Rapelling PDF

A
HOW TO CLIMB® SERIES

FALCONGUIDES® Rappelling
The ultimate guide to safe descending
FALCON
GUIDE® Rappelling
Rope Descending and Ascending Skills for
Climbing, Caving, Canyoneering, and Rigging
In Rappelling you’ll find everything you need to know about Inside you’ll find Rope Descending and
Essential gear for every adventure: Outfit Your Mind®
descending a rope, including knots, rigging strategies, rappel information on:

devices, and more. Included is a comprehensive discussion Ascending Skills for Climbing,
• Ropes Caving, Canyoneering, and
of ropes, slings, and all the hardware used in rappelling.
• Rappel devices Rigging
Rappelling techniques for the most basic to advanced
• Slings and webbing
climbing are covered in detail, including multi-pitch rappelling
methods and rope management. Single rope fi xed line rappel- • Knots and hitches
ling techniques used in caving, canyoneering, and industrial • Rigging rappel anchors
applications are also discussed, along with improvised rope • Rappel methods
ascending techniques (prusiking) and ascending a fi xed rope
• Rope retrieval techniques
with mechanicalascenders (jumaring). Rappelling accident
analysis and prevention is also included, along with a section • Rappelling accident analysis
on rappel back-ups and safety checks. • Rappel safety back-ups
• Working with fixed lines
• Rope ascending techniques
Bob Gaines has been a professional rock climbing guide since 1983 and is the owner of Verti-
cal Adventures Rock Climbing School, voted the #1 rock climbing school in America by Outside
magazine. He has worked extensively in the film business as a climbing stunt coordinator and
was Sylvester Stallone’s climbing instructor for the movie Cliffhanger. He also doubled for William
Shatner in the movie Star Trek V as Captain Kirk free-soloing on El Capitan in Yosemite. He lives in
Irvine and Joshua Tree, California.
FALCON RE
CO
MMENDED
BY
Front cover photo of Rob Raker rappelling from Panic Pillar at Yosemite National Park by Greg Epperson
Back cover photo of a belayed rappel at Joshua Tree National Park by Bob Gaines GUIDES®
falcon.com
FalconGuides ®
is an imprint of BOB GAINES
Globe Pequot Press
H o w t o C l i m B™ S e r i e S
Rappelling
Rope Descending and Ascending Skills
for Climbing, Caving, Canyoneering, and Rigging
Bob Gaines
Rappelling_i-174_3pp_CS55le.indd 1 7/24/13 10:14 AM

FALCONGUIDES ®
Copyright © 2013 Bob Gaines
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage
and retrieval system, except as may be expressly permitted in writing from the publisher. Requests for
permission should be addressed to Globe Pequot Press, Attn: Rights and Permissions Department, PO Box
480, Guilford, CT 06437.
FalconGuides is an imprint of Globe Pequot Press.

Falcon, FalconGuides, and Outfit Your Mind are registered trademarks and How to Climb is a trademark
of Morris Book Publishing, LLC.
Photos © Bob Gaines unless noted otherwise

Illustrations by Mike Clelland
Test and layout design: Casey Shain
Project editor: Julie Marsh
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Gaines, Bob, 1959-

Rappelling : rope descending and ascending skills for climbing, caving, canyoneering, and rigging / Bob
Gaines.
pages cm. — (How to climb series)
ISBN 978-0-7627-8080-8 (pbk.)
1. Rappelling. I. Title.
GV200.19.R34G35 2013
796.522'3—dc23
2013022411
Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Warning: Climbing and rappelling are dangerous sports. You can
be seriously injured or die. Read the following before you use
this book.
This is an instruction book about rock climbing and rappelling, sports

that are inherently dangerous. Do not depend solely on information from
this book for your personal safety.Your climbing safety depends on your
own judgment based on competent instruction, experience, and a realistic
assessment of your climbing ability.
There is no substitute for personal instruction in rock climbing and
rappelling, and such instruction is widely available.You should engage an
instructor or guide to learn climbing and rappelling safety techniques. If
you misinterpret a concept expressed in this book, you may be killed or
seriously injured as a result of the misunderstanding. Therefore, the infor-
mation provided in this book should be used only to supplement com-
petent personal instruction from a climbing and/or rappelling instructor
or guide. Even after you are proficient in climbing safely, occasional use
of a climbing guide is a safe way to raise your climbing standard and learn
advanced techniques.
There are no warranties, either expressed or implied, that this instruc-
tion book contains accurate and reliable information. There are no
warranties as to fitness for a particular purpose or that this book is mer-
chantable.Your use of this book indicates your assumption of the risk
of death or serious injury as a result of the risks of climbing and rappel-
ling and is an acknowledgment of your own sole responsibility for your
safety in climbing and/or rappelling or in training for climbing and/or
rappelling.
The author and Globe Pequot Press assume no liability for accidents
happening to, or injuries sustained by, readers who engage in the activities
described in this book.

Contents
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................................................... vii

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ viii
Chapter 1. Equipment .............................................................................................................................................. 1
Harnesses ............................................................ 1 Rope Care and Use ..................................... 9

Ropes ................................................................... 1 Coiling and Uncoiling Your Rope ............... 9
History ........................................................... 1 Helmets ............................................................. 13
Kernmantle Ropes ........................................ 3 Gloves................................................................ 14
UIAA and CE Certification Knife .................................................................. 14
for Dynamic Ropes ................................. 5 Slings and Webbing .......................................... 14
Static and Low-Stretch Ropes ..................... 6 Flat Webbing ................................................ 14
Dynamic, Low-Stretch, or Static ................. 8 Tubular Webbing ......................................... 14
Diameter and Sheath Percentage ................ 8 Knots for Webbing....................................... 16
Sharp Edge Resistance ................................. 8 Spectra and Dyneema Slings .................... 18
Static Elongation ........................................... 8 Cord and Cordelettes....................................... 20
Dry or Non-Dry .......................................... 8 Carabiners......................................................... 22
Rope Length .................................................. 8
Chapter 2. Rappel Anchors ................................................................................................................................. 27
Natural Anchors ............................................... 27 Nuts and Cams .......................................... 54

Trees ............................................................. 27 The RENE Principle ...................................... 56
Rock Structures ........................................... 30 Principles of Equalization ............................... 56
Rigging Natural Anchors ........................... 35 Pre-Equalized System ................................ 56
Rappel Rings and Quick Links ............... 36 Self-Equalizing Systems ............................ 58
Artificial Anchors ............................................. 40 Vectors ............................................................... 60
Bolts ............................................................. 40 Notes on Redundancy ..................................... 63
Pitons ........................................................... 53

Chapter 3: Knots ........................................................................................................................................................ 65
Loop Knots ....................................................... 65 Triple Fisherman’s Knot ............................ 71

Overhand Loop ........................................... 65 Knots for Joining Two Rappel Ropes ............ 74
Figure Eight Follow-Through ................... 66 Flat Overhand (aka Euro Death Knot) .. 75
Figure Eight Loop....................................... 66 Friction Hitches ................................................ 77
Bowline ........................................................ 66 Prusik Knot ................................................. 77
Bends ................................................................. 71 Klemheist Knot ........................................... 78
Figure Eight Bend ...................................... 71 Autoblock ..................................................... 81
Double Fisherman’s Knot .......................... 71 Stopper Knot .................................................... 82
Chapter 4: Rappelling Methods and Devices ........................................................................................... 85
Rappelling Fundamentals ............................... 85 Munter Hitch .............................................. 91

Non-Mechanical Rappel Methods ................. 87 Carabiner Brake System ............................ 93
Fast Roping ................................................. 87 Standard Rappelling Devices ......................... 95
Arm Rappel ................................................ 88 Figure Eight Descender .............................. 95
Dulfersitz Rappel ....................................... 88 Tube Devices ............................................... 99
Carabiner Rappels ........................................... 90 Plate Devices ............................................ 102
Carabiner Wrap .......................................... 90
Chapter 5: Rappelling Safely ........................................................................................................................... 105
Accidents—Analysis and Prevention .......... 105 Teaching Rappelling ..................................... 114

Rappel Belays ............................................... 108 Site Selection ............................................ 114
Rappel Backups ............................................ 110 Rigging for Contingencies ....................... 114
Chapter 6: Rappelling Methods for Climbing ....................................................................................... 121
Multipitch Rappels ....................................... 121 Rope Management ........................................ 131

Tandem Rappel ............................................. 129 Tossing the Rope ..................................... 131
Simul Rappel ................................................ 130 Retrieving the Rope................................. 131
Rappelling with a Heavy Dealing with Stuck Ropes...................... 131
Pack or Haul Bag .................................... 130
Contents v

Chapter 7: Single Rope Rappel Devices for Fixed Lines .................................................................. 135
Rappelling with an Assisted Passing a Knot .............................................. 139

Braking Device......................................... 135 Passing a Knot with a Cordelette .......... 140
Petzl Grigri .............................................. 135 Passing a Knot with a Self-locking
Petzl Stop ................................................. 135 Rappel Device, Mechanical
Rappel Rack.................................................. 136 Ascenders, and Etriers ........................ 140
Rope Protectors.............................................. 138 Vertical Rope Access Techniques.................. 141
Chapter 8: Canyoneering Techniques ........................................................................................................ 147
Canyoneering Rappel Devices..................... 147 The Reepschnur ....................................... 150

Canyoneering Rope Retrieval Techniques .. 147 Rigging for
Carabiner and Knot Blocks .................... 147 Canyoneering Contingencies ................... 152
Chapter 9: Rope Ascending Techniques .................................................................................................... 155
Improvised Rope Ascending: Prusiking ...... 155 Jumaring......................................................... 159

Ascending a Single Fixed Rope .................. 158 The Yosemite Method .............................. 163
Glossar y ....................................................................................................................................................................... 165

Index .............................................................................................................................................................................. 169
About the Author ..................................................................................................................................................... 173
vi Contents

Acknowledgments
F irst of all I’d like to thank John Burbidge and Julie Marsh at FalconGuides
for putting it all together. Special thanks to Casey Shain for the excellent
layout design. Thanks to photographers Greg Epperson, Kevin Powell, Todd
Gordon, and Catherine Colella for their beautiful rappelling shots. I’d also like
to thank everyone who graciously posed for pictures: Patty Kline, Tony Sartin,
Terri Condon, Tony Grice, Dave Mayville, Adam Fox, Mike Morretti, Steve
Schwartz, Mark O’Brien, Lynne Leichtfuss, Austin Allred, Nick Giblin, Chris
Idiart, Gabriel Burnworth, Mark Cyr, Ben Shackleford, and Ryan Murphy.
Special thanks to my wife,Yvonne, for her help with the photography.
Moonlight Rappel, Joshua Tree National Park.

Pho to by Kevin Powell

Introduction
r appelling is a controlled descent

down a rope using a friction
braking device. The word rappel is
of French derivation, meaning “to
recall.” Rappelling is most com-
monly used in rock climbing and
mountaineering as an important
technique for descending steep cliffs.
It is typically done on a rope that
is threaded through an anchor; the
rappel is then made on two strands
of rope. After the rappel is com-
pleted, the rope is retrieved by pull-
ing down on one end of the rope.
The history of rappelling dates
back to the 1870s, when French
guides employed the basic dulfersitz,
or body rappel, to descend from the
icy spires of the Chamonix Aiguilles
in the French Alps. Since then
numerous techniques and devices
have been developed specifically for
rappelling, for both recreational and
professional users.
“Sport rappelling” has become
popular among aficionados who
rappel purely for the fun of it—
for the thrill and exhilaration of
bounding safely down a sheer cliff.
Rappelling is also an integral tech-
nique in canyoneering, caving, and
adventure racing. Search and rescue
teams, SWAT teams, firefighters, and
Rappelling off Headstone Rock,

Joshua Tree National Park.
P h o t o b y C at h e r i n e C o l e l l a

military special forces all use rappelling techniques Climbing School, based at Joshua Tree, California,
for special situations where access is otherwise since 1983. I’ve taught rappelling to a wide variety
impossible. of clients, from Boy Scouts to military special forces.
Rappelling is also used by rope access techni- I’ve been fortunate to work in the film business
cians for industrial applications (known as vertical as a stunt coordinator, and I’ve coordinated more
rope access) such as inspection, maintenance, and than forty TV commercials featuring climbing and
construction on buildings, bridges, dams, and con- rappelling stunts, training numerous actors and
fined spaces, to reach work areas not accessible by stuntmen in the basics of rappelling. In this book
conventional means. I’ll share what I’ve learned over the years and the
In this book, techniques for all the various rap- insights I’ve gained by working with and teaching
pelling methods are covered, from simple sport others the art of rappelling. I’ll also share some of
rappels on a single rope to professional standards the methods professional instructors use to teach
for fixed line work. Rappel anchors, rigging, rope rappelling, which will give you valuable insight in
retrieval techniques, rappel safety, and use of state- how to progress on your own. If you’ve never done
of-the art rappel devices are discussed. In addi- any rappelling and want to learn the basic skills,
tion to rappelling methods used for descent, rope I encourage you to seek professional instruction,
ascending techniques are covered in some detail, preferably under the tutelage of an AMGA-certified
both for basic self-rescue (where you need to go instructor.
back up the rope or unweight the rappel device) Rappelling is not without risk. According to
and for situations where you are working on a fixed Accidents in North American Mountaineering, a sober-
line and need to go up and down the rope. ing tome published annually that details rock
The longest rappel I’ve ever made was in 1987, climbing and mountaineering accidents, from 1951
during the filming of the movie Star Trek V. I was the to 2010 there were 7,714 reported accidents, and
stunt double for Captain Kirk (William Shatner) in 362 (5 percent) of these involved rappelling. Of
a scene where he decides to free solo El Capitan in these accidents, many proved to be fatal, either via
Yosemite. We had finished all the on-cliff shots, and anchor failure or by simply rappelling off the end
the crew had descended, leaving me alone, high on of the rope. In this book I’ll analyze some of these
the cliff, so the cameraman could get a clean shot of accidents so that we can all learn from these unfor-
just me climbing. After it was a wrap, I had the great tunate mistakes. I’ll focus, in some detail, on the
pleasure of rappelling 1,700 feet without having to most common accidents that have occurred while
worry about retrieving any of the rope. rappelling, with a broader discussion of what can go
I’ve been a professional climbing instructor wrong, what to watch out for, and how to prevent
and the owner/director of Vertical Adventures mishaps by following some standard safeguards.

c h a p t e r o n e
Equipment
Harnesses professionals. Check the manufacturer’s guidelines

on the harness you buy, and read the instructions on
A commercially made harness designed for rock how to properly buckle and use the harness.You’ll
climbing or mountaineering works great for rappel- want to retire your harness if the belay/rappel loop
ling. Look for a model that has a belay/rappel loop. becomes frayed or shows signs of wear. Petzl recom-
When you rappel, you’ll clip your rappel device mends using nylon products no longer than seven
directly into the belay/rappel loop with a locking years, even with minimal usage.
carabiner. A model with adjustable leg loops is a
good choice. Top brands include Arc’teryx, Black
Diamond, Petzl, Metolius, Wild Country, Singing Ropes
Rock, Trango, Mammut, and Camp USA. Some
newer models have webbing with “speed buckles” History
that are pre-threaded and already doubled back, Mountaineering’s first golden age ended abruptly on
so all you have to do is loosen them before you July 14, 1865. For Edward Whymper, who led a team
put the harness on, then tighten the webbing to of seven climbers up the first ascent of Switzerland’s
fit. Other harnesses have the traditional old-school Matterhorn—at the time the last great unclimbed
“double pass” buckle, where the webbing belt must peak in the Alps—both triumph and tragedy were
be doubled back through the buckle. his fate on that great and dreadful summer’s day.
Professional riggers and vertical rope access pro- After reaching the summit, the climbers, all tied
fessionals use full body harnesses, which are more together with manila ropes, began a tedious descent.
comfortable for extended hang time. These har- One of the party suddenly slipped, pulling several
nesses have at least two metal D rings at the front of the others off. While Whymper held fast, cling-
of the harness; some designs have additional metal ing to a rock outcrop to avoid being yanked into the
D ring attachment points on the sides and upper abyss, the rope broke, sending four climbers to their
back of the harness for attaching rappel, ascending, death. They were buried in the Zermatt cemetery,
work positioning, and fall protection devices.Yates the Matterhorn soaring above them as their tomb-
and Petzl make excellent full body harnesses for stone for all time. Some speculated that the rope had
been cut with a knife, but a formal investigation and
inspection of the rope revealed the cord had simply
parted—broken under the strain.
Beth Renn rappels from the summit Through the late nineteenth and early twentieth
of the Charlatan Needle, Giant Sequoia centuries, climbing and rappelling ropes were made
National Monument, California. from natural fibers like hemp, manila, and sisal.
Pho to by GreG ePPerson While strong enough for many applications, these

Lightweight harness with belay/rappel loop and Traditional harness with belay/rappel loop,
gear loops. gear loops, and adjustable leg loops.
Traditional doubled-back metal harness buckle. Modern “speed buckle.”
2 RAPPELLING

and absorb the forces created in a fall, making it
superior to any other yarns currently available for
this application.
Polyester, patented in 1941, has less stretch than
nylon and is today widely used in the manufacture
of low-stretch ropes used in rescue, fixed lines, rope
systems, and rappelling, where dynamic properties
are not required.
My first climbing and rappelling rope, which I
bought in the 1970s, was a three-strand nylon rope
with the brand name Goldline. The three-strand
twisted construction (called laid construction)
consisted of three strands of twisted filaments spi-
raled into one singular rope. These ropes stretched
considerably under body weight, and if you were
rappelling or prusiking without contact to the rock,
the spiral construction would result in a dizzying
spin on your way down.
Kernmantle Ropes
The big step up in rope technology came in the
1953 with the advent of the first kernmantle rope,
made in Europe. The kernmantle design consists of
an outer, tightly woven sheath (mantle) over a core
of twisted, parallel fibers (kern). The core of the
The Yates Basic Rigging Harness is a full body rope provides most of the rope’s strength, and the
harness with two separate D ring attachment sheath protects the core from abrasion and dam-
points on the front of the harness. age and reduces friction as the rope runs through
carabiners and rappel devices. The kernmantle rope
ropes were ill suited to the rigors of climbing and handles better and is more durable than a rope with
rappelling, and subject to mildew and rot. laid construction.
Nylon, also known by the generic name poly- During the 1950s and into the golden age of
amide, was developed by the Dupont company in big wall climbing in Yosemite during the 1960s,
1935. Modern nylon climbing and rappelling ropes Goldline ropes were still the standard, as they were
that could actually hold up to the forces gener- about a third of the price of kernmantle ropes.
ated from leader falls were first manufactured in Once they became more widely manufactured and
the 1940s, coinciding with the availability of high- distributed, with a correspondingly better price,
quality “nylon 6,” allowing the construction of kernmantle ropes became the standard climbing
lighter weight ropes that could stretch to absorb rope worldwide by the late 1960s and early 1970s.
great forces and hold more than two tons. Nylon is Today the kernmantle rope is the standard
still by far the best material for rock climbing and design used in climbing, rappelling, caving, can-
mountaineering ropes due to its ability to stretch yoneering, vertical rope access, fixed lines, rescue,
Equipment 3

My first rope—the classic Goldline.
Dynamic Rope Types
D ynamic ropes are sold in single, double, and twin configurations.

