 – 52.83 H

∴ 8449.89 = 6112.525 + 292.17 H

∴ 292.17 H = 2337.365

∴H=8

Thus, percentage of hydrogen = 8.00

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Using Dulong’s formula,
HCV = 1/100 [8080 C + 34500 (H – O/8) + 2240 S]
= 1/100 [8080 x 78 + 34500 (8 – 7/8) + 2240 x 5]
= 1/100 [630240 + 245812.5 + 11200]
= 1/100 x 887252.5

∴ HCV = 8872.53 kcal/kg

Alternate method:
LCV = HCV – (9H/100 x 587)
8449.89 = HCV – (0.09H x 587)
HCV = 8449.89 + (0.09H x 587)
HCV = (8449.89 + 52.83 H) kcal/kg ……………. (1)
Using Dulong’s formula,
HCV = 1/100 [8080 C + 34500 (H – O/8) + 2240 S]
= 1/100 [8080 x 78 + 34500 (H – 7/8) + 2240 x 5]
= 1/100 (630240 + 34500 H – 30187.5 + 11200)
= 1/100 (611252.5 + 34500 H)

∴ HCV = (6112.525 + 345 H) kcal/kg ……………. (2)

Using (1) and (2),

8449.89 + 52.83 H = 6112.525 + 345 H
345 H – 52.83 H = 8449.89 – 6112.525

∴ 292.17 H = 2337.365

∴ H = 8.00

Thus, percentage of hydrogen = 8.00

Substituting the value of H in (1),
HCV = 8449.89 + 52.83 H
= 8449.89 + (52.83 x 8.00)

∴ HCV = 8872.53 kcal/kg

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Example 5: Calculate the percentage of hydrogen and HCV of a coal containing C = 85%,
S = 1%, O = 2%, N = 2.5% and remaining ash and that coal is having LCV of 8490.5 kcal/kg.
Solution:
LCV = HCV – (9H/100 x 587)

∴ 8490.5= {1/100 [8080 C + 34500 (H – O/8) + 2240 S]} – (9H/100 x 587)

= {1/100 [8080 x 85 + 34500 (H – 2/8) + 2240 x 1]} – (52.83 H)

= 6868.00 + 345 H – 86.25 + 22.40 – 52.83 H

∴ 8490.5 = 6804.15 + 292.17 H

∴ 292.17 H = 1686.35

∴ H = 5.77

Thus, percentage of hydrogen = 5.77

Using Dulong’s formula,
HCV = 1/100 [8080 C + 34500 (H – O/8) + 2240 S]
= 1/100 [8080 x 85 + 34500 (5.77 – 2/8) + 2240 x 1]
= 1/100 [686800 + 190440 + 2240]
= 1/100 x 879480

∴ HCV = 8794.80 kcal/kg