A single rope (marked on the label with a 1 inside a circle) is the most commonly used rope
for rock climbing and rappelling and is used as a single strand.
A half rope (marked on the label with a 1⁄2 inside a circle) is used primarily for alpine rock climb-
ing and mountaineering and consists of a pair of ropes both tied in to the leader, who alternates clip-
ping one strand at a time into protection. This configuration reduces rope drag through protection and
allows the leader to belay two followers at the same time, each of whom is tied to one strand. It also
provides two full-length ropes to facilitate a rappel descent.
A twin rope (marked with two overlapping circles) is used primarily in alpine climbing and should
only be used with the two strands together; each climber ties into both strands and both strands are
clipped into points of protection. The big advantage is that it allows for retrievable rappels the length of
the rope, and it is lighter than a half rope. A single strand should not be used alone, however.
4 RAPPELLING

leader fall—and therefore is the standard rope for
rock climbing, ice climbing, and mountaineering,
where the rope will be used for belayed climb-
ing and rappelling. A dynamic rope will typically
stretch about 26 to 36 percent during a leader fall
(dynamic elongation) and around 7 to 11 percent
under body weight (static elongation).
UIAA and CE Certification

for Dynamic Ropes
Dynamic ropes sold for rappelling, climbing, and
mountaineering are tested and certified to UIAA
(Union Internationale des Associations d’Alpinisme)
Deconstructed kernmantle rope showing the and CE (Certified for Europe) standards and
braided white interior core under the more should bear the UIAA or CE certification on the
tightly woven sheath. label. This means that the rope has been tested and
certified by a “third party” at one of three UIAA-
and life safety ropes. These ropes are made from approved testing facilities to meet the European
nylon, polyester, or a combination of these and Norm (EN) 892 and UIAA-101 standards for
other synthetic yarns. There are three basic types of dynamic rope. To receive this certification, the rope
kernmantle ropes: dynamic, low-stretch, and static. sample must survive at least five UIAA drop tests.
A dynamic rope is required for situations where a This test is done by taking a 80 kg (176 lb.) weight,
high-impact force can be generated—such as in a attaching it to one end of a 9-foot length of rope,
Selection of dynamic
ropes from Nomad
Ventures climbing shop,
Idyllwild, California.
Equipment 5

single rope and no more than 12 percent for a half
or twin rope.
To the best of my knowledge, the only docu-
mented rope failures among UIAA-certified ropes
were ropes that were cut over sharp edges and one
rope with known pre-exposure to sulfuric acid.
Static and Low-Stretch Ropes

For many years the term static rope was used to
define any low-stretch rope typically used as a
rescue rope or as a fixed line for rope access, rap-
pelling, and life safety. As rope manufacturers
developed new techniques and technologies to
create better low-stretch ropes, the terms static rope,
low-stretch rope, low-elongation rope, and semi-static
rope, often used interchangeably, became somewhat
ambiguous, especially since all ropes have some
stretch, so a more precise definition was needed.
The Cordage Institute, an international rope
industry association that disseminates industry stan-
Climbing shops sell static and low-stretch ropes dards, defines two categories of non-dynamic ropes:
from spools, cut to the length you desire. static and low-stretch.
s tat i c ro p e s
then raising it 8 ⁄2 feet above the anchor and drop-
1
Static is defined as rope with a maximum elonga-
ping it 15 feet over a 10mm diameter bar (similar tion of less than 6 percent at 10 percent of the rope’s
to a carabiner) that is anchored approximately 1 minimum breaking strength (MBS). New technology
foot above where the rope end is anchored. This allows manufacturers to create ropes with virtually
simulates a fall factor of 1.7 (total distance of the fall no stretch under a person’s body weight rappelling
divided by the length of rope in the system), which down the rope. For example, the Sterling Rope com-
is a very severe fall in climbing situations. pany’s 1⁄2-inch diameter HTP Static rope stretches
For a single rope, during the first drop the peak only 0.8 percent with a 300-pound load and has a
impact force on the rope is measured and must safe working load (SWL) of 908 pounds, which is 1⁄10
be less than or equal to 12 kN (8 kN for a half of its MBS of 9,081 pounds.
rope with a weight of 55 kg) with a correspond- A static rope, by definition, is just that—static,
ing stretch of less than or equal to 40 percent. with very low stretch—think of it almost like a wire
Twin ropes have the same requirements as a single cable. Static ropes generally have poor handling
rope but must survive at least twelve drops with- characteristics due to their stiffness and are typically
out breakage. In addition to the stringent drop test used only for rappelling, fixed lines, haul lines, high
requirements, sheath slippage can be no more than lines, and zip lines where dynamic properties are
1 percent, and static elongation under an 80 kg not required. A static rope should never be used for
(176 lb.) load can be no more than 10 percent for a lead climbing or belaying, where it may be subject
6 RAPPELLING

to a high impact force, but it is a great rope for N f pa s tat i c ro p e t e s t i N g
applications where stretch is not required. In the United States static rope and low-stretch
ropes are tested by a third party, such as Underwrit-
l ow- s t r e tc h ro p e s
ers Laboratories (UL), to meet guidelines set by
The Cordage Institute defines low-stretch as a rope the National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) and
with an elongation between 6 and 10 percent at 10 the Cordage Institute (CI), which set US standards
percent of the rope’s MBS. Since a low-stretch rope for “life safety ropes” used by rescue teams, police
has relatively little stretch (usually 3 to 4 percent SWAT teams, fire departments, and vertical rope
under body weight) compared to a dynamic rope, it access professionals. A life safety rope is defined as
is a great choice if you’re using it just for rappelling. a rope on which your life (or someone else’s life)
Low-stretch ropes are also a good choice for verti- depends on, possibly time and time again, as in the
cal rope access, toproped rock climbing, rigging, and case of rescue professionals. The NFPA 1983 rope
applications where some stretch is desired to add an performance standard (modified in 2006) defines
element of shock absorption to the rope system. three specific categories for life safety ropes: per-
sonal escape, light use, and general use.
c e e N 18 91
On both static and low-stretch ropes manufac- Personal Escape Ropes
tured in Europe, the CE label indicates the rope For NFPA certification a personal escape rope must
has passed testing in accordance with EN 1891 be designated for onetime use only, with a diameter
(European Norm). There are two types of EN 1891 of between 7.5 and 9.5mm when under load, with
certifications: Type A and Type B. To receive an EN elongation between 1 and 10 percent at 10 percent
1891 Type A rating, the rope must have a minimum of MBS, and an MBS of 13.5 kN.
diameter of 10mm and be able to hold at least 22
kN (4,495 lbs.). A Type A rope must also be tested Light Use Ropes
to withstand five factor 1 falls with a weight of 100 For light use NFPA certification, the rope must be
kg (220 lbs.) on the end of the rope. The fall factor between 3⁄8 inch (9.5mm) and 1⁄2 inch (12.5mm)
is the total distance of the fall divided by the length diameter and have an MBS of at least 20 kN (4,496
of the rope that comes into play during the fall. lbs.), with elongation between 1 and 10 percent at
What is a fall factor 1? Let’s say you’re standing on 10 percent of MBS (450 lbs.).
a bridge.You are tied to one end of a 200-foot rope,
and the other end is attached to the bridge at the General Use Ropes
level where you’re standing.You step off the bridge For general use NFPA certification, the rope must
and fall the length of the rope.You’ve fallen 200 feet have a diameter of between 7⁄16 inch (11mm) and 5⁄8
until the rope comes tight. Total distance of the fall inch (16mm), with an MBS of 40 kN (8,992 lbs.)
(200 feet) divided by the length of the rope to the and elongation between 1 and 10 percent at 10 per-
anchor (200 feet) equals a fall factor of 1. cent of MBS (899 lbs.).
An EN 1891 Type B–certified rope is between NFPA-certified ropes are tested for both a static
8 and 9.9mm in diameter and must be able to hold strength (tensile strength) rating and an SWL rating.
at least 18 kN (4,045 lbs.) and withstand five factor The NFPA (and OSHA) standard for SWL is 1⁄10 of
1 falls with a weight of 80 kg (176 lbs.) on the end the MBS.
of the rope.
Equipment 7

Dynamic, Low-Stretch, or Static measure of the rope’s ability to resist slicing over
When buying a rope for rappelling, the following sharp rock edges. As mentioned earlier, some of the
criteria will help you assess which rope is best for only documented cases of modern climbing ropes
your particular application. breaking in the field have been when the rope was
A dynamic rope is required for situations cut over a sharp edge.
where you’ll be using the rope for both belaying
Static Elongation
and rappelling, as in rock climbing. My preferred
rope for rappelling and fixed line applications is This is a measure of how much the rope stretches
a low-stretch rope. I look for a rope with either under a weight of 80 kg (176 lbs.), telling you how
a CE EN 1891 Type A certification or an NFPA much your rope will stretch during a normal rappel.
light use certification, with a diameter of between For rappelling and fixed rope applications, I prefer a
10 and 10.5mm, to be compatible with various low-stretch rope with a static elongation of around
rappelling and ascending devices. I also check the 3 to 4 percent. Most dynamic climbing ropes have a
rope’s suppleness to ensure the rope will hold knots static elongation of about 8 or 9 percent.
firmly and handle well. Sterling makes an excel-
Dry or Non-Dry
lent low-stretch polyamide (nylon) rope called the
Safety Pro. I prefer the 10.5mm diameter for good Nylon, when it gets wet, absorbs water, which
handling and durability for rappelling and fixed weakens the fibers. Nylon ropes can lose much of
rope work. their strength when wet (usually at least 30 percent;
some studies show over 50 percent loss of strength),
Diameter and Sheath Percentage so manufacturers sell ropes with a “dry coating” to
Ropes sold for climbing and rappelling commonly keep the rope from absorbing water and make it
range from 9 to 11mm, with the most popular more abrasion resistant. If you’re using a dynamic
diameter around 10.5mm. Thinner ropes generally nylon rope in snow, ice, or wet conditions, such as
stretch more and cut more easily over sharp edges. those encountered in mountaineering or ice climb-
A thicker diameter rope also affords more friction ing, you’ll definitely want a rope with a dry coating.
when used with rappelling devices. Polyester ropes do not absorb water, so for
Many manufacturers now provide information applications where you’ll need a rope for rappelling
on the sheath’s percentage of the total weight. A and rope ascending in wet conditions, such as can-
rope with a higher percentage of sheath (40 percent yoneering, but not for lead climbing, a low-stretch
or more) will generally be more durable for rappel- polyester rope is a good choice.
ling use than one with a lower sheath percentage. In dry conditions, if you’re using a rope just for
rappelling, the dry coating will wear off quickly, so
Sharp Edge Resistance it’s probably not worth the added cost, as dry ropes
The UIAA has developed a new, optional test for are generally more expensive.
manufacturers to receive a “sharp edge resistant”
Rope Length
certification. The test is very similar to the UIAA
drop test, although instead of dropping the rope When I began climbing in the 1970s, the standard
over a rounded bar simulating a carabiner, a sharp length for a dynamic climbing rope was 50 meters
edge is used. This is a pass or fail test, and although (165 feet). Today the standard is 60 meters (200
not a true indicator of durability, it’s a good feet), and many climbers use 70-meter ropes (230
8 RAPPELLING

feet). These are the standard precut lengths you can It is not a good idea to borrow or rent a rope,
buy from a climbing shop. Static and low-stretch because you don’t know its history. Don’t lend out
ropes are commonly sold in precut lengths and are your rope, and keep track of its history and how
also sold directly from spools, cut to your desired long you’ve had it. Most manufacturers recom-
length. mend keeping a rope for no longer than five to
seven years, even with minimal use, and no longer
Rope Care and Use than ten years even if the rope has been stored and
When buying a rope for rappelling, purchase from never used.
a climbing shop that specializes in selling climbing Inspect your rope by running your hand over
gear. the entire length of the sheath when coiling and
Any reputable climbing shop will only stock uncoiling the rope.Visually inspect for excessively
the top brands, like Sterling, Maxim, Beal, Blue- worn areas on the sheath, and feel for irregularities
water, Mammut, Edelrid, Edelweiss, Petzl, Millet, (voids, flat spots, etc.) in the core.Your rope should
Metolius, and PMI. be retired (or cut to a shorter length) if you see the
Avoid setting up a rappel where your rope sheath is excessively worn or frayed, exposing the
might abrade or cut over an edge. This can severely core, or if there are any anomalies in the core. Mul-
weaken or ruin your sheath in just one rappel! tiple fast rappels can burn the sheath of your rope,
Avoid standing or stepping on your rope, as this a result of heat generated by the friction between
can grind sharp pebbles and grit through the your rope and your rappel device. If the sheath
sheath and into the core. Minimize your rope’s feels glazed or melted, the rope should be retired.
exposure to UV light, as this will weaken the fibers
over time. Store your rope in a shaded, dry place. Coiling and Uncoiling Your Rope
If your rope gets dirty, you can wash it by When you buy a new rope, take extra care the first
hand in a tub or in a washing machine (preferably time you uncoil it to prevent kinking. The best
a front-loading washing machine, because a top- method is to simply unroll the rope from the coil,
loading machine’s agitator will abrade the rope) as if pulling it off a spool, holding the rope and
with hot water and a soap suitable for nylon. If rotating the coil until the entire rope is stacked on
washing your rope in a bathtub, make sure the tub the ground, keeping the rope free from any twists.
is free from any chemicals that may damage it. I Once the rope is in a loose pile, inspect the rope by
daisy chain the full length of my rope before wash- running it foot by foot through your hands from
ing it in a machine to keep it from getting tangled. one end to the other, then coil it with the butterfly
Let your rope dry by hanging it in a shaded area. coil method.
Be vigilant, and protect your rope from coming
into contact with any chemicals that contain acids, B ac k pac k e r o r B u t t e r f ly c o i l
bleaching or oxidizing agents, or alkalines. Acid is The backpacker, or butterfly, coiling method puts
the archenemy of nylon and can severely weaken fewer kinks in your rope. It is also the fastest way to
nylon and polyester fibers. Be extremely cautious coil a rope, since you start with both ends and coil
to avoid exposing your rope to battery acid or a doubled rope. I start by measuring two and a half
any type of acid that may be encountered in your arm lengths (both arms extended), then begin the
garage or the trunk of your car. It is wise to store butterfly.
your rope in a rope bag.
Equipment 9

Backpacker Coil
10 RAPPELLING

The backpacker coil is also
known as the butterfly coil.
Equipment 11

Mountaineer’s Coil
Mountaineer’s coil.
M o u N ta i N e e r ’ s c o i l
Another standard coiling method is called the
mountaineer’s coil. This is a traditional method that
makes for a classic, round coil that can be easily car-
ried over the shoulder or strapped onto the top of
a pack.
12 RAPPELLING

Helmets the warning comes from 100 feet or more away,
you may want to look up, judge the trajectory, and
Rockfall is a constant threat while rappelling and is move aside accordingly. If the signal comes from
caused by your rope coming into contact with the just above you, and you haven’t seen it happen, you
cliff, particularly if you swing from side to side and might just want to hunker down and not look up,
especially if there is loose rock on the cliff. Be par- so as not to get hit in the face. Obviously, wearing a
ticularly aware when you are at the base of the cliff, helmet is a good idea when rappelling and hanging
especially if other rappellers are at the top, rigging out at the bottom of the cliff.
anchors and setting ropes, as rocks are easily dis- Whether or not you choose to wear a helmet
lodged by ropes being pulled around. If you are on is up to you, but be aware that many fatal climbing
the cliff or at the top of the cliff and dislodge a rock incidents could have been prevented by wearing a
(or any object), the universal signal is “ROCK!” helmet. Rockfall, whether caused by other rappel-
How loud the signal is yelled usually signifies the lers, the rope, or natural causes, is always a danger.
size of the rock. My closest calls in over thirty years Top brands of climbing helmets include Petzl, Black
of climbing have been with near-miss rockfalls. If Diamond, Mammut, and Camp USA.
Helmets increase safety in a cliff environment.
Equipment 13

Gloves Slings and Webbing
For a slow, controlled descent, many climbers rappel In the 1960s and 70s, 1-inch-wide tubular nylon
without gloves. But if you want to rappel faster and webbing was the standard sling material, tied into a
smoother, or add more friction by tightening your loop with a water knot or double fisherman’s knot.
grip on your brake hand, gloves are indispensable. Eventually, sewn slings with bartacked stitching
Gloves are also advisable for rappelling on thin- came onto the market and were actually stronger
diameter ropes and for long rappels. than the same material tied with a knot. Sewn slings
Petzl, Metolius, Black Diamond, and other are not only stronger but also safer in that you don’t
climbing equipment manufacturers sell gloves have to worry about the knot loosening and com-
specifically made for belaying and rappelling. Or ing untied. For rigging rappel anchors, 1-inch tubu-
you can pick up a pair of inexpensive lightweight lar webbing is the most versatile.
leather work gloves from Home Depot that will
work just fine. Choose a pair that are tight-fitting Flat Webbing
but with good finger dexterity. Flat webbing is woven solid, as opposed to tubular
webbing, which is woven into a hose-like shape. It is
stiffer and more abrasion resistant than softer tubu-
Knife
lar webbing, with a higher tensile breaking strength
Many rappellers carry a knife to use in the event (Sterling 1-inch flat webbing is rated at 43.5 kN or
of something getting caught in the rappel device, 9,800 lbs.), which makes it useful for high-strength
like a shirttail, beard, or long hair. But be very care- applications. Its stiffness, however, makes it more dif-
ful with a knife, and know that there have been ficult to knot and gives it poor handling characteris-
numerous instances where people have cut their tics, making it unpopular with climbers.
rappel ropes while trying to cut something out of
their rappel device, as a rope under tension cuts Tubular Webbing
more easily than one not under tension. In thirty There are two types of tubular nylon webbing: mil-
years of rappelling, I’ve never had to cut anything spec and climb-spec.
out of a rappel device. I have used a knife to cut off Since webbing was originally manufactured for
old nylon webbing and cord from rappel anchors military applications, mil-spec means that the web-
to replace it with new material. In fact, if I’m doing bing meets the standards demanded by the military.
a climb that requires multiple rappels using natural Mil-spec has a coarser, rougher-textured weave,
anchors like trees and blocks of rock, I’ll make sure with a more pronounced ribbing across the width
I have a small knife and extra webbing. I prefer a of the webbing. Climb-spec is a finer, more high-
stainless steel knife with a serrated blade that eas- quality weave, without the noticeable ribbing and
ily cuts both rope and webbing. Petzl makes several with a more tightly woven edge. Climb-spec usually
models specifically for climbing, with a folding tests slightly stronger than mil-spec webbing and is
design that has a round hole on one end to clip generally more abrasion resistant and more impervi-
into a carabiner. I prefer a design that can’t open up ous to tearing or slicing over a sharp edge, but both
on you when it’s folded closed and clipped into a are suitable for rigging rappel anchors, and both are
regular-size carabiner—like the Trango Piranha. roughly the same price.
The Bluewater company, known for manufac-
turing high-quality webbing, says its climb-spec
tubular nylon webbing “outperforms normal
14 RAPPELLING

Top: Bluewater 1-inch climb-spec nylon webbing is rated at 18 kN tensile strength (4,047 lbs.).
Bottom: REI 1-inch mil-spec nylon webbing is rated at 17.8 kN tensile strength (4,002 lbs.).
mil-spec webbing in strength, flexibility, knotabil- Climbing shops sell both mil-spec and climb-
ity, and durability. There is minimum exposure to spec 1-inch tubular nylon webbing from spools, cut
individual fibers as a result of high thread count and to any length you wish. Be aware that these spools
fine weave pattern.” Bluewater’s 1-inch climb-spec of webbing contain taped splices where the web-
webbing has been tested to over 6,000 pounds loop bing ends have been joined together with mask-
strength when tied with a water knot. ing tape. It seems impossible for it to happen, but I
The Sterling Rope Company’s version of know of two cases where spliced webbing was sold
climb-spec webbing is called Tech Tape, with to customers who then used it with only the mask-
a “smoother, denser weave and higher tensile ing tape joining the webbing together, in one case
strength” then their mil-spec webbing and a 4,300- with devastating results.
pound tensile strength. Sterling’s mil-spec webbing One advantage of nylon webbing is that it can
is rated to a minimum breaking strength of 4,000 be untied and re-tied around a tree, through a tun-
pounds tensile strength and 6,129 pounds in a nel, or threaded through bolt hangers for a rappel
bartacked sewn loop. anchor. I generally only carry 1-inch webbing
Pre-sewn nylon slings are typically sold in 11⁄16- when I know I’ll be rigging rappel anchors and
inch (18mm) width, bartacked into 24-inch or leaving it behind.
48-inch loops with a rating of 22 kN (4,946 lbs.) The Bluewater company recommends the
loop strength. maximum lifespan of its nylon webbing to be no
Equipment 15

Nylon webbing comparison. Top to bottom: 1-inch tubular nylon webbing tied with water knot
(Sterling Tech Tape, rated at 4,300 lbs. tensile strength); 18mm Metolius Nylon Sling, rated at 22
kN loop strength (4,946 lbs.); 18mm Black Diamond Runner, rated at 22 kN loop strength; 11⁄16-inch
Sterling tubular webbing, tied with a water knot (rated at 3,000 lbs. tensile strength).
more than five years, and also recommends retir- Knots for Webbing
ing a nylon sling if it has been subjected to tem- Nylon webbing is an inherently slick material and
peratures above 176°F, is scorched or glazed from a should be tied with care. There have been many
rope being pulled across it, shows signs of UV deg- accidents where poorly tied knots in nylon webbing
radation from being left out in the elements (faded have failed. The two recommended knots for tying
color and/or stiffness), or if it has been exposed to nylon webbing into a loop are the water knot (also
acid or bleach. Like a nylon rope, nylon webbing known as the ring bend) and the double fisherman’s
can lose an appreciable amount of strength when knot (also known as the grapevine knot). The water
wet or frozen. knot should be neatly tied, with the finished tails a
16 RAPPELLING

The water knot.
Tying the water knot (ring bend). Tying nylon webbing with a double fisherman’s
(grapevine) knot.
Equipment 17

Tensile Strength vs. Loop Strength
S trength ratings are often given as tensile strength and loop strength. Tensile strength is tested by a
straight pull on a single strand of the material with no knots, done by wrapping the material around
a smooth bar (4-inch diameter gives the most accurate test) on both ends and pulling until it breaks.
Loop strength is the material tested in a loop configuration, either tied with a knot (in the case of web-
bing, usually the water knot) or sewn with bartacked stitching. In general, webbing loop strength when
tied with a water knot is about 80 percent of twice the tensile breaking strength, and bartacked sewn
webbing loop strength is generally about 15 percent stronger than the same material tied with a water
knot, depending upon the quality and number of bartacks.
minimum of 3 inches in length. It is important to for pound, is stronger than wire cable. Most experts
tighten the water knot carefully and firmly, as it has say that the manufacturer of Dyneema consistently
a tendency to loosen when not tightened properly produces more high-quality fibers than the manu-
in a sling that is being used over time. A double facturer of Spectra material, and most of the climb-
fisherman’s knot is hard to tie neatly with webbing ing and rappelling slings on the market today are
and requires a much longer piece of material, but it made from Dyneema.
is very secure and will not loosen. A disadvantage is Both Spectra and Dyneema slings are con-
that it is difficult if not impossible to untie once it structed from parallel fibers—very strong but with
has been heavily loaded. high lubricity, which means the material itself is
Why would you even use nylon webbing tied inherently slick. That is the reason you can only buy
with a knot as opposed to a sewn runner? A sewn it in sewn loops—it does not hold knots well. Do
nylon runner is just as strong and more secure than not cut a Spectra or Dyneema sling and re-tie it with a
the same material tied with a knot, since you don’t water knot!
have to worry about the knot loosening or com- Both Spectra and Dyneema have a lower melt-
ing untied. The answer is for use in rappel anchors ing point than nylon (around 300°F for Dyneema/
when tying slings around a tree or through bolt Spectra compared to nylon’s melting point of around
hangers. It is also sometimes useful to untie the 480°F). The lower melting point, along with the
knot, thread the webbing through something (like a inherent slipperiness, make Spectra and Dyneema
tunnel), and re-tie it. slings a poor choice for tying friction hitches like the
prusik, klemheist, or autoblock, compared to 5mm or
Spectra and Dyneema Slings 6mm diameter nylon cord.
Spectra slings, introduced in the late 1980s, were In a pinch, if you need to use a sling to tie a
lighter, less bulky, and stronger than nylon. friction hitch, use a nylon one over a Dyneema or
Dyneema is a more recent innovation, typically sold Spectra sling, as nylon will grip better. The newer,
in various-length loops sewn with bartacked stitch- thinner (10mm width) Dyneema slings will work
ing in 10mm width. Dyneema and Spectra both for friction hitches, and they do possess some
have almost the exact identical chemical makeup of nylon in their construction, but if they start to
high-molecular-weight polyethylene, which, pound slide on a rope when under load, the friction will
18 RAPPELLING

Dyneema Sling
Comparison. Top
to bottom: 1-inch
tubular nylon webbing
(for comparison);
Wild Country 10mm
Dyneema sling (22
kN or 4,946 lbs.);
Black Diamond 10mm
Dynex Runner (22
kN); Mammut 8mm
Dyneema Contact Sling
(22 kN).
Girth-hitching two
Dyneema slings
together can decrease
their strength by 50
percent, but for most
rappelling situations
this is not a concern,
since the loop strength
is 5,000 pounds to begin
with.
Equipment 19

generate heat, which could potentially weaken the Cord and Cordelettes
sling.
Both Spectra and Dyneema fibers do not retain A good all-purpose cordelette is 7mm diameter
dye and cannot be colored, so the fiber is distinctive nylon cord, about an 18- to 20-foot length tied into
in that it is always white. Manufacturers add a blend a giant loop with a double fisherman’s knot. I prefer
of nylon to Spectra and Dyneema, usually in a dis- a length that allows me to double the cordelette
tinctive border pattern, and my guess is that in the within the span of my outstretched arms. My favor-
future we’ll see more nylon in the mix. The Meto- ite brand is Sterling, whose 7mm diameter nylon
lius company recently came out with 13mm width cord is rated at 12.4 kN (2,788 lbs.) and tests over
slings that are a blend of 36 percent Dyneema and 5,000 pounds when tied into a loop with a double
64 percent nylon. fisherman’s knot.
When using Spectra or Dyneema slings, think Cordelettes made with a Spectra or Dyneema
of them like a wire cable—they have no stretch, core and nylon sheath have incredibly high strength
even with nylon blended into the weave. Avoid and low stretch. Pound for pound, Spectra and
tying knots with them—it can be almost impossible Dyneema are stronger than steel (and is the mate-
to untie a simple overhand knot in the newer, thin- rial used in body armor for the military), but both
ner Dyneema after it has been seriously weighted. Spectra and Dyneema lose an appreciable amount
Wild Country warns that the material loses a hefty of strength when tied with knots. Because these
percentage of its strength (around 50 percent) when cords are so light and strong, with less bulk to
tied in a simple overhand knot or girth-hitch—a carry, they have become popular, especially for
property that nylon does not possess. The best way rock climbing. The Bluewater company markets
to use a Spectra or Dyneema sling is clipped to the 5.5mm diameter Titan Cord, with a Dyneema
carabiners. If using them in a sling-to-sling configu- core and nylon sheath, rated at 13.7 kN (3,080 lbs.).
ration, either basket one sling over another or use a They say its “combination of high strength, low
properly tied girth-hitch. elongation and light weight provides superior char-
When buying slings for rappelling, 1-inch or acteristics over other combinations. Dyneema does
11
⁄16-inch width tubular nylon webbing will be the not lose significant strength with repetitive flexing
most versatile material for rigging rappel anchors, and offers a huge increase in abrasion and cut resis-
as it can be cut to a desired length and tied with a tance over other materials. Bluewater Titan Cord
water knot. Double-length (48-inch) sewn nylon can be cut and sealed with a hot knife. We recom-
slings are also handy for tethering into anchors mend a triple fisherman’s knot for tying 5.5 Titan
and extending your rappel device away from your into loops.”
harness. Any sling you purchase for rappel anchor In recent years high-tech cords utilizing aramid
rigging should have a minimum strength rating of fibers (namely Technora) for the core, with a nylon
around 14 kN (3,147 lbs.). sheath, have become popular. Aramid fiber has
Recent studies show that dirty slings are weaker extraordinary tensile strength (stronger than Spectra
than clean ones. The Mammut company suggests that or Dyneema) with low stretch and an extremely
“to maintain the quality and safety of your slings, you high melting point (900°F), making it difficult to
need to clean them regularly.” Mammut recommends cut and melt. I’ve found that the best way to cut it
to “clean soiled slings in hand-hot water with a small is with wire cable cutters. Then I milk the nylon
amount of mild detergent or in a delicates machine sheath over the end and seal it by melting the nylon
cycle up to 30°C (86° F). Rinse in clear water. Leave with a lighter. The Sterling 6mm Powercord has
to dry in shade.” a Technora core and nylon sheath, with a single
20 RAPPELLING

Cord Comparison. Top to bottom: Bluewater 5mm Titan Cord tied with triple fisherman’s knot
(Dyneema core/nylon sheath, tensile strength 13.7 kN or 3,080 lbs.); Sterling 6mm Powercord tied
with triple fisherman’s knot (Technora core/nylon sheath, tensile strength 19 kN or 4,271 lbs.);
Sterling 7mm Nylon Cordelette tied with double fisherman’s knot (nylon core/nylon sheath, tensile
strength 12.4 kN or 2,788 lbs.).
strand breaking strength of around 19 kN (4,271 much more quickly (losing strength) than good
lbs.); and the 5mm Tech Cord, sold by Maxim/ old-fashioned nylon. In his study, a flex cycle test
New England Ropes, with a 100 percent Technora was performed on various cordelettes. The cord
core and polyester sheath, rates at a whopping 5,000 sample was passed through a hole in a steel fixture,
pounds tensile strength. flexed 90 degrees over an edge, and loaded with a
However, at the 2000 International Technical 40-pound weight. The steel fixture was rotated back
Rescue Symposium, Tom Moyer presented a paper and forth 180 degrees for 1,000 bending cycles,
titled Comparative Testing of High Strength Cord that then the cord’s tensile strength was tested (single
revealed some startling deficiencies in Technora strand pull test) at the section that had been flexed.
and other high-tech cords. Testing showed that The Technora sample showed a remarkable loss
with repeated flexing aramid fibers break down of nearly 60 percent of its strength, while Sterling
Equipment 21

7mm nylon cord and 1-inch tubular nylon webbing
showed no strength loss at all. Bluewater Titan Cord
(Spectra core/nylon sheath) showed a few hundred
pounds of strength loss but was nowhere near the
drastic loss of Technora. Further research is war-
ranted. The big advantage of these high-tech cords
is their low weight, high strength, and low bulk,
which is advantageous for situations like multipitch
rock climbing and canyoneering.
If you use these high-tech cords, you should tie
the cordelette with a triple fisherman’s knot, and
consider replacing them more often with high use.
Keep in mind that the price tag on the high-tech
cords is roughly twice as much as nylon. The bot-
tom line is this: For an all-purpose cordelette, you
can’t go wrong with old-school nylon—a 7mm
diameter nylon cord is a good choice.
To tie friction hitches like the prusik, klemheist,
and autoblock, you’ll want to use 5mm or 6mm
diameter nylon cord (nylon core, nylon sheath).
When buying this accessory cord, buy the softest,
most pliable cord you can find. A stiff cord won’t
grip as well when used for friction hitches. Also, be
aware of the difference between 5mm nylon acces- Two oval carabiners have the gates properly
sory cord (typically rated at 5.2 kN or 1,169 lbs.) opposed and reversed.
and 5mm high-tenacity cord (like Bluewater Titan
Cord rated at 13.7 kN (3,080 lbs.).You obviously
would not want to use 5mm nylon accessory cord called the nose, and this visually tells you which
for your cordelette! way the gate opens. The basic design has a small pin
on the gate that latches into a groove on the nose
end. The preferable “keylock” design eliminates
Carabiners
the pin, and the gate and bar come together in a
Carabiners are used primarily to attach various links machined notch.
(like slings to cord and rope) and attach your rap- For rappelling, oval carabiners are useful for
pel device to your harness. Locking carabiners are carabiner brake rappel systems. Because of their
used in critical applications and in conjunction with symmetry, the gates can be opposed and reversed
belay and rappel devices. Carabiners come in a vari- and the carabiner configuration still retains its oval
ety of shapes: oval, D-shaped, and pear-shaped. shape. Two opposed and reversed ovals can also be
A basic carabiner is of aluminum alloy, with a used in lieu of a locking carabiner at any critical
spring-loaded gate on one side. The spine of the junction in the anchor system in situations where
carabiner is the solid bar stock opposite the gate. you’ve run out of locking carabiners and need extra
The small protrusion on one end of the gate is security at a key point.
22 RAPPELLING

Locking carabiners (left to right): Petzl William Triac, Petzl William Ball Lock, Black Diamond
Twistlock, Black Diamond Screwgate.
Locking carabiners are used for critical links and lock it, and it’s an important habit to always check
applications where it is absolutely imperative that your locking carabiners to make sure they are
the carabiner gate stays closed, like on a rappel or locked. Check them with a close visual inspection
belay device, at a critical link in the anchor system, and also by pressing on the gate (squeeze test) for
or when attaching the rope to the anchor. an additional safety precaution.
D-shaped carabiners have the strongest con- If you are a bit absentminded, or catch yourself
figuration, because when the carabiner is loaded on occasionally not locking your screwgate carabiner,
the major (long) axis, the weight naturally is loaded you might want to buy an autolock, or twistlock,
closest to the spine. For this reason, a locking D is a carabiner. The twistlock design has a spring-loaded
good choice for a rappel carabiner. A locking pear- gate that locks automatically, and there are several
shaped carabiner is useful for many applications autolocking designs on the market that have even
because of its wide aperture on one side and is a safer mechanisms that must be manipulated (like
good carabiner to use with a Munter hitch. pushing the gate upward, then twisting the gate to
The most common locking carabiner is the lock it; or pressing a button, then twisting open the
screwgate. The screwgate locking carabiner is just gate), but some people find these difficult to use.
that, a mechanism with a collar that screws shut Interestingly, for industrial workers in the verti-
over the nose of the carabiner. I like the Petzl cal rope access environment (rappelling and rope
designs that show a red stripe (red means danger!) ascending on the faces of dams, buildings, and
when the gate is unlocked. Obviously, with a screw- bridges), OSHA standards require autolocking cara-
gate locking carabiner, you have to remember to biners, as does the tree trimming industry.
Equipment 23

Every carabiner you buy should have the UIAA breaking strength ratings stamped on the spine.
The UIAA has determined the following

strength ratings for a carabiner to be CE certified.
• Do not load a carabiner over an edge of rock—
this can open the gate when the carabiner is
For oval carabiners: loaded, and two-thirds of the carabiner’s strength
• Closed gate strength, major (long) axis: 18 kN will be lost.
(4,047 lbs.) Retire a carabiner if it shows a groove from
• Minor axis strength, closed gate: 7 kN (1,574 lbs.) excessive rope wear, or if it has been dropped a
• Major axis strength, gate open: 5 kN (1,124 lbs.) lengthy distance down a rock face. If the gate is
sticky, washing it with soap and water and using
For locking carabiners:
some graphite lubricant will usually take care of the
• Closed gate strength, major (long) axis: 20 kN problem.
(4,496 lbs.)
If you do a lot of rappelling, you’ll see that an
• Cross-loading across the minor axis, closed gate: aluminum carabiner used in conjunction with your
7 kN (1,574 lbs.) rappel device will wear rather quickly, developing
• Major axis strength, gate open: 6 kN (1,574 lbs.) noticeable grooves. When this happens, you should
An important thing to remember with carabin- retire it. The worn-off aluminum particles also
ers is that a carabiner is only about one-third as get on the rope and your hands. A locking steel
strong if it’s loaded with the gate open. It’s essential, carabiner is much heavier than an aluminum one
therefore, to keep a few things in mind when using but will last longer, as steel is far more durable and
a carabiner: wears much more slowly than aluminum. One cau-
tion when using steel: If you drop one from any
• Always load the carabiner in the proper distance (say 20 feet or more), you should consider
direction—on the major, or long, axis.
retiring it, as steel is more prone to micro fractures
• Do not cross-load a carabiner (on the minor due to its metallurgical structure.
axis) or load it in three directions (called triaxial
loading).
24 RAPPELLING

Bad. Never load a
carabiner in three
directions as shown
here. This is known as
triaxial loading.
Very bad. Never load a carabiner on the

minor axis or with a force outward on the
gate.
Equipment 25

c h a p t e r t w o
Rappel Anchors
Natural Anchors
Natural anchors utilize the features you’ll find at
the crag environment, such as trees, rock structures,
and the configuration of the rock itself. Assessing
natural anchors, especially if you’re committing to a
single natural anchor for a rappel anchor, is where
critical judgment becomes all important, because
your life, and the life of your rappelling partners,
depends upon your decisions.
Trees
Trees are one of the most common natural anchors,
plentiful in some areas, rare in others, like in a des-
ert environment. When assessing the reliability of a
tree, there are several considerations. Is the tree live
or dead? What is the environment (dry or wet)?
What is the diameter of the tree’s trunk? How
deeply rooted is the tree? When using a tree as your
anchor, a good rule of thumb is to choose a live,
healthy tree with a minimum trunk diameter of 12
inches. Trees at climbing sites in the southwestern
United States, because of the drier climate, are gen-
erally more reliable than trees in the Pacific North- Simple rigging of a fixed line tied directly to a
west or East Coast, where the climate is wetter and 15-inch-diameter live pine tree with a figure
more humid. eight follow-through knot.
Todd Gordon rappels off the

Long Dong Silver Spire, Utah.
Pho to by GreG ePPerson
27

A double-length (48-inch) nylon sling tied A bomber pine tree tied off with a cordelette.
with an overhand knot makes the sling itself Here the cordelette has been looped around the
redundant, but how strong is the tree? It appears trunk and tied with a figure eight loop, creating
deeply rooted, but any tree under 12 inches in redundancy in the cord both around the tree and
diameter at the trunk’s base should be used with at the two loops the carabiner is clipped to.
caution.
28 RAPPELLING

I came across this natural anchor several Typical rigging found at many climbing areas:
hundred feet up a route on Tahquitz Rock, near three separate 1-inch nylon webbing slings,
Idyllwild, California. Someone had obviously each tied with a water knot, and two rappel
rappelled from it, probably to escape an rings. I’ve rappelled off this tree many times
afternoon thunderstorm. Although the anchor over the years, as it grows on one of my favorite
has two basic components, each trunk is less climbs at Suicide Rock, California. Although
than 3 inches in diameter, and the master the trunk is over 12 inches in diameter and the
point where you’d thread your rappel rope is tree is alive and healthy, notice the crack that
a nonredundant, single aluminum rappel ring it grows out of—barely 2 inches wide! I always
(albeit rated at 3,000 lbs.). The real problem I back it up with a separate anchor until the last
have with this rappel anchor is simply the size of man down.
the “tree” itself. I’m glad I didn’t have to rappel
from it!
Rappel Anchors 29

Rock Structures
The rock itself can be used for a rappel anchor.
Massive spikes or horns of rock attached to the
main rock structure can serve as reliable rappel
anchors. A tunnel in a solid rock formation is called
a thread and is utilized by threading a sling or cord,
or tying a rope, through the tunnel. Limestone is a
rock type with many threads, whereas threads are a
rarity in granite.
(continued on page 35)
Solid rock bollard attached to the main cliff.

The cordelette is doubled and tied with a figure
eight, so if one strand was cut, the other strand
backs it up. With two carabiners at the master
point, the rigging is redundant. Good to go.
It’s rare to find a thread this good in granite; threads are more common in sandstone and limestone.
Here the cordelette was doubled to start with, looped through the tunnel, then tied with a figure eight
knot, leaving four strands of cord around the thread, virtually eliminating any chance of the cord
failing due to abrasion—if one loop is cut, three loops back it up. For a rope-retrievable system, add
two quick links to the four-loop master point and you’ll have redundancy in your rigging all the way
to the point where your rappel rope is attached to the anchor system.
30 RAPPELLING

A solid natural feature, attached to the main
rock structure. This sturdy anchor is rigged with
two separate slings of 1-inch webbing tied with
water knots and outfitted with two rappel rings.
An easy rig, but you wouldn’t catch me Bomber.
rappelling off this dud. You don’t have to be a
geologist to figure out that this flake is ready
to exfoliate. Almost every case of catastrophic
failure of a natural anchor was due to poor rock
structure.
Rappel Anchors 31

This sturdy rock bollard
is attached to the main
structure of the cliff,
and the rigging is
redundant, with two
separate 1-inch nylon
slings and two rappel
rings. Bomber.
Often you’ll come upon an anchor like this—a

solid rock horn, festooned with various stages
of dilapidating slings, stiff and faded from
seasons in the sun, adorned with a single,
rusting, hardware store quick link. It’s handy
to always carry a few slings, a couple of
lightweight SMC aluminum rap rings, and a
small knife to cut away the old tat and re-rig it
to bomber specs with two slings and two rings.
32 RAPPELLING

Webbing looped
around a precariously
perched block.
Although the block is
fairly massive, it is
not well situated, and
weighting the slings
will pull the webbing
into the “pinch” under
the boulder. What I
teach students in my
anchoring classes is
to seek rock structure
that is “connected to
the planet,” rather
than a block or boulder
“sitting on top of the
planet.”
A granite thread with

two separate slings
to guard against
abrasion. While this
particular anchor is in
reliably strong quartz
monzonite granite, the
same size thread may
be marginal in soft
rock like sandstone or
volcanic rock.
Rappel Anchors 33

No! A fictitious rappel
“anchor” setup
illustrating extremely
bad rock structure.
A rappel off this
detached flake would
most likely result in its
permanent exfoliation
from the cliff—and your
immediate demise.
Remember, avoid flakes
and detached blocks
when rigging natural
anchors.
34 RAPPELLING

(continued from page 30) Avoid using blocks perched on a slanting slab. I like
When using the rock itself as an anchor, you to tie off the block around its entire mass, like wrap-
need to carefully assess the integrity of the rock ping a Christmas present with a ribbon, rather than
structure—what I call the macro structure. When using the pinch where the block touches another
assessing macro rock structure, think of it like this: rock surface or where two blocks touch each other.
You want to use a rock that is part of the planet, This way, even if the block shifts slightly, I am still
not one sitting on top of the planet. In other words, anchored to the mass of the block, and my cord or
avoid using detached blocks and flakes if at all pos- sling won’t get wedged into a tight constriction that
sible. A detached block is as obvious as a round may permanently jam the cord or sling into the
boulder sitting on a flat ledge, or as unobvious as a pinch. When tying off blocks, watch for sharp edges
chunk of rock that looks like part of the main rock that may fray or cut your rope, and use padding or
formation but has cracks all the way around it. an edge protector when needed.
If you decide to use a detached block, do so with
caution and use good judgment. Blocks should be Rigging Natural Anchors
well situated, unmovable, and not top heavy.YOSAR In many instances a single, bombproof natural
(Yosemite Search and Rescue) has a rule for using anchor can be safely used for a rappel anchor—a
a granite block as an anchor during technical rope 3-foot-diameter ponderosa pine tree, or a knob
rescue operations: The block must be bigger than a of rock the size of your refrigerator that’s part of
standard-size refrigerator and sitting on a flat surface. the main rock structure. Just make sure that your
A standard way to rig a natural anchor for rope retrieval: two separate slings of 1-inch nylon webbing,
each tied with a water knot, and two stainless steel rappel rings. Here the slings are long enough to
extend the master point over the edge, so pulling the rope through the rap rings will not be difficult.
Rappel Anchors 35

sling or rope around the anchor is redundant. For one single tree or thread is nonredundant). Always
example, when rigging a rappel anchor around a use caution and sound judgment when using non-
massive tree, use two separate slings with two rappel redundant natural anchors.
rings to gain redundancy in your anchor system, at
least in the rigging. When rigging with a cordelette, Rappel Rings and Quick Links
loop two strands of the cordelette around the tree When rigging rappel anchors for a retrievable
(or through a thread), then tie a figure eight loop rope, looping the rope through a sling will work,
for a two-loop master point, and you have redun- but when the rope is pulled down, friction from
dancy in your anchor rigging (although technically, the rope being pulled over the sling will generate
Rap ring comparison. Top, left to right: FIXE welded stainless steel, rated at 50 kN (11,240 lbs.); FIXE
welded plated carbon steel, rated at 35 kN (7,868 lbs.). Bottom, left to right: Omega Pacific aircraft
grade forged aluminum alloy ring, rated at 20 kN (4,496 lbs.); SMC lightweight aluminum ring, rated
at 14 kN (3,147 lbs.); Ushba titanium ring, rated at 30 kN (6,744 lbs.).
36 RAPPELLING

heat, which can scorch and damage the sling (and and Ushba and come in aluminum, steel, stainless
the sheath of your rope). Metal rings are com- steel, and titanium. When you buy rappel rings,
monly used to reduce the friction and allow for a make sure that they’re one of these name brands
smoother pull-down. At popular climbing and rap- (or a CE-certified brand) and made specifically for
pelling sites, natural anchors (trees and rock struc- rappelling, and not some cheap hardware store ring
tures) are rigged for multiple users, typically with made for hanging potted plants.
either rappel rings (called rap rings) or quick links. Quick links are small oval-shaped screw links
Rap rings manufactured specifically for rappelling made from aluminum, steel, and stainless steel.
are currently sold by Omega Pacific, FIXE, SMC, Designed as connectors for lifting equipment, they
SMC rap rings are light (11 grams) and strong

(14 kN, 3,147 lbs.), a good choice for carrying
CE-certified quick links (left to right): Camp on long multipitch climbs or canyoneering
stainless steel 8mm (rated at 50 kN MBS, 11,240 adventures where weight is a factor and the
lbs.); Petzl steel Maillon Rapide (WLL 900 kg, descent will entail multiple rappels. They are
1,984 lbs.); Petzl stainless steel Maillon Rapide not a good choice for high-use fixed anchors, as
(SWL 1,400 kg, 3,086 lbs.). aluminum wears quickly.
Rappel Anchors 37

can be wrenched closed and are used in rigging “rapid link” in French), and the stainless version
chain to bolt hangers, connecting rappel rings to is marked INOX (a synonym for stainless steel in
bolt hangers, and as rappel rings themselves. The French). Beware of cheap hardware store quick links
steel variety are much stronger and more durable of unknown metallurgy and quality control, typically
than the aluminum ones. Both Omega Pacific and made in China or Malaysia. If you do buy hardware
Petzl make CE-certified quick links made specifi- store quick links, look for some type of strength rat-
cally for climbing and rigging applications. The Petzl ing, which should be stamped on the link itself and
design is known as a maillon rapide (which means listed on any packaging. Look for an SWL or WLL
FIXE welded stainless rings are very strong This sling was damaged by a rappel rope
(50 kN, or 11,240 lbs.) and relatively heavy (3.2 being retrieved. The friction of the rope being
ounces, or 90 grams) but durable and resistant pulled across the sling generated heat, partially
to corrosion, making them a good choice for melting and damaging the sling’s fibers. A sling
semipermanent rappel anchor fixtures that will in this damaged condition has lost a majority of
see high use, with many rappel ropes being its strength and should be retired.
pulled through them. A standard setup (shown
here) is to connect them with a quick link to a
bolt hanger.
38 RAPPELLING

Here the rappel rope
is threaded through a
quick link for a retrieval
that won’t damage the
sling. Another sling
has been rigged as a
backup.
All four of these slings were removed from a rappel anchor in a desert environment where they had
been exposed to a few years in the sun. All suffer from the classic signs of UV degradation: Their color
has faded, and they were noticeably stiff. The two slings on the right show their original purple color
where the sling was not exposed to direct sunlight. The two slings on the left also show abraded and
singed fibers where a rope had been pulled across the sling. In tests of old nylon slings that were
degraded by years of UV exposure, some had lost over 75 percent of their strength.
Rappel Anchors 39

(working load limit) rating, which is a strength rat- There are two basic styles of 1⁄4-inch Rawl Drive
ing given by the manufacturer of the maximum rec- bolts. The buttonhead design has a mushroom-like
ommended load, which for quick links is typically head and is pounded into the hole with the hanger
one-fifth of the MBS. Because of the outsourcing to preattached. The threaded Rawl Drive has threads
cheap manufacturers, and quality control issues with with a nut on the end to hold the hanger in place, a
Asian manufacturers, it is wise to never trust your weaker configuration, since the threads can weaken
life to a single, non-CE-certified quick link, or any the shear strength of the shaft if the hanger is at
cheap hardware store doodad for that matter. the level of the threads. But more significantly, the
threaded design has a serious flaw: Pulling straight
out on the bolt hanger will only be as strong as the
Artificial Anchors
holding power of the nut on the threads, a dangerous
problem if the nut is at the very end of the threads.
Bolts The shear strength on a brand-new 1⁄4-inch
The most common fixed anchor is a two-bolt Rawl Drive bolt is roughly 2,000 pounds, but
anchor. Some knowledge of the history, character- the problem with contraction bolts is not shear
istics, and specifications of bolts will improve your strength but pullout strength, which varies drasti-
ability to assess the reliability of bolt anchors. cally depending on the quality and hardness of the
In the 1960s and 1970s, bolts were placed by rock. In very soft sandstone, the pullout strength of
hand drilling—an arduous process where a drill bit a 1⁄4-inch contraction bolt is extremely low, render-
was inserted into a drill holder, then a hammer was ing the bolt unsafe.
used to pound on the holder to painstakingly drill The buttonhead Rawl Drive bolts were also
into the rock. Once the hole was deep enough, a sold in 5⁄16-inch diameters, these being far more
bolt, with a hanger attached, was hammered into reliable as long as they were placed in good, hard,
the hole. The most common bolt during that era fine-grained granite. The 5⁄16-inch buttonhead, for
was the ubiquitous 1⁄4-inch contraction bolt, called example, has a shear and pullout strength in excess
the Rawl Drive, manufactured by the Rawl Com- of 4,000 pounds and for many years was the bolt of
pany and designed for the construction industry for choice for first ascensionists who were hand drilling
anchoring in masonry or concrete. A contraction bolts. The 5⁄16-inch buttonhead Rawl Drive was dis-
bolt has a split shaft that is wider than the diameter continued, but the 3⁄8-inch buttonhead is still on the
of the hole. When pounded into the hole, the two market today, with a shear strength of 7,000 pounds
bowed shaft pieces are forced to straighten slightly, and a pullout strength of over 4,000 pounds in the
contracting under tension in the hole. This works best granite.
fine for hard granite, but in soft rock, like sandstone, Probably the most disconcerting problem associ-
the split shaft doesn’t really contract all that much, ated with bolts from the 1⁄4-inch era is not the bolts
and there is little tension to keep it in the hole, themselves but the hangers. During that time, hang-
resulting in very weak pullout strength (i.e., pulling ers made for rock climbing were manufactured pri-
straight out on the bolt). marily by the SMC company. Thankfully, the hangers
Another problem with 1⁄4-inch bolts is that they are easily identified, as the “SMC” brand is stamped
came in various lengths, some as short as 3⁄4 inch on them. There were two series of hangers, one
long, and once placed in the rock, there was no way good, and one very bad. The bad hangers were nick-
for future climbers to determine the length of the named the SMC “death hanger,” since some of them
bolt merely by inspection. failed under body weight after only a few seasons of
40 RAPPELLING

The infamous 1⁄4-inch threaded Rawl Drive Buttonhead Rawl Drive contraction bolts (left to
contraction bolt, complete with the SMC “death right): 3⁄8-, 5⁄16-, and 1⁄4-inch sizes.
hanger.”
One-quarter-inch threaded Rawl Drive bolts A 5⁄16-inch buttonhead Rawl contraction bolt with
with “good” (left) versus “bad” (right) SMC a “good” SMC hanger. In a good placement in
hangers. solid granite, these bolts are rated at over 4,000
pounds shear strength.
Rappel Anchors 41

exposure to the elements. These hangers are iden- rock (like sandstone)—standards that are still preva-
tifiable by a distinctive corrosive discoloration—a lent today.
yellowish or bronze tint—whereas the “good” SMC Although there are numerous types of bolts
hangers, made from stainless steel, show no signs of used in rock climbing today, the gold standard has
corrosion or rust and still appear silvery bright, even long been the “5-piece Rawl” expansion bolt (now
after twenty-five years. Another noticeable difference sold as the Powers Power Bolt). This expansion
is in the thickness of the hangers—the “bad” hangers bolt has a shaft with a hex head on one end and
roughly the thickness of a dime and the “good” ones threads on the other end (the end that goes in the
the thickness of a quarter. hole), with a cone-shaped piece screwed onto the
Another dangerous relic from the 1970s is the threads. The shaft has a two-part split sleeve, and as
Leeper hanger. Over 9,000 of these hangers were the hex head is tightened the cone climbs up the
manufactured by Ed Leeper of Colorado, and sub- threads and under the sleeves, which presses the
sequently recalled because of stress corrosion prob- sleeves outward, “expanding” the bolt in the hole.
lems with the metal, which rusted badly since it was The more you tighten it, the wider the sleeve gets.
not made of stainless steel. These hangers are easily
identifiable due to their distinctive, odd geometric
shape and their rusty condition.
In the 1980s climbers began to place bolts using
cordless rotary hammer power drills, and the bolt
standard became 3⁄8-inch diameter for good, solid
rock (like granite) and 1⁄2-inch diameter for softer
The recalled Leeper hanger can easily be Bad corrosion shows on a 3⁄8-inch-diameter
identified by its unique shape and rusty threaded Rawl Drive bolt with a badly corroded
condition. Leeper hanger to match.
42 RAPPELLING

The 3⁄8-inch-diameter
Powers Power Bolt
expansion bolt with a
stainless steel hanger
has become the
minimum standard for
climbing and rappelling
bolt anchors.
The performance and strength of the bolt relies, to website (www.powers.com); you’ll get an excel-
a great extent, on two things: the tolerance (diam- lent tutorial on the various types of bolts and how
eter) of the hole and the strength of the rock itself. strong they are in differing rock types.
In good rock the 3⁄8-inch Power Bolt is rated at over Even if you’re not an expert in mechanical
7,000 pounds shear strength, with a pullout strength engineering or in identifying bolt design and
of roughly 5,000 pounds. type, you should know what to watch for when
Since these bolts are really designed for the inspecting a bolt anchor. An obvious red flag is
construction business, the Powers Fastener com- rust. SMC “death hangers,” Leeper hangers, home-
pany lists strength ratings based on the density of made aluminum hangers, and any bolt or hanger
the concrete they are placed in. Concrete is given with obvious signs of corrosion should never be
a psi (pounds per square inch) rating. For example, trusted. Look closely and identify the diameter
“2,000 psi concrete” means that if you took a of the bolt. A 3⁄8-inch-diameter bolt has become
square inch of concrete, it would take a weight of the minimum standard, along with a stainless steel
2,000 pounds to crush it. Hard, fine-grained granite hanger. A bolt with threads and a nut holding the
is denser than 10,000 psi concrete, and soft sand- hanger in place is generally not as strong as the
stone is more like 1,000 psi concrete. hex head types.
Once a bolt has been installed, it’s impossible to The rock should not show cracks emanating
see what’s going on beneath the surface (e.g., the from the bolt placement—a more common prob-
length of the bolt), and all you’ll see is the head of lem with contraction bolts than expansion bolts.
the bolt, again making identification of the type of In a good placement, the hanger should be
bolt more difficult. flush against the rock and should not budge or
If you’d like to educate yourself, peruse be deformed in any way. A “spinner” is a bolt that
“mechanical anchors” on the Powers company protrudes enough so that the hanger can be easily
Rappel Anchors 43

A 3⁄8-inch threaded
expansion bolt.
A 3⁄8-inch stainless
steel Powers bolt with
stainless steel Petzl
hanger, painted to
match the rock color.
44 RAPPELLING

spun around 360 degrees. This generally means that won’t tighten any further, then the bolt has serious
when the bolt was installed, the hole was not drilled problems—usually this means the tolerance (diam-
deeply enough, and the bolt contacted the bottom eter) of the hole is too big for the bolt, or the rock
of the hole before the hanger could be drawn flush is too soft.
against the rock. As someone who has replaced many bolts over
If the bolt wiggles slightly when you pull on the years, I can tell you that any 1⁄4-inch bolt should
it or if the hanger is loose, and the bolt has a hex be considered suspect, particularly in less than per-
head or a nut on threads, tightening the bolt with fect rock. I’ve plucked out many 1⁄4-inch contraction
a wrench may help, but most likely the bolt has bolts that came out with about the same resistance
a problem that can’t be fixed. If, while trying to
tighten it, you feel no increasing resistance and it
This two-bolt anchor consists of two 3⁄8-inch-

diameter Powers buttonhead drive bolts, with
stainless steel Petzl hangers, carbon steel
quick links, and FIXE welded stainless steel
rings. Seven years after installation in an alpine
environment at Suicide Rock, California, the
carbon steel quick links show obvious signs of
corrosion. When rigging bolt anchors, it’s wise
not to mix and match metal types—stick with
stainless steel for all the components. Stainless
A well-engineered two-bolt rappel anchor. is more expensive but will probably last a
Both bolts are 3⁄8-inch stainless Powers bolts lifetime. At a high-use anchor, the rings may
with stainless steel Petzl hangers, along with a need to be periodically replaced due to wear
stainless steel chain, quick links, and rings. from ropes being pulled through them.
Rappel Anchors 45

FIXE Ring Anchors
come with a welded
stainless ring attached
to the bolt hanger.
Popular with climbers,
they are less visually
obtrusive than chain
anchors.
Metolius Rap Hangers

are designed for the
rope to be threaded
directly through the
hanger.
46 RAPPELLING

as a nail being pulled out of plywood. To replace a hanger. I like to paint the hanger (before I install it)
1
⁄4-inch bolt, the best method is to pry it out of its the same color as the rock so that the bolt is visually
hole, then re-drill the same hole to a 1⁄2-inch diam- unobtrusive. It’s a good feeling to replace a tick-
eter and install a 1⁄2-inch stainless steel Powers Power ing time bomb with a solid anchor that will last a
Bolt (10,000 lbs. shear strength) with a stainless steel lifetime.
This two-bolt anchor,

at the top of a popular
climb on Tahquitz Rock,
California, is rigged
with beefy chain and
quick links. The rope
is threaded through
a 1⁄2-inch steel quick
link (rated with an
MBS of over 10,000
lbs.). Over time, since
it’s not stainless steel,
corrosion will weaken it,
as will stress and wear.
I prefer not to trust my
life to a single hardware
store component. If I’m
setting up an anchor
that will see heavy
climber and rappeller
use, I’ll rig it with
redundant hardware
components.
Rappel Anchors 47

This poorly rigged two-bolt chain anchor has three single components that could potentially fail, but
it can be easily backed up with a sling.
48 RAPPELLING

Rust has taken hold of this chain like a terminal
cancer. The odd piece of hardware the rope
is threaded through is called a lap link, a
malleable piece of soft steel made with a slight
gap that allows you to thread it onto chain or a
bolt hanger, then close shut by smashing it with
a hammer against the rock. An anachronism
from the 1970s and 1980s, lap links are rarely
used today, but you’ll come across them
occasionally. I never liked lap links because of
their relatively sharp edges compared to rings
or quick links. Before rappelling off this ticking
time bomb, I backed up the aging hardware
by threading the white 1-inch nylon webbing
through both bolt hangers and tying it into a
loop with a water knot. A two-bolt chain anchor with welded cold shuts.
Rappel Anchors 49

A well-engineered two-
bolt anchor consisting
of 3⁄8-inch-diameter
Powers Power Bolts,
Metolius stainless steel
hangers, steel quick
links, and steel rings.
While it shows some

signs of corrosion, this
old anchor is still good
to go after many years
of service at the top of
a popular rock climb at
Joshua Tree, California.
The bolts are 3⁄8-inch
Powers expansion bolts,
with stainless steel
SMC hangers (the good
variety) rigged with
steel quick links and
steel chain links.
50 RAPPELLING

This welded steel cold
shut is showing signs of
corrosion at the weld.
I placed this rappel

anchor at the top
of a popular sport
climb at Joshua Tree
National Park. All
the components are
stainless steel and
painted to match the
coloration of the rock.
Rappel Anchors 51

A chain is only as strong
as its weakest link, and
this link is pitifully
small. This chain and
lap link rig served as a
rappel anchor at the top
of one of Joshua Tree’s
most popular rock
formations for over a
decade, until I replaced
it in the mid-1980s. I
never trusted my life
to that one little link,
but I witnessed many
people who did, and
it probably held over
a thousand rappels. I
always backed it up
with a sling.
52 RAPPELLING

The American Safe Climbing Association
T he American Safe Climbing Association (ASCA) has been very active in donating the neces-
sary (and expensive) stainless steel hardware to climbers, like myself, who take on the task of
upgrading unsafe bolted rappel anchors with modern, stainless steel bolts and hangers. The ASCA’s
mission is to “replace deteriorating anchors on classic climbs in the U.S. and educate climbers and
the public about climbing safety.” Volunteers working with hardware donated from the ASCA have
replaced over 7,500 bolts across the United States. Replacing old rappel anchors takes time and
effort. If you’d like to donate to the ASCA, you can contact them at www.safeclimbing.org.
Pitons steps before using any fixed pin. First, assess the
A piton is a metal spike hammered into a crack rock structure and look at the crack where the
for an anchor. The blade of the piton is the part piton resides. Is it behind a block or flake, or is it
hammered into the crack, leaving the protruding in a straight-in crack with good structure? A good
eye into which you can clip a carabiner. Piton rap- piton should be driven in all the way to the eye,
pel anchors are something of a rarity these days, and should not wiggle when you clip into it with
but occasionally you’ll come across fixed pitons a sling and pull on it. The piton itself should not
(also called pins) at the top of a crag. Follow these be excessively corroded or cracked. (Look closely
at the eye of the piton, as this is usually where the
Pitons (left to right):

angle, horizontal,
Leeper Z, knifeblade.
Rappel Anchors 53

good surface contact with the walls of the crack
and not be susceptible to being plucked out by a
slightly outward force. For rappel anchors, place the
nut (also called a chock) for a pull in the anticipated
direction you’ll be loading it, then equalize it with
the other placements in your anchor system.
Cams, also known as spring-loaded camming
devices, are used by climbers to create anchors in
parallel-sided cracks where nuts won’t work. For a
camming device placement to be most reliable, the
placement must be in good, solid rock, and all the
spring-loaded cams (called “lobes”) on the device
should be evenly deployed and in good contact
with the inside walls of the crack, with the cams
more than halfway closed (ideally 50 to 75 percent
An angle piton has been driven all the way to the retracted for most camming devices).
eye—a good placement. The standard gear anchor for climbers is a mini-
mum of at least three placements (combination of
nuts and cams) for a bombproof anchor.
piton will be cracked.) To effectively test a fixed For more information on placing nuts and cam-
pin, you really need a hammer. Give the piton a ming devices, I suggest reading How to Rock Climb
light tap—it should have a high-pitched ring to it, by John Long and Toproping by Bob Gaines, both in
and the hammer should spring off the piton. If you FalconGuides’ How to Climb series.
don’t have a hammer, the best test is to clip a sling
into it and give it a vigorous yank in the direction
you’ll be loading it.You can also tap it with a cara-
biner or small rock. Over time, pitons suffer from
the vagaries of thermal expansion and contraction,
particularly in winter (as water expands when it
freezes), prying and loosening the piton. Often a
piton can be easily plucked out with your fingers
after only a few seasons. If utilizing fixed pitons for
a rappel anchor, consider backing them up, and use
them with skepticism.
Nuts and Cams

Nuts are specially designed, wedge-shaped pieces
of metal used by climbers to create an anchor by
wedging the nut in a crack. A good nut placement
is in a constriction within a crack. The crack should
be splitting massive, solid rock—not behind a loose
or detached chunk of rock. The nut should have A good nut placement is wedged tightly.
54 RAPPELLING

Three camming devices
are pre-equalized with a
cordelette.
The Black Diamond Camalot is one of the most

popular spring-loaded camming devices.
Rappel Anchors 55

The RENE Principle Principles of Equalization
The RENE principle is a simple, easy to remember
acronym used for evaluating a rappel anchor system. Pre-Equalized System
RENE stands for Redundancy, Equalization, and In a pre-equalized system you anticipate the direc-
No Extension. tion that your anchor system will be loaded and tie
Redundancy means there is no place in the your slings or cord from the various anchor points
anchor system where you are relying on any one to an equalized master point, to which the rappel
single component, be it a bolt, strand of cord, sling, rope is attached. Using this system, if the anticipated
quick link, or ring—in other words, there is always direction of loading shifts slightly in any direction,
a backup. For bolt anchors the minimum would be
two bolts, preferably 3⁄8-inch diameter. Clipping a
rappel rope into the anchor system’s master point
with a single, locking carabiner would not be redun-
dant. For retrievable rappels, threading your rope
through a single rap ring is not redundant. With
regard to natural anchors, if the anchor is a single—
but bombproof—natural feature, like a huge tree or
solid tunnel in the rock, the anchor is technically
nonredundant, but you can still have redundancy
in the way you rig your slings and/or cord around
or through the anchor. Always seek redundancy in
your rigging.
Equalization means that when the load is
applied to the master point on the anchor system,
the weight is evenly divided onto all the various
components in the anchor. An anchor can be pre-
equalized, which means that the system is tied off to
accept a force in one specific direction (most often
the case in rappelling), or self-equalizing, meaning
the anchor is rigged to adjust to loading within a
range of direction changes.
No Extension means that if any one piece in
the anchor fails, there will not be any significant
amount of slack that develops before the load can
be transferred to the remaining pieces. This is a key
concept to remember when rigging rappel anchors
The most common fixed anchor you’ll encounter
that are extended over an edge, as often the anchors is a two-bolt anchor. An easy and bomber pre-
are a significant distance away from the master equalized rappel rig is a simple V configuration.
point. A good rule of thumb is to limit any exten- Thread two separate 5-foot lengths of nylon
sion in your anchor system to no more than half webbing through each bolt hanger and two rap
the length of a single (24-inch) sling. rings, then tie each sling with a water knot.
56 RAPPELLING

A three-point anchor pre-equalized with cord.
Start by tying an overhand follow-through (or
figure eight follow-through) on one end of
the cord through the bolt hanger, then thread
the cord through the middle bolt hanger and
tie the other end of the cord to the right bolt
hanger with another overhand follow-through.
A two-point anchor pre-equalized with cord. Gather the cord at the master point (clipping
Thread a length of cord (7mm nylon here) in a carabiner makes it easy to gather all the
through both bolt hangers, and tie into a loop strands), then tie a figure eight or overhand loop.
using a figure eight bend. Pull the cord down (If length is an issue, remember the figure eight
between the bolts, and tie with a figure eight takes more rope to tie than an overhand.) Install
loop, then add two quick links. two quick links and you’re good to go.
Rappel Anchors 57

all the load goes onto one anchor point (albeit with minimal shock loading, since the rigging limits
minimal extension), unlike a self-equalizing system extension.
that adjusts with changes in the direction of load-
ing. For rappel anchor systems, you can, in most Self-Equalizing Systems
cases, readily determine the direction your anchor the sliding x
system will be loaded, so complex self-equalizing The sliding X (aka magic X) is a simple way to
rigs are not required. equalize two anchor points with a sling, creating a
The pre-equalized system is essentially a sys- mini-anchor system that adjusts as the load shifts in
tem of backups. If one anchor point fails, the load direction. In scrutinizing the overall anchor system,
transfers instantly to the remaining anchors with if I use a sliding X between two pieces, I count
Rigging a Sliding X
The sliding X, or magic X, is a self-equalizing system that adjusts with changes in the direction of
loading.
58 RAPPELLING

This is not the magic X. Although self- Correctly rigged magic X. The quick link is
equalizing, the quick link is clipped around the clipped into the loop created by twisting one
sling, not into it, so if one anchor point were to strand of the sling.
fail, the quicklink could potentially slide off the
sling.
this as only one component as far as redundancy is To set up a simple self-equalizing anchor system
concerned, because it is only one sling. However, by from two bolts, you can use two separate 5-foot
equalizing two placements that can adjust to slight lengths of nylon webbing or cord, creating a redun-
shifts in direction, you create one more inherently dant rig with minimal extension.
bomber piece.
Rappel Anchors 59

Magic X rigging with two separate 5-foot lengths Self-equalizing three-piece rigging with a
of 7mm nylon cord—it’s self-equalizing and sling—nonredundant but very strong. To make
redundant. this rig redundant, simply tie an overhand knot
at the master point and add another quick link.
You’ll end up with three loops at the master
point, and a pre-equalized system.
Vectors Keep this in mind when you build rappel

anchor systems. If the angle between two anchor
A vector is a quantity that incorporates both direc- points reaches 120 degrees, you’ll load each anchor
tion and magnitude. Picture a tightrope walker at 100 percent. Strive to keep all the angles under
balancing out on the middle of a wire. If he weighs 60 degrees so you’ll be splitting the load roughly
200 pounds, the load at each end where the wire 50/50. A good rule of thumb is to always keep the
is attached will be roughly 1,000 pounds. Why is angles under 90 degrees. Also, avoid rigging a sling
this? When two anchor points are equalized, as the between two anchors in a triangular configuration
angle of the wire, sling, cord, or rope approaches (called the American Triangle), which, even at 90
180 degrees, the forces at the anchor points increase degrees, places 1.3 times the force at each anchor
drastically. When the angle is narrow, the load is dis- point. An American Triangle rigged at 120 degrees
tributed at around 50 percent to each anchor. would almost double the load at each anchor point!
60 RAPPELLING

American Triangle
Load per anchor
with 100 lbs. of force
Bottom V Rigging Triangle
Angle Rigging
30 degrees 52 lbs. 82 lbs.
The American Triangle rigged

at a rappel anchor. Avoid rigging
with a triangle configuration—it
adds unnecessary forces to your
anchor points. This anchor is not
This diagram illustrates how a 100-pound redundant because it relies on a single
load is distributed between two anchor points component—the red cord—which, even
at various angles. Keep the angle between though it’s looped twice through the bolt
two anchors as narrow as possible, striving hangers, if one strand of the cord were
for under 60 degrees. At 120 degrees the load cut through, the entire anchor system
is 100 percent at each anchor! Think of 0 to 60 would fail. Stick to a V configuration for
degrees as ideal, 60 to 90 degrees a caution lower loads.
zone, and over 90 degrees a danger zone.
Rappel Anchors 61

Redundancy by itself does not guarantee safety in an anchor system. Here Cindy Bransford rappels
from a bunch of slings from the top of Dark Angel Spire, in Arches National Park, Utah. If you know
you’ll be encountering rappel anchors on a less-traveled venue, carry a knife, some webbing, and a
few rap rings, and be prepared to do a bit of rerigging if need be. p h o t o B y t o d d g o r d o N

Notes on Redundancy spacecraft all critical systems have backups when-
ever possible, and life support systems have two
By itself, redundancy does not guarantee safety— backups. NASA calculates that if the chances of a
you could be rappelling off a bunch of old weath- system failing are one in a thousand, then a backup
ered slings or a couple of old rusty chain links, on the same system (also with a one in a thousand
for example—but redundancy in anchor systems chance of failing) decreases the chances of failure to
is something to always strive for, a baseline and a one in a million.
starting point for evaluation. In rock climbing, a Is it safe to rappel off an anchor you’ve just built
nonredundant anchor is considered marginal. Many using two properly installed 3⁄8-inch-diameter bolts
canyoneering enthusiasts argue that redundancy and a brand-new 1-inch nylon sling that you’ve
at the anchor system is superfluous, as there will properly tied with a water knot, equalized with a
be a point in the rappel system where redundancy magic X, and fitted with a brand-new CE-certified
can no longer be maintained—you rappel on only quick link? Sure. The strength of this anchor system
one rope, with one rappel device, on one locking far exceeds the load you’ll place on it, with a safety
carabiner. This is absolutely true, and it’s also true margin greater than 10:1. But not every anchor is
that climbing and rappelling equipment is manu- perfect. What about an anchor that has several slings
factured to strict standards, thoroughly tested, and of unknown vintage with a rusty old quick link to
certified to minimum specifications, with a built-in thread your rope through? This is where judgment
safety margin. After all, an airplane has only one tail and your ability to assess an anchor’s components is
section, and if it structurally fails, the result is cata- critical.
strophic. In aviation and in climbing, the built-in Redundancy by itself is simply not enough of
safety margin allows use of nonredundant equip- a guideline to ensure a safe anchor, but it’s a good
ment in critical applications. starting point. An anchor system with reliable com-
But in aviation, like climbing, critical systems ponents and redundancy is what I strive for. I’ll bet
have backups whenever practical. We don’t rappel against one in a million odds anytime.
off a single bolt anchor, even though it’s twenty-five
times stronger than the load we’re placing on it. In
Rappel Anchors 63

c h a p t e r t h r e e
Knots
Loop Knots
Loop knots are tied by taking two strands of rope
(called a bight) and wrapping them back over
themselves so that the knot does not slide, or by
taking the end of the rope and tying it back over
the standing part so the knot does not slide. Loop
knots are used to clip the rope into a carabiner, or
to tie around an object.
Overhand Loop
This is the simplest knot you can tie to form a loop.
It requires less rope to tie than the figure eight. For
most applications, however, the figure eight loop is
superior because it tests about 10 percent stronger
than the overhand loop and is easier to untie in
small-diameter cord. Overhand loop.
Knot Terminology
Bend: Two ropes tied together by their ends.
Bight: Two strands of rope where the rope is doubled back on itself.
Load strand: The strand of the rope that bears all the weight.
Hitch: A knot that is tied around another object (such as a carabiner or rope).
Standing end: The part of the rope that the end of the rope crosses to form a knot.
Tag end: The very end of a rope, or the tail end that protrudes from a knot.
George Armstrong rappels from the summit of

the Lightbulb, Arches National Park, Utah.
65

Finished overhand loop. A properly tied figure eight follow-through knot.
Figure Eight Follow-Through Bowline

This is the standard knot that climbers use for tying If you were a Boy Scout, you learned this knot with
the rope to their harness. It can also be used to tie a the saying “the rabbit comes up through the hole,
rope around an object like a tree or through a tun- around the tree, and back down through the hole.”
nel. Tie it with a 5-inch minimum tail, and tighten The bowline is very useful to tie the rope around
all four strands to dress the knot. something, like a tree, block of rock, or tunnel in
the rock. It is important to note that a bowline knot
Figure Eight Loop requires a backup, as weighting and unweighting the
Another standard climbing knot, the figure eight knot easily loosens it. Always tie half of a double
loop is used for tying off the end of a rope, or for fisherman’s knot to back it up. One advantage of
tying a loop in the middle, or bight, of a rope. It is the bowline is this same feature—it is very easy to
also commonly referred to as a “figure eight on a untie after it has been weighted, so it is used regu-
bight.” larly by professional riggers.
66 RAPPELLING

Tying In with a Figure Eight Follow-Through
1 2 3
4 5 6
For a belayed rappel you’ll want to tie in to the belay line. Check your harness manufacturer’s
guidelines for information on how to properly tie the rope to your harness. For harnesses with belay
loops, you generally follow the same path as the belay loop, which goes through two tie-in points on
the harness. Tie the figure eight so that its loop is about the same diameter as your belay loop. The
figure eight knot does not require a backup knot.
Knots 67

How to tie a figure eight loop.
A finished figure eight loop is

clipped to an anchor.
68 RAPPELLING

Tying the bowline. The bowline should
always be tied with a backup, shown here
with half a double fisherman’s for the
backup knot (right).
Knots 69

The bowline knot with
fisherman’s backup.
Rethreaded bowline.
Tie a regular bowline,
but leave the tail long
enough to go all the way
back around the object
you’re tying around,
then retrace the start of
the knot, like you would
on a figure eight follow-
through, finishing with
a fisherman’s backup.
This is a great knot to
use for tying a rope
around a tree or through
a tunnel, because you
end up with two loops,
adding strength and
redundancy to your
rigging.
70 RAPPELLING

Bends Double Fisherman’s Knot
A bend is a knot that joins two ropes or lengths This is the preferred knot to use for joining nylon
of cord together. These knots are used to tie your cord into a loop to make a cordelette. It is also a
cordelette into a loop, and also to tie two ropes very secure knot to tie two ropes together for a
together for rappelling. double-rope rappel, but can be difficult to untie.
Figure Eight Bend Triple Fisherman’s Knot

A variation of the figure eight follow-through, this For 5mm- and 6mm-diameter high-tech cord
knot can be used to tie two ropes together. It has (i.e., Spectra, Dyneema, Technora), a triple fisher-
superior strength and is easy to untie after it has man’s knot tests slightly stronger than the double
been weighted. It is simply a retraced figure eight. fisherman’s.
On 9mm- to 11mm-diameter rope, tie it with the
tails a minimum of 5 inches long.
The figure eight bend.
Knots 71

Tying the double fisherman’s knot (aka grapevine knot). When tying 7mm nylon cord, leave the tails
about 3 inches long.
72 RAPPELLING

To tie a triple fisherman’s, make
three wraps before feeding the cord
back through.
The triple fisherman’s knot is

shown below.
Knots 73

Knots for Joining Two Rappel Ropes
For long rappels—more than half of a standard (60-
meter) rope length—climbers often tie two ropes
together to still have a retrievable system, threading
one rope through the rappel anchor and tying the
two ends together (making a note of which rope to
pull down based on which side of the anchor the
joining knot is positioned), then rappelling on both
strands. Once at the bottom of the rappel, rope is
retrieved by pulling down the rope on the knot side
of the anchor.
Standard knots for joining two ropes include
the double fisherman’s knot and the figure eight
bend. The double fisherman’s is more difficult to
untie than the figure eight bend once weighted;
the figure eight bend, while relatively easy to untie,
is bulky. Carefully tighten the knots before using
them. A stiff rope makes it harder to cinch the knots
tight, so be especially careful with a stiffer rope.
Which knot you use should be based on several
variables. If the ropes differ drastically in diameter,
or are very stiff, the most foolproof knot is the fig-
ure eight bend, backed up with half a double fisher-
man’s on each side. This is a bulky knot, but it gives
you a real sense of absolute security.
Double fisherman’s bend. Figure eight bend.
74 RAPPELLING

Flat Overhand (aka Euro Death Knot)
How this knot received the “Euro Death Knot”
moniker is unclear. Most likely the knot was ini-
tially adopted by Europeans and deemed unsafe
when first seen by American climbers unfamiliar
with its use. As far as I know, it has been responsi-
ble for only one rappelling accident in recent times
(in the Tetons, September 1997), when it was slop-
pily tied with too short of a tail. Ironically, former
Rock and Ice Magazine editor George Bracksieck
wrote in July of that year that “the one-sided
overhand knot (tails parallel and together) remains
the best knot for rappelling. . . . Be sure to leave
plenty of tail and to set it snugly.” After analyzing
the accident, Grand Teton ranger Mark Magnusun
wrote: “I intend to do some additional research in
an effort to gain information on the overhand knot
used for joining ropes, the origin of the ‘Euro-
death’ nickname, and incidents of other failures.”
From 1999 to 2009 various tests revealed the
flat overhand to be roughly 30 percent weaker
than the double fisherman’s for tying two ropes
together, but still plenty strong for rappelling situ-
ations. Testing also revealed that it was virtually
impossible to get the knot to fail, as long as it
was tied with a suitable-length tail and properly
tightened.
Petzl, a leading manufacturer of rappelling
devices, recommends the flat overhand as the knot
to use for joining two rappel ropes together, as
long as the ropes are of similar diameter and the
tail is a minimum of 20 centimeters (8 inches).
The flat overhand has become widely adopted
as the knot for joining two rappel ropes of similar
diameters because it is easy to tie and easy to untie
after it has been weighted, and it presents a clean
profile when pulled down the cliff as the ropes
are retrieved, thus less likely to jam in a crack. For
added security, it can be easily backed up simply by
tying another flat overhand right on top of the first
one, although this adds bulk.
Figure eight bend with fisherman’s backups.
Knots 75

Flat overhand knot. Flat overhand with overhand backup.
That being said, there are a few cautions: It is not The flat overhand is a poor choice for use with
recommended for tying together two ropes of drasti- nylon webbing, and it has been responsible for
cally differing diameters (e.g., 7mm to 11mm), or for numerous rappel anchor failures where it was tied
use on very stiff ropes. The bottom line is that the in webbing with a very short tail. An even worse
knot should be used with discretion, well tightened knot for rope and webbing, and a knot responsible
(pull as hard as you can on all four strands), and tied for numerous accidents, is the flat figure eight,
with a long tail (minimum of 8 inches). Person- which inverts at shockingly low loads as the knot
ally, I use the flat overhand (with a second overhand rolls inward and capsizes. The flat eight is a knot to
backup) in situations where I’m concerned about be avoided, and is very dangerous if tied with short
the knot possibly jamming in a crack when I pull tails, especially in nylon webbing.
the rope down for retrieval. Otherwise I use a figure
eight bend or double fisherman’s.
76 RAPPELLING

Friction Hitches a double fisherman’s knot. Buy the softest, most
pliable nylon cord you can find, because a softer
A hitch is a knot that is tied around something. cord will grip best. To tie the prusik, simply make
A friction hitch is a knot tied with a cord or sling a girth-hitch around the rope with your cord, then
around another rope, utilizing friction to make the pass the loop of cord back through the original
knot hold when it is weighted, but releasable and girth-hitch two or three more times. Dress the
movable without untying when it is unweighted. knot to make sure all the strands are even and not
Prusik Knot twisted—a sloppy friction hitch will not grip as
well. Test the knot before using it. A thinner cord
A prusik knot is used for rope ascending and as will grip better, but below 5mm in diameter the
a component in many rescue systems. It can be cord will be too weak for many rescue applica-
loaded in either direction. To tie a prusik, first make tions. To slide the prusik after it has been weighted,
a “prusik cord” out of a 4-foot length of 5mm- or loosen the “tongue,” which is the one strand oppo-
6mm-diameter nylon cord tied into a loop with site all the wraps.
Tying a prusik knot.
Knots 77

A three-wrap prusik.
Tests on various friction hitches reveal that the Klemheist Knot

prusik consistently has the most holding power This is another useful friction hitch that is quick
in a wide array of cord and rope combinations, and easy to tie and is a good choice as a rope-
so use the prusik in scenarios (like 3:1 raising sys- ascending knot if all you have available is a sling
tems) where it will be loaded with more than body rather than a piece of cord to tie a friction hitch.
weight. With cord, a 5mm- or 6mm-diameter soft nylon
78 RAPPELLING

Tying the klemheist knot.
Knots 79

The klemheist knot.
cord will work best, and a 4-foot length tied with a point). With either a sling or cord, four wraps tied
double fisherman’s knot gives you about a 16-inch on a single 10mm-diameter rope usually work
loop. When using a sling, pick a nylon one (18mm well. After the hitch has been weighted, loosen the
or 11⁄16-inch width) over a Spectra or Dyneema sling, tongue (the one strand opposite all the wraps) to
because nylon grips better and is less susceptible to slide it more easily.
weakening if it gets hot (nylon has a higher melting
80 RAPPELLING

Autoblock
Sometimes called the “third hand,” the autoblock is
used to back up your brake hand when rappelling.
Tie it with your loop of 5mm- or 6mm-diameter
nylon cord wrapped three or four times around the
climbing rope. When I tie it on a single strand of
10mm-diameter rope, I usually make four wraps.
For a rappel backup on a doubled 10mm rope, I
usually go with three wraps.
The autoblock with nylon cord.
The Sterling Hollow Block, shown here

wrapped in an autoblock configuration,
is a 100 percent Technora sling designed
specifically for use with friction hitches.
Knots 81

Stopper Knot at the end of each rope, as tying both ropes together
can cause the ropes to twist around each other.
This knot is used as a safety knot in the end of a The stopper knot can, however, pass through a
rope. It is essentially half of a double fisherman’s figure eight descender, so if you’re rappelling with
knot tied on one strand of rope. A stopper knot pre- that particular device and want a safety knot at
vents rappelling off the end of the rope if rappelling the end of your rope, you’ll need to use a bulkier
with a plate, tube, or assisted braking (e.g., Grigri) knot that cannot pass through it (see “Figure Eight
device. When using two ropes, I tie a separate knot Descender,” page 95).
Tying a stopper knot.
82 RAPPELLING

It sounds almost too
simple, but the best way
to avoid rappelling off
the end of your rope is
simply to tie a stopper
knot in the rope’s end.
Knots 83

c h a p t e r f o u r
Rappelling Methods and Devices
Rappelling Fundamentals The hand above the rappel device is called the
guide hand, or feel hand.You’ll want to use this
If you’ve never rappelled before and want to learn hand for balance, and not for additional braking.
the basics, I encourage you to get instruction from The brake hand is the hand holding the rope below
an AMGA Certified Instructor to learn some basic the rappel device. On steep rappels, holding the
knots, anchoring procedures, and simple rappelling rope with both hands as brake hands below the rap-
technique in a safe and comfortable environment. pel device works well.
If I’m teaching a novice, and it’s their first rap- For stability, keep your feet wide, bend your
pel, I’ll pick a site that has a safe, easily accessible flat knees slightly, and sit back in your harness. Keep
area on top where we can stage the rappel lesson. your feet relatively high, and look over your shoul-
I’ll belay the student with a separate rope for safety der to watch where you’re going. Proceed smoothly
and control. The ideal site has a rounded and grad- and slowly down the rappel, feeling how the fric-
ual transition from the flat area at the top of the cliff tion is regulated based on the position of your
to the steeper section below. The cliff, preferably brake hand and how you let the rope flow through
angled at just less than vertical, or about 70 to 80 the rappel device. Take the straight plumb line
degrees, should be relatively flat and free from cor- down the rock, and don’t track on a path too far to
ners, overhangs, or any uneven terrain that would the side, as gravity will send you swinging back to
be tricky to navigate, with a flat area at the base of the fall line (straight down from the anchor) if you
the rappel. I always try to position myself where I lose your balance.
can watch the student all the way down to the base The key variables that most affect the amount of
of the rappel. friction you’ll need for a rappel are the type of rap-
There are a few key elements that I tell my pel device you’re using, whether you’re rappelling
students to focus on, but here is the cardinal rule: on a single or doubled rope, the diameter of the
Don’t let go of the brake hand. Also, tuck in all rope or ropes you’re using, the roughness or slick-
loose clothing, and take special care with long hair ness of the sheath of the rope or ropes, the stiffness
to keep it away from the rappel device. of the rope or ropes, the angle of the rappel, and
your body weight.
The length of the rappel also changes the
amount of friction required and varies as you pro-
gress down the rappel, based on the weight of the
rope below you. For example, on a very long rappel,
Amy Lambert rappels from The Eye of the
Cyclops, Joshua Tree, California.
the weight of the rope below you will be heaviest
at the start of the rappel, creating more friction at
P h o t o b y C at h e r i n e C o l e l l a
your rappel device. As you approach the bottom of
85

Good rappelling
posture: feet wide for
stability, looking over
the shoulder, both
hands on the braking
side of the device.
86 RAPPELLING

the rappel, there will be far less rope weight below overhang. If the overhang forms a big roof or ceil-
you, and less friction at your rappel device. ing, getting past the lip and into a free-hanging
As you progress beyond that first rappel, you’ll position can be awkward. Keep your feet at the very
encounter some common rappelling problems lip of the overhang and lean way back in your har-
that demand special attention. Sometimes you’ll ness until your feet are above waist level, then push
encounter knots or tangles in your rappel rope. off slightly and lower yourself quickly but smoothly
You’ll need to stop, mid-rappel, pull up the rope until you’re hanging in the air. This takes practice,
below you, and untangle it. The easiest way to do and is tricky for a beginner.
this (if you’re not using an autoblock backup) is Once you safely reach the end of the rappel, or
with a leg wrap, simply wrapping the rope around the base of the cliff, unclip your rappel device from
your leg several times. the rope and yell “off rappel” as the signal to let the
Another common problem is negotiating an next rappeller know they can proceed. Walk away
from the immediate base of the cliff so that you’re
not in the fall line in case any rocks are dislodged
by the next rappeller.
Non-Mechanical Rappel Methods

Fast Roping
This simple but highly effective technique is used
primarily in military applications for quick inser-
tion of special forces personnel from a helicopter
to a ship, building, or enemy territory for hostage
rescue and tactical assaults. A large-diameter rope
is deployed (as thick as one you’d find in a gym-
nasium for rope climbing), and the soldier simply
slides down the rope like a fireman sliding down
a fire pole, clutching the rope with both hands
and pinching the rope between the feet. Heat-
resistant gloves are a must. Elite Navy SEALs have
fast roped up to 90 feet from helicopters, although
the technique is considered high risk and has been
responsible for numerous injuries. Safe fast roping
technique is considerably more difficult to accom-
plish while wearing a heavy pack, which is usually
required for special operations. The great advan-
tage of fast roping over other rappelling methods
for team insertion is the speed at which it can be
accomplished, and the fact that multiple personnel
The leg wrap is useful if you need to stop can be on the same rope at the same time, greatly
temporarily to deal with rope tangles. expediting the insertion process.
Rappelling Methods and Devices 87

Arm Rappel for short rappels on very low-angle terrain. It can
This technique is relegated to very low-angle ter- also cause severe rope burns if the rope is touching
rain, and you should not attempt the arm rappel bare skin.
unless you’re wearing a thick, long-sleeved shirt and To rig the arm rappel, position the rope across
gloves; otherwise you’ll get bad rope burns. your back and wrap it one time around each arm,
In the Department of Defense’s handbook Mili- then turn your body sideways to the anchor and
tary Rappelling (1997), it’s called the “hasty rappel,” hold the rope in each hand, the downhill hand
because “it is easier and faster than other methods, being your brake hand.
especially when the rope is wet.”
Dulfersitz Rappel
This improvised method is useful in an emer-
gency situation if no harness or equipment other Also referred to as a body rappel, the dulfersitz
than a rope is available. Although fast and easy to method is an antiquated classic—one of the earli-
rig, the big disadvantage is that it is only applicable est techniques used to rappel down a rope, invented
by German climber Hans Dulfer at the end of the
The arm rappel is useful for an impromptu rappel on very low-angle terrain, as it requires no
equipment other than a rope.
88 RAPPELLING

The dulfersitz rappel.

nineteenth century. Like the arm rappel this tech- Carabiner Rappels
nique can cause severe rope burns if the rope comes
into contact with any bare skin, so you’ll want to Carabiner Wrap
wear protective clothing to even consider using This was a standard rappel method used by the US
the dulfersitz method. Also like the arm rappel, the Army until recent years. The beauty is in its sim-
dulfersitz should only be used to rappel down short plicity, requiring only one locking carabiner. Two
sections of low-angle terrain in an improvised situ- or three wraps of the rope are made on the spine of
ation where no harness or gear is available. This the carabiner. The amount of friction can be varied
is a dangerous technique if used on a very steep by the number of wraps, but the system does not
or overhanging cliff, as the rope can put pressure offer true variable friction control, since to add or
underneath your leg, flipping you upside down. subtract wraps once on rappel requires opening the
To rig the dulfersitz, place the rope at your carabiner—a highly dangerous proposition.
crotch, under one leg, diagonally across your chest,
and over the shoulder. The downhill hand is your
brake hand; the uphill hand (the guide hand) is used
for balance.
My first rappel, at age 12, was from a stout oak
tree in my grandmother’s backyard. It did not go
well—and ended badly. I’d seen the dulfersitz tech-
nique in a textbook I checked out from the library:
Mountaineering Freedom of the Hills. I didn’t own
a harness. I figured my grandmother’s clothesline
would serve just fine for a rappel rope. I climbed
up as high as I could in the tree and tied the rope
to a stout limb, rigging it just as I had seen in the
text. Once I was free-hanging, the thin cord burned
into my flesh; rather than endure the searing pain,
I ended up letting go to free-fall to the ground.
Luckily for me the tree wasn’t that tall, it was late
in the year, and my grandmother didn’t employ a
gardener, so there was a great pile of leaves to cush-
ion my fall. I walked away unscathed but schooled,
having learned that rappelling is indeed serious
business.
The carabiner wrap.
90 RAPPELLING

The drawback of the carabiner wrap, aside from Munter Hitch
the fact that it horribly twists the rope, is that if the The Munter hitch works on a single strand or
carabiner flips around, the twisting action of the double strands of rope. In a pinch the Munter can
rope could inadvertently open a screwgate cara- be used for rappelling, although it will put some
biner, depending on the carabiner’s orientation. To kinks in your rope. Position the gate of the carabiner
prevent this, orient the carabiner so that the wider opposite the braking side of the Munter hitch, so
end is down and the rope runs from the anchor, there is no chance the movement of the rope can
under the top of the carabiner, and out over the unscrew or open the gate. To obtain the most friction
bottom of the carabiner. Be cautious if using the and the fewest kinks from the Munter hitch, hold
carabiner wrap on only one carabiner clipped to the brake strands above the carabiner and parallel to
your harness belay loop—the rope running over the the load strands above the carabiner. If you hold the
belay loop can melt the nylon. Better to use another brake strands below the carabiner, at a 180-degree
locking carabiner to attach the carabiner wrap biner angle to the load strands above the device, you’ll get
to your harness. less friction and the rope will kink more.
The Munter hitch also

works on a doubled rope for
rappelling.

Tying the Munter Hitch
Hold a single strand of rope with both hands, Cross the right-hand strand in front of the left-
thumbs pointing toward each other. hand strand and hold the two strands where they
cross with your left thumb and forefinger, then
slide your right hand down about 6 inches.
Bring the right strand up and behind the loop Clip a locking carabiner where the forefinger is
you created. shown here, below the two top strands.
92 RAPPELLING

Carabiner Brake System reversed carabiners, then clip two more carabiners
This is best rigged with standard oval carabiners, into and across (at a 90-degree angle) the second
but D-shaped carabiners will also work. Start with set of carabiners so that the spines are on the same
two carabiners, and clip them to the harness belay side as the protruding loop (or loops) in your bight
loop with the gates opposed and reversed. Then clip of rope. In this way the spines will serve as your
two more carabiners, gates opposed and reversed, brake bars. Make sure that the spines (and not the
to the first set. Take a bight of rope (or ropes) and gates) are on the correct side. This configuration,
pull it through to the second set of opposed and using six non-locking carabiners, is known as the
How to rig a six-carabiner brake rappel setup: 1. Connect two sets of doubled carabiners, gates
opposed and reversed. 2. Pull a bight of both ropes through. 3. Clip the brake carabiners in on one
side. 4. Clip the brake carabiners to the other side so that your rope is pressing against the spines.

Carabiner brake rappel system rigged with one
locking and four D-shaped carabiners.
The classic six-

carabiner brake rappel
system works best with
oval carabiners.
94 RAPPELLING

classic “six-carabiner brake rappel system.” Popular favor because they’re lighter and can be used for
through the 1970s it was the standard in the old both belaying and rappelling. However, there are
days of swami belts, hip belays, and oval carabiners. figure eight descenders on the market today that
It works quite well with a double-strand rappel, have the small hole especially configured so that it
and because the rope flows straight and smooth can also be used for belaying like a belay plate.
through the brake system, it doesn’t kink your rope. The figure eight descender does have some
You can vary the amount of friction by using one, advantages over plate and tube devices. For situations
two, or three carabiners as brake bars, depending on where a knot pass will be required, a larger-size fig-
whether or not you’re using a single or double rope, ure eight descender will allow a knot to pass through
the diameter of the rope, the angle of the rappel, the device. A figure eight descender can also be eas-
etc.You can also substitute a single locking cara- ily and quickly locked off by taking the brake strand
biner instead of the first two opposed and reversed (or strands) over and above the device, then down
non-locking carabiners clipped to the belay loop. between the figure eight descender and the load
With today’s modern, lightweight (and tiny)
D-shaped carabiners that most climbers carry on
their rack, the system is less efficient and more dif-
ficult to rig, and the beauty of the symmetry from
the oval carabiners is lost. It may prove difficult, if
not impossible, to clip tiny carabiners across the
opposed and reversed set as the brake bars. So if
you’re rigging a carabiner brake system with non-
oval biners, use the largest carabiners you have
available.
Standard Rappelling Devices

Figure Eight Descender
Forged from high-strength aluminum alloy, the
standard figure eight descender has long been a
common rappelling device, especially with sport
rappellers, because of its simplicity, ease of rigging,
and amount of friction it provides. It can be used
with either a single or double rope. To rig a figure
eight descender, simply thread a bight of rope (or
both strands of rope if rappelling on a doubled
rope) through the large hole and around the “neck”
of the small hole, then clip the small hole into your
harness belay loop with a locking carabiner.
Popular with climbers in the 1980s, the figure
eight descender is less widely used by climbers these
days—largely replaced by the newer tube devices
Figure eight descender.
(like the Black Diamond ATC), which climbers

A locked-off figure eight descender. For rappelling on a single small-diameter rope
(like a 9mm), use the smaller aperture of the
device and clip your carabiner into the larger
ring.
strand (or strands)—which allows you to take your eight descender can be rigged in “canyon mode”
brake hand off the rope. For extra security, take a for less friction. This is done by taking a bight of
bight of the rope (or ropes) below you, on the brake both strands though the large hole, then clipping
hand side, and tie an additional backup with an over- both the rope strands and the small hole of the
hand loop or figure eight loop, then clip it to your figure eight descender together into the locking
harness with a locking carabiner. The device can be carabiner.
easily unlocked by reversing the procedure. The figure eight descender does have some dis-
For lightweight rappellers (like kids), and situ- advantages. It will kink your rope, as twists are cre-
ations where less friction is required on a double- ated as the rope spirals around the device. This can
rope rappel (like a very low-angle rappel), the figure be alleviated somewhat by holding the brake hand
96 RAPPELLING

Figure eight descender rigged in “canyon A “rescue eight.”
mode.”
down and not out to the side, creating a straighter on each side to prevent this from happening. The
angle in the rope. rescue eight is the standard rappel device for many
The figure eight descender is also prone to search and rescue personnel.
jamming by the rope girth-hitching itself over the A major safety consideration to be aware of
top of the device. This is a rare occurrence, but can when using the figure eight descender is that the
happen if the brake hand is held too high. As with standard stopper knot typically used to prevent rap-
all rappelling problems, you’ll need basic self-rescue pelling off the end of the rope will not jam in a fig-
skills (see Prusiking in chapter 9) to get yourself ure eight descender, and it’s difficult, if you’re using
out of this type of jam. A “rescue eight” is the term a single rope, to tie any knot bulky enough to jam
used to describe a figure eight descender with ears in the device.

For a bulky end knot when using a figure eight descender for a double-rope rappel, double back the
two strands, left, then tie a figure eight knot on all four strands, right.
If you’re rappelling on a doubled rope or two carabiner to the sling, then clip the carabiner above
ropes and want a safety knot on the ends of your your device between the two rope strands. This will
rope, tie a BHK (big honking knot) by doubling also keep the rope strands above the device from
up both strands and tying a figure eight loop on twisting as you rappel and will prevent any acciden-
the four strands. As an additional safeguard, take a tal rappel off the end of the ropes, as long as both
sling and attach it to your harness. Clip a locking ends are tied together.
98 RAPPELLING

Tube Devices There are a wide variety of tube-style devices
To rappel with a tube device, thread a bight of both on the market. Whichever device you purchase,
strands of rope through the device and clip them study the instructions carefully, and use it only per
into a locking carabiner attached to your belay the manufacturer’s recommendations.
loop. Keep the cable on the device clipped into the My two favorite tube-style devices are the Black
carabiner while you do this, so you won’t drop the Diamond ATC XP and the Petzl Reverso. The Black
device. As you thread the ropes through the device, Diamond ATC XP has two different friction options.
position the brake strands down, toward your feet. One side of the device has two V-shaped grooves (I
This will allow the rope to feed smoothly through refer to it as the “teeth” side; Black Diamond refers
the device with no twists. to it as the “high friction mode”) and the other side
For decades the Black Diamond ATC has Black Diamond ATC XP in high-friction mode.
been one of the most popular tube devices for
rappelling.

Petzl Reverso.
does not (regular friction mode). Placing the teeth device is versatility, allowing you to vary the amount
side down on the braking side will give you the of friction the device affords.
most friction; placing the brake strands on the non- Black Diamond says the ATC XP offers “multi-
teeth side, less friction. How much friction you want ple friction modes to handle nearly any situation or
depends on these variables: the diameter of the rope, rope diameter,” with the high-friction mode offer-
whether you’re rappelling on a single or doubled ing “two to three times the friction of the device
rope, the slickness of the rope’s sheath, your body when used in the regular friction mode.”
weight, and the angle of the rock face you’re rappel- The Petzl Reverso has a unique design called
ling down. What I look for in a tube-style rappelling “adaptive rope control,” which uses V-shaped
100 RAPPELLING

The original Sticht plate
rappel device.
channels with asymmetrical lateral grooves that For a steep rappel with a tube-style device, I
Petzl says will “adapt the friction to the type of the prefer to hold the ropes with both hands below the
rope for better control.” device in the braking position, with the ropes going
These grooved friction channels regulate the down between my legs. For less-steep rappels I
amount of braking effect according to the rope’s hold the ropes off to my right side, since I’m right-
diameter and condition. The Reverso should be handed, and grab the ropes using my right hand as
used for rappelling only with the rope’s brake the brake hand at my hip.
strand or strands placed on the side of the V-shaped
channels.

Plate Devices slots. The spring keeps the device from jamming and
The original belay/rappel plate was called the Sticht allows the rope to be fed more easily when using the
plate, manufactured in Germany by Salewa, and device for belaying, although I remember the spring
popular in the 1970s. The one I own is stamped seemed to always get caught on and tangled with
dopple seilbremse, which means “double-rope brake” in all the other gear I was carrying. To rappel with the
German. It is a round aluminum disk with two slots Sticht plate on a double rope, the two bights of rope
and a spring on one side. The plate can be used with are threaded through the two slots and clipped into
either one or two ropes threaded through the slot or a locking carabiner attached to the harness, with the
spring positioned on the carabiner side.
Two different ways to

rig a plate device (the
Kong Gigi): standard
mode, left, and . . .
102 RAPPELLING

Today’s modern plates, made from high-strength They are used mainly by professional climbing
aluminum alloy, are a variation on the same basic guides as a lightweight autoblocking plate used to
design, consisting of an oval shaped plate with two belay a follower directly from an anchor.
rope slots. The two most popular devices are the The Advanced Base Camp company currently
OBO (manufactured by Camp) and the Gigi (man- sells a “Spring Plate Belay Device” that is similar to
ufactured by Kong). These plates lack the friction the old Sticht plate, touting that “the spring acts like
and smoothness of the tube devices (like an ATC), a mini shock absorber for smooth rappels.” I guess
so they’ve never become popular for rappelling. good designs are timeless.
. . . additional friction,
right.

c h a p t e r f i v e
Rappelling Safely
Accidents—Analysis and Prevention at a key belay or rappel device. It’s as if the mind
skipped a step, or the brain said that everything was
Although rappelling is a simple technique, statis- correct and complete, when in fact it wasn’t—a
tically a high percentage of rappelling accidents cognitive blind spot.
end in a fatality. Why is this? Perhaps rappelling is Psychologists theorize that once the brain
so rudimentary that the fine points of safety are determines what is important, it fills in the picture
sometimes overlooked. Distractions often keep the with whatever your expectations believe should be
rappeller from doing basic safety checks they would there. These failures of awareness happen to all of
routinely perform (see Reepschnur accident, page us at one time or another, but we’re not aware of
150). Often rappelling is done at the end of the day, them, so we don’t realize what we’ve missed! A
when climbers are tired, daylight is fading, and the systematic and routine checklist is helpful, but what
adrenaline of an exciting climb is gone. we really need to look for is what might be wrong,
Inattentional blindness is a term psychologists not what looks right.
use to describe the neurological phenomenon that Pat Ament, the great Colorado climber of the
occurs when the brain fails to see something obvi- 1960s and 1970s, writes in his book Rock Wise: “As
ous, when attention is distracted or focused on with all of climbing, it is attitude that saves or kills.
something else. Psychologists who study multitask- There is no better beginning than within the mind,
ing have found that most of us aren’t the multitask- in the form of complete concentration. There is no
ers we think we are: Our brain is simply switching room for oversight or for dismissing what is logi-
back and forth from one activity to another, deac- cally understood. Keen intuition must evaluate all
tivating one area of focus to process the other task. which strikes both mind and eye. Preparing a rappel
In my role as an examiner for guides’ certification is a process of reasoning and advancing through a
exams, I’ve seen examples of inattentional blindness regular chain of tests until a synthesis reads go.”
many times during complicated technical scenarios, Analyzing rappelling accidents tells us what can
where the guide has moved his focus without see- go wrong and what to do to keep it from happen-
ing an obvious error, like a carabiner unlocked ing to us. Since 1951 the American Alpine Club has
published their annual Accidents in North American
Mountaineering, which details what went wrong
in various climbing and rappelling accidents. Let’s
take a detailed look at the most common rappelling
Young Matthew Waugh on a belayed
accident scenarios.
rappel, Tuolumne Meadows, Yosemite
National Park, California.
Scenario 1: Rappelling off one or both
ends of the rope. Believe it or not, this happens
with some regularity, and almost every year there
105

Rappelling Safety Checks
A lways go through a mental checklist before rappelling: ABCDE. A is the rappel anchor. Take
a look at the anchor, slings, chains, etc., and make sure the rappel rope is threaded properly
through the anchor. The anchor should be redundant all the way to the point where your rope is
threaded through the anchor. What this means is that you should not rely on a single piece of gear in
your anchor system, whether it is a single cord, sling, or rappel ring. B is for buckles on your har-
ness—double-check to make sure they are buckled properly and doubled back appropriately. C is
for carabiner. Make sure the locking carabiner that attaches your rappel device to your harness is
being loaded properly on the long axis—and check to make sure that it is locked! D is for look down
and see where your rope goes. Does it reach the ground? or the next ledge? E is for the rope ends.
Do they have stopper knots?
are several fatal rappelling accidents in America exactly this. Luckily for me I’d rigged an autoblock
where someone has simply rappelled off the end backup, and as I weighted the system I noticed my
(or ends) of a rope. Usually it happens when the error. If not for that autoblock backup, I probably
ends are uneven on a doubled-rope rappel. Uneven wouldn’t be writing this today.
ends can occur when the ropes are different lengths, This is an easy mistake to make if you’re not
when one rope stretches more than the other, or alert and double-checking your system. When visu-
when there is no middle mark. When the short ally inspecting the top of a tube-style device, it
end passes through the rappelling device, only one will appear as if both strands are properly threaded
strand of the doubled rope remains in the device, because the device holds the bight of rope inside
and the climber’s body weight rapidly pulls the rope itself, even if the rope hasn’t been clipped into the
through the rappel anchor, quickly dispatching the carabiner behind it. If only one strand makes it into
climber to the ground. To prevent this, tie stop- your locking carabiner, when you lean back and
per knots separately in both ends of the rope. It’s a weight the rope, you’ll descend as rapidly as in the
simple solution, and a key safety habit in all rappel- first scenario—and with equally injurious or fatal
ling situations, even if you’re less than a rope length results. A good safety habit is to first tether in with
above the ground. It’s what I refer to as “closing the a sling to the rappel anchor, rig your rappel device,
system.” Make sure that the stopper knot you tie then weight the rappel system and double-check
will jam in your rappel device. Remember, if you’re everything before unclipping the tether. Rigging an
using a figure eight descender, a regular stopper autoblock backup is also a good idea!
knot will probably slip through the device, so tie a Scenario 3: Not tethering to the anchor.
BHK (big honking knot) instead. This happens, albeit infrequently, more often than
Scenario 2: Not clipping both strands not in alpine environments due to rock/and or
of the rope into the carabiner on a double- snow giving way underfoot. A simple sling clipped
rope rappel. I’ve done thousands of rappels in my to the anchor with a locking carabiner is all it takes
climbing career, and one time I caught myself doing to prevent this scenario. Using a daisy chain as a
106 RAPPELLING

personal tether is not recommended, because if trees in places (some as much as 3 feet in diam-
you clip a carabiner into two adjacent loops, you’ve eter), which make great natural anchors, but I’ve
created a weak and dangerous connection. Better seen some hapless climbers rappel from the merest
than a standard daisy chain with sewn pockets is the shrubbery, risking life and limb rather than leaving
newer, modern version that consists of full runner- behind expensive climbing gear. Other climbers,
strength sewn loops, like the Metolius PAS (per- rather than scrimp, build equalized anchors with
sonal anchor system) or the Sterling Chain Reactor. $300 worth of gear. Tough to leave behind, but how
These more versatile slings allow you to extend much is your life worth?
your rappel device away from your harness, so you Other catastrophic anchor system failures are
can clip your autoblock backup at your belay loop due to the anchor components, like relying on a
(rather than your leg loop) and use the end of the single link in an old rusty chain, which happened in
sling to clip into the anchor as a tether while you the early 1970s to three climbers from Minnesota
get everything rigged up. A good safety habit is to while retreating from the El Capitan’s Nose route
weight your rappel device and check to make sure in Yosemite. Rather than create a redundant anchor
it’s rigged properly and supports your body weight clip-in, they simply clipped around a chain that was
before you unclip your tether from the anchor. attached to two bolts, exposing themselves to many
Scenario 4: Anchor failure. Rappelling tests nonredundant individual links that could potentially
your anchor; it must be able to hold the rappeller’s fail. The chain held the weight of the three climbers
weight. In climbing situations, a catastrophic and suspended from the anchor, but when they care-
complete anchor failure is usually due to failure lessly dropped a heavy haul bag (attached to a rope
of the rock structure itself, rather than the anchor connected to the same anchor), the resulting impact
components, as in the case of a detached block or force when the bag fell the length of the rope broke
loose flake being pulled off the cliff. a rusty bolt hanger that the chain was attached to,
Often during bad weather, climbers are forced resulting in a triple fatality.
to make hasty retreats, leaving gear behind in their Other rappel anchor system failures are due to
rappel anchors. Tahquitz Rock, my local summer- improperly tied nylon webbing, when the knot
time crag in Southern California, is 1,000 feet high, used to rig the sling fails due to lack of knowledge
and popular with weekend rock climbers, since it is on the proper knot to use, and lack of redundancy
only a 2-hour drive from most parts of Los Angeles in the rigging. Webbing is a slippery material and
and situated on a shady mountainside at 8,000 feet must be tied carefully, using the correct knots,
elevation above the mountain hamlet of Idyllwild. tightened firmly, with appropriate tails. The stan-
Late summer thunderstorms, accompanied by dan- dard knots for webbing are the water knot and the
gerous lightning, although rare, can be ferocious up double fisherman’s knot. I prefer the water knot, as
on Tahquitz. Often the morning sky will be clear as it requires less material and is easier to inspect due
a bell, luring unsuspecting climbers high up on the to its clean and distinctive appearance. With 1-inch
cliff, where they’re trapped by the quickly build- nylon webbing, tie the water knot with 3-inch
ing afternoon cumulus and forced to beat a hasty minimum tails, tighten it as tight as you can, and rig
retreat, which often necessitates multiple rappels your anchor system so that it’s redundant—mean-
and leaving behind gear used for the rappel anchors. ing that there is no one single component in the
Climbing one of the popular routes a day or two anchor system that you’re solely relying on, be it a
later reveals an amazing array of “anchors” climbers single sling, hardware store quick link, chain link,
have rappelled from. Tahquitz has some stout pine ring, bolt, or piton.
Rappelling Safely 107

Rappel Belays Toproping, part of the FalconGuides How to Climb
series.
If you’re teaching a beginner and they’re rappel- A simple technique to back up someone on
ling for the first time, it’s best to belay them on a rappel is called the fireman’s belay. It is an effec-
separate rope. For belaying strategies from the top tive technique when the rappeller is using a figure
of the cliff, I recommend that you read my book eight descender, or a tube or plate-style device. In a
Instructors belay students at Joshua Tree National Park, California.
108 RAPPELLING

Fireman’s belay.

fireman’s belay someone down below is attentively the autoblock down as you go, allowing the rope to
holding the rappel rope. When this person pulls freely slide through the knot. When you let go, the
down on the rope and applies tension, the rappeller autoblock knot rides up and grabs onto the rope,
will stop on a dime—he or she cannot move down like your brake hand squeezing the rope. To release
the rope when it is under tension. the autoblock, even with your weight on it, is as
simple as sliding it back down and holding it in the
“open” position with your fingers. It’s a beautiful
Rappel Backups
thing, and easy to rig.
In the old days the most common method for a The disadvantage of clipping the autoblock to
rappel backup was using a prusik knot on the ropes your leg loop is that if for some reason you were to
above the rappel device, connected to the harness go unconscious and flip upside down, the autoblock
with a sling. With a prusik, the non-brake hand will ride up and come in contact with your rappel
cups the prusik knot and holds it in a loosened device, which prevents it from grabbing, much like
position during the rappel, allowing it to slide down sliding it down and keeping it “open” with your
the rope. Letting go of the knot allows it to slide up
and grab onto the ropes, stopping the rappel. There
are two drawbacks with this method. One is that for
the prusik to lock off, it must hold all the rappel-
ler’s weight. The second is that once it is weighted,
the rappeller must remove all his body weight from
the prusik knot in order for it to be released, not
an easy task if you’re on a free-hanging rappel. In
essence, to take your weight off the prusik, you’ll
need the skills to perform a mini self-rescue.
The modern rappel backup utilizes the auto-
block knot, which is rigged below the rappel device.
There are two distinct advantages with this method.
One is that for the autoblock knot to grab, it only
needs to hold a very small percentage of the rap-
peller’s weight, since it is on the braking side of
the device, and the device itself is holding most of
the weight and providing most of the friction. It is
essentially like your brake hand squeezing and grip-
ping the rope, and for that reason some instructors
refer to it as the “third hand,” like an angel grab-
bing your rope and averting a catastrophe if for
some reason you’ve lost control of the brake. The
second big advantage of the autoblock method is
that it is releasable under tension (i.e., when you’ve
weighted it and it’s grabbing onto the rope). As you Black Diamond ATC XP is rigged for rappelling
rappel down, you simply form a circle with your with a three-wrap autoblock backup clipped to
thumb and forefinger (like the OK sign) and push the leg loop with a locking carabiner.
110 RAPPELLING

Another view of how
to rig an autoblock
backup, here using a
Black Diamond ATC
rappel device and a
three-wrap autoblock
tied with 6mm nylon
cord and attached to the
leg loop with a locking
carabiner.
Another way to rig an autoblock backup

is to start by girth-hitching the cord
around your leg loop, wrap it a few times
around the rappel rope, then clip it back
to your leg loop with a locking carabiner.
This method is favored by some rock
climbers because the cord is always
ready when needed and can’t be dropped.
When not in use, the cord can be wrapped
a few times around the leg loop to keep it
out of the way.

Veteran climbing instructor Adam Fox demonstrates proper use of an extended rappel device with
an autoblock backup. A double-length nylon sling is threaded through both harness tie-in points and
tied with an overhand knot for redundancy. The rappel device is the Black Diamond ATC Guide in
rappel mode. The autoblock knot is clipped to a locking carabiner attached to the belay loop.
112 RAPPELLING

fingers. I conducted several tests over the last year If using an autoblock at your leg loop, make sure
with my autoblock rigged at my leg loop and my your harness buckle cannot be defeated by an out-
rappel device (ATC) at my belay loop. With someone ward pull, or better yet, use a harness with a fixed
giving me a fireman’s belay to back me up, I flipped (no buckle) leg loop design.
upside down to see if the autoblock would grab and In recent years professional guides have devel-
hold. In three out of four tests it failed to grip, since oped a safer method simply by extending the
it had ridden up against my ATC, and the rope kept rappel device with a sling attached to the harness
sliding right through. It’s not a foolproof backup. and rigging the autoblock clipped into the belay
Also, recent harness leg loop buckle designs loop. I like to rig a double-length sewn nylon sling
(particularly the Black Diamond trakFIT and Petzl threaded through both points at the front of my
“doubleback” buckle systems) can loosen when a harness (where your rope tie-in goes through) and
carabiner is clipped into them and pulled outward. tied with an overhand knot, to gain redundancy at
A rappeller’s-eye view of an extended

rappel device with autoblock backup.
Here the autoblock is gripping the
rope—notice the distance between
the autoblock cord and the ATC
rappel device. No matter what
happens with the rappeller, even
if he or she flips upside down, the
autoblock will not come in contact
with the rappel device.

the sling. I prefer to use a fat nylon sling (18mm Rigging for Contingencies
or 11⁄16-inch width) over a thin (10mm) Dyneema In my climbing school we always belay novices on
sling for this application because nylon has a higher a separate rope when they are learning to rappel. A
melting point. If the rappel rope is running across good system (I teach it in the AMGA Single Pitch
the sling, it could potentially create some heat due Instructor Course) anticipates any potential prob-
to the friction, which could damage the sling and lems that may occur during a rappel and uses a rig-
reduce its breaking strength in later applications. ging system that is ready to remedy any problem.
For anyone who weighs under about 125 The system uses a two-rope method: One rope
pounds, using an autoblock backup below the is the rappel line, the other is the belay line. If the
device on a double-rope rappel may create too length of the rappel is less than half the rope length,
much friction, regardless of the device, so using the the system can be rigged with a single rope, using
“old-school” technique of the prusik above the one end tied to the belayer. The other end goes to
device may be the only solution and is perfectly the ground. If the rappel is more than half a rope
valid as a backup. Just be sure to rig the prusik so length, two ropes are required. The rappel rope is
that if it tightens, you can still reach up and touch it. attached to the anchor with a Munter/mule combi-
Also, you should carry another prusik and sling and nation, which is releasable under tension. The rap-
know basic self-rescue (see Prusiking in chapter 9) peller is tied into the belay rope and belayed on a
in case the prusik grabs and you need to get your- direct belay with a Munter hitch off the anchor.
self out of a jam. If the rappeller encounters a problem (like long
hair or clothing stuck in the rappel device or a knot
Teaching Rappelling in the rappel rope), they can’t continue. To fix the
problem, you would do the following:
Site Selection 1. Tie off the Munter on the belay line with a
Site selection is important to teach rappelling tech- mule knot and overhand backup.
nique to a novice. Select a site that has a comfort- 2. Release the mule knot on the rappel line and
able, flat area on top without a drastic transition give the rappeller some slack.
from the horizontal to the vertical. The ideal site 3. Have the rappeller fix the problem (e.g., take
should have a high master point for the rappel and the hair out of the device).
belay anchor, a flat “desktop” area that extends at
4. Re-tie the mule knot with overhand backup.
least 10 feet back from the edge of the cliff, and a
rounded, gradual edge for a comfortable transition 5. Release the mule knot on the belay line and
to a wall that is angled slightly less than vertical. The continue belaying the rappel.
wall should be free of loose rock and uniformly flat, (continued on page 118)
not riddled with cracks, and without corners or
overhangs. The base should have a nice flat landing
area without boulders, bushes, or trees.
A student practices use of the autoblock on an

instructor-belayed rappel, Joshua Tree National
Park, California.
114 RAPPELLING

Detail of belayed rappel setup, rigged for contingencies. The rappeller is rappelling on the rope
in the foreground, tied to the master point with a Munter/mule combination, which is releasable
under tension. The belayer is belaying with the direct belay technique using a Munter hitch from
an extended master point, created by basketing a double-length (48-inch) nylon runner through the
anchor’s two-loop master point, then tying it with an overhand knot for redundancy. The Munter/
mule/overhand combo is one ugly knot, but it’s easily releasable under tension, and that’s the
beauty of it.
116 RAPPELLING

Tying the Munter hitch on a carabiner for a releasable rappel rope.

(continued from page 114)
Another good system to use is to tie
off the rappel line (either single or double
rope) directly to the anchor with a figure
eight loop and belay with an assisted brak-
ing device like a Grigri. It’s important to
have the belay rope properly flaked so it
will feed out without any tangles. Belay
with a direct belay off the anchor with the
Grigri. As the rappeller descends, feed the
rope out just as you would for belaying a
lead climber, paying out rope (with a bit of
slack) as the rappeller descends. If the rope
comes tight and the device locks off, you
merely release the handle briefly to con-
tinue the belay.
Mule knot with overhand backup.
If a situation occurs, such as something

getting stuck in the rappeller’s device or an
unforeseen knot in the rappel rope, follow
these steps:
1. Tie a backup knot (overhand knot) on
the brake strand of the Grigri.
2. Tie a friction knot (prusik or
klemheist) on the belay rope, and rig a
3:1 Z system.
118 RAPPELLING

3. Untie the overhand backup, and raise the If you’re belaying a low-angle rappel, it’s rela-
climber up a few feet. tively easy to raise someone up a few feet, but if
4. Have the climber resolve the problem. someone has rappelled off an overhang, with their
full body weight hanging in the air, and there is a
5. Take off the friction knot, and lower the
lot of your belay rope in contact with the rock, rais-
climber until she’s back in rappelling mode, then
ing may prove difficult, as friction is your enemy in
continue to belay the rappeller.
any raising system. In situations like this, a releasable
system makes more sense.
Simple 3:1 raising system, also known

as the Z system, using a Grigri and
klemheist knot.

c h a p t e r s i x
Rappelling Methods for Climbing
Multipitch Rappels friction from the rope being pulled over the sling
created enough heat to melt it slightly, and its
If you’re descending a big cliff that is higher than strength will be severely compromised.
the length of a single rappel, you’ll need to do a Whenever you’re not tied in to the climbing
multipitch rappel. Climbers use multipitch rappel- rope, always protect yourself by tethering to the
ling techniques to descend from long routes, nor-
mally with two ropes tied together, allowing them
to descend the length of a standard rope (60 or 70
meters) on each rappel.
The first thing to check on a multipitch rap-
pel is the condition and soundness of the anchor,
as in most cases the rigging will already be in place,
having been left by a previous climbing team. The
most common anchors will be two bolts, a single
tree, or a solid, wedged block of rock. If I know I’ll
be descending a long route via multiple rappels, I’ll
bring extra nylon webbing, rap rings, and a knife,
in case I need to cut away a nest of old slings and
re-rig an anchor. On obscure climbs in Yosemite,
I’ve come across old nylon webbing bleached pure
white by the sun, only to flip it over and find the
other side bright red. Over time UV exposure will
weaken nylon and Dyneema/Spectra webbing,
so carefully inspect any existing slings you might
decide to use. If the sling is stiff and the color faded
from UV exposure, it has probably lost a major-
ity of its strength. Also, if the sling shows a burned
(blackened) or glazed mark where a rope has been
pulled across it, the sling should be retired, as the
Dave Nettle rappels down the Angel’s Wings, Tether comparison. Left to right: Sterling Chain
Sequoia National Park, California. Reactor, Metolius PAS, Black Diamond Daisy
Photo by GreG ePPerson Chain.
121

anchor with a nylon sling or PAS (personal anchor sys-
tem) like the Metolious PAS or Sterling Chain Reactor.
Remember, a traditional daisy chain with bartacked
pockets is not recommended as a tether or for rappel
extensions, because clipping a carabiner into two loops
is a very weak connection (3 kN or 674 lbs.).
Girth-hitch the PAS or sling through both tie-in
points on your harness, then clip in with a locking
carabiner directly to the anchor whenever you’re going
to untie from the rope and rig the rappel. The loop-
to-loop design of the PAS allows you to conveniently
adjust the length. Be cautious when using slings or
a PAS not to climb above the anchor, because if you
slip you’ll generate a high-impact force on both your-
self and the anchor—essentially a fall factor 2 (total
distance of the fall divided by the length from the
I can’t say this often or emphatically enough: A

traditional daisy chain with bartacked pockets is
not recommended for rappel extensions or as a
personal tether, because if you clip a carabiner into
two loops, this is an extremely weak connection (3
kN or 674 lbs.).
Multipitch Rappelling Safety Checks

Once the rappel ropes are set and threaded through the anchor, do an ABCDE safety check.
A Check the ANCHOR to make sure the rope is properly threaded and that the anchor rigging is
redundant.
B Check the BUCKLES on your harness.
C Check the CARABINER on your rappel device to make sure it’s locked and that both bights of
rope are clipped into the carabiner.
D Look DOWN and check the ropes to make sure they’re not tangled and are long enough to reach
the next anchor or the ground.
E Tie stopper knots in the ENDS of the rope. If using a figure eight descender, tie both ends
together with a BHK, and make sure the knot will be bulky enough to jam in the device.
122 RAPPELLING

Rappelling with
butterfly coils
reduces the
chances of the rope
snagging in windy
conditions.
Rappelling Methods for Climbing 123

Here the PAS (a Sterling Chain Reactor) was clipped to the anchor for a tether while the rappel rope
was threaded through the rings. The ATC rappel device was extended and clipped into two loops of
the PAS. An autoblock backup was rigged using a Sterling Hollowblock, clipped to the harness belay
loop with a locking carabiner. Before unclipping the PAS, go through the ABCDE checklist and weight
the system. If everything is AOK, unclip the tether from the anchor and clip the locking carabiner into
the harness belay loop. Since the rappel device has been clipped into two loops of the PAS, this now
makes the PAS itself redundant.
anchor), and since the sling or PAS has virtually no virtually no stretch—like clipping in with a wire
stretch like a rope would have, you can generate cable.
a surprising amount of force. I prefer the Sterling For multipitch rappels, many climbers don’t tie
Chain Reactor, since it is made of nylon, with knots in the ends of their ropes for fear the knots
at least a modicum of stretch, compared to other may jam in a crack, especially in windy conditions
designs made of Spectra or Dyneema, which have where the ropes may blow out to the side.
124 RAPPELLING

To rig a tether/rappel extension with a sling, start with a double-length (48-inch) sling and girth-hitch
it through both tie-in points on the harness. Tie an overhand knot about halfway down the length of
the sling, adjusting the knot so that when you clip it back into the harness belay loop with a locking
carabiner, the length to the overhand knot is equalized. Clipping the locking carabiner of your rappel
device into both of the loops you’ve created in the sling makes the sling itself redundant when it’s
clipped back into the harness belay loop.

Here my double-length (48-inch)
Black Diamond 18mm nylon sling
is rigged as a tether/extension.
I girth-hitched the yellow sling
through both harness tie-in points.
I’d previously tied an overhand
knot in the sling, and I then
clipped the locking carabiner of
my rappel device (a Petzl Reverso)
into both loops in the sling. I
rigged an autoblock backup with a
Sterling Hollowblock and clipped
it to my harness belay loop with a
locking carabiner. After I double-
check everything, I’ll unclip the
locking carabiner from the anchor
and clip it back to my harness
belay loop, adding redundancy to
the sling.
For me it just feels unsafe (and unnerving) to A simple and safer solution is to tie stopper
be high off the ground on a rappel with the free- knots in the two rope ends, then butterfly coil each
hanging end of my rope swaying in the breeze rope separately, drape over a sling, and clip in at
and no stopper knot in the end. My philosophy both hips, holster style, letting the coils out as you
for multipitch rappelling is this: Always tie stopper rappel down. While this may seem time-consuming,
knots in the ends of the rappel ropes as your rou- good rope management practices will save you time
tine practice, and only leave them untied if there is in the long run.
a very, very compelling reason, like the high prob- The first person down a rappel should be pre-
ability of the stopper knot getting jammed in a situ- pared for rope tangles, especially if there are ledges
ation where a jammed knot would be catastrophic. or bushes on the cliff. Rigging an autoblock backup
126 RAPPELLING

On this multipitch scenario, I rigged an equalized master point with a cordelette and clipped into it,
keeping another biner at the ready for my partner to clip into as soon as he arrives at the stance. That
way we’ll both be clipped in as we pull the rope and rig the next rappel.
allows you to let go of your brake hand and have person down should prepare an equalized clip-in
both hands free to deal with rope tangles and clip- point for all members of the team to clip into when
ping in when you reach the next rappel stance. It’s they arrive at the stance.
important that the first person down be especially As the second rappeller comes down, the first
aware of the danger of rappelling off one or both person can prepare by threading the rope to be
ends of the rope if no end knots are in place. When pulled down through the next anchor, tying a new
the first person down arrives at the next anchor, stopper knot in the end. If there is concern about
they should clip in with a sling or PAS, then unclip the rope getting hung up on obstructions (blocks,
from the rappel device and yell “Off rappel” as a bushes, etc.) on the way down after you pull the
signal to let the next person know he or she can rope through the anchor, rig the two ropes so you
proceed down. If it’s a hanging stance, the first pull down on the thinner of the two lines. This

Here I rigged a separate master point with the red cordelette, which we clipped into while we untied
from the rope and rigged the rappel rope. The green sling is my partner’s tether. Once I’ve rappelled
to the next anchor, he’ll de-rig the cordelette and begin his rappel.
way you’ll have most of the thin rope already down ends. Also, use metal rap rings instead of rope over
before you have to let go of the other end, and the webbing, as the friction of a shifting rope creates
thicker rope will be the last to come down. I’ve heat that can melt the webbing.
found that a thicker rope is less likely to get tangled As the second rappeller descends, she should
or hung up than a thinner rope. take care that the rope is not twisting above her, as
Beware if rapping on ropes of drastically differ- this can make the pull-down difficult, if not impos-
ent diameters (say 10.5mm with 7mm) and ropes sible. A simple trick is to take a sling attached to the
with different percentages of stretch (like a dynamic harness and clip into one strand, with a carabiner
paired with a static), as this can cause the ropes to above the rappel device.
shift at the rappel anchor and change the lengths at When the second rappeller arrives at the stance,
the end points—another good reason to knot the she clips in with her tether before unclipping from
128 RAPPELLING

the rappel device, holding on to the ropes. The rappelling on their first rappel, where, like a tandem
stopper knot is untied, and the rope is pulled down skydive, a more experienced person controls the
through the anchor. Once the rope comes down, a situation. The advantage of the tandem rappel is that
new stopper knot is tied in the end and the proce- you’re right there with the other person, to calm
dure is repeated. his fears or, in the case of a rescue, to attend to his
needs.
To rig a tandem rappel, connect two separate
Tandem Rappel
slings to each rappeller’s harness and clip them both
This simple yet effective technique allows two peo- to the same locking carabiner at the rappel device.
ple to rappel at the same time, from the same rappel A tube-style device (like an ATC) will work best.
device, with one person controlling the brake hand. Rig an autoblock backup and attach it to your
Primarily used in rescue scenarios, the tandem rap- belay loop with a locking carabiner so you have
pel method is also a viable technique to use when hands-free control if you need to stop and deal with
taking a novice who is intimidated and fearful of rope tangles, rig an anchor, etc.
Tandem rappel rig.

Simul Rappel first ascent of an obscure arch formation in the
Utah desert, and after I hand drilled a bolt anchor
This technique is used by experienced climbers for the rappel at the top, John plucked the bolts
and military special forces to facilitate a more rapid out with his bare hands. The soft sandstone had a
descent. Using this method, two people can rap- consistency more like mud than rock, so to descend
pel at the same time, each on a separate strand of with no fixed anchor we decided to simul rappel,
rope, using the other person’s body weight as a each off opposite sides of the arch. We each clipped
counterbalance. In climbing situations the rope is our rappel devices into the same rope. Facing each
typically threaded through an equalized anchor, and other, eye to eye, we leaned back, the rope taut
it is important to rig the rope through metal rappel between us. We used each other’s body weight as
rings, quick links, or carabiners and not over web- an anchor, intently mimicking each other’s steps as
bing or cord, as the rope may saw back and forth we paced backwards away from each other, before
and slice through the webbing or cord due to dif- stepping over the edge. Once the rope was firmly
ferences in rope stretch and body weight. Also, the seated on the broad back of the arch, I breathed a
two rappellers should stay close together—within sigh of relief, and after descending to the open win-
sight of each other—watching carefully for the dow of the arch, we enjoyed a free-hanging rappel,
other person to complete the rappel before unclip- gently spinning in the air about 30 feet apart.
ping, as unweighting one side of the rope leaves the
other side unanchored. An additional safety measure
is to take a long sling or cordelette and attach it to Rappelling with a
both rappellers with locking carabiners. Utmost Heavy Pack or Haul Bag
care should also be taken to account for the rope
Rappelling with an extremely heavy pack or haul
ends, which absolutely should have stopper knots.
bag can be dangerous: The weight of the pack can
Simul rappels should only be undertaken by expe-
make a long rappel strenuous and more difficult to
rienced rappellers who are fully aware of all the
control or, worse, flip you upside down. An easy
necessary precautions. Be forewarned that many
solution is to take a sling and hitch it to the pack or
accidents have occurred during simul rappels by
haul bag, then clip it with a locking carabiner to the
inattentive climbers, usually with tragic results.
locking carabiner on your rappel device (carabiner
In July 2012 Ranjit Sidhu (age 31) and Jan
to carabiner). This takes the weight off you and puts
Vuong (age 25), both experienced rock climbers
it on the rope, making it much easier to manage.
from Calgary, British Columbia, were simul rap-
Make sure the sling is hitched to a bomber loop (or
pelling to descend from a multipitch sport climb
better yet, two points) on the pack. More than one
on Heart Mountain in Kananskis Provincial Park,
climbing team has had the misfortune of dropping
BC. There were no stopper knots in the ends of
all their gear when the attachment point to their
the ropes, and when one rappeller inadvertently
pack ripped out.You can put the pack between
rappelled off the end of his rope, the weight of the
your legs and straddle it as you rappel down, or
other rappeller pulled the rope through the anchor,
use a long sling to rig the bag just below your feet,
resulting in a double fatality.
keeping it out of your way.
My first simul rappel was not by choice but
necessity. John Long and I had just completed the
130 RAPPELLING

Rope Management If it’s windy, note the wind direction and where
it will take the rope. Calling out “Rope” as the rope
Tossing the Rope comes sailing down is too late for anyone to move
There is an art to tossing a rope. The key is prepa- out of the way.
ration—taking a little time for rope management Before you begin pulling the rope down, look
will save you time in the long run. Several meth- up and make sure there are no twists in the rope. If
ods work well: One is to flake about half the rope it’s a long rappel, it’s important for the last person
(coming from the anchor) right at your feet, then down to safeguard against any twists and to be care-
butterfly coil the bottom half. Before you toss the ful when they unclip their rappel device to separate
rope, check that no one is directly below, so you the strands. If two ropes are tied together, make sure
don’t toss the rope right on top of them. Make sure everyone in the party is clear on which rope to pull
there are no loose rocks where you’ve flaked your before you head down (e.g., “pull red”). If there
rope, as the rope will launch any loose stones. If is any chance of rope drag hampering the pull, do
there are people directly below, yell “Rope!” and a test pull when the first person rappels down to
give them enough time to move out of the way ensure the rope can be pulled without jamming,
before you toss it down. If there are trees at the cliff and make the necessary adjustments (e.g., a longer
base, be careful not to throw the rope too far out- sling extended over an edge) before the last person
ward and get it hung up in a tree. comes down.
There is a technique to pulling a rappel rope
Retrieving the Rope down, and it takes a little practice to get a feel for it.
One of the best days of climbing in my entire life First, double-check that there are no knots, kinks,
was nearly ruined by a careless retrieval of a rappel or twists in the end you’ll be pulling up toward
rope. My exuberance faded to grave concern in the the anchor. As the end approaches the anchor, slow
time it takes a tear to flow down a cheek. I had just your pull, so you can feel when the weight of the
rappelled to the ground after completing one of the rope coming down toward you starts to pull the
most difficult rock climbs I’d ever done, in Eldo- free end of the rope up toward the anchor without
rado Canyon, Colorado. I pulled my rappel rope your assistance. Wait a second—for the end to pass
to retrieve it, and just as the end of the rope passed through the anchor—then make an instantaneous,
through the rappel anchor rings I said, “Rope,” to sharp, forceful outward tug on the rope, which
alert my wife and partner,Yvonne, that the rope was should fall away from the rock. Beware that a pulled
coming down. She looked up, and the end of the rope can knock rocks off the cliff face, so be alert
rope, now whipping down with the sound of a fast for rockfall. If all goes well, the rope will be lying in
jump rope slicing through the air, hit her squarely a big pile on the ground.
in the eye, temporarily blinding her. Luckily it
Dealing with Stuck Ropes
wasn’t a serious eye injury, but it could have been
much worse. Early one summer morning I came across a curious
I learned an important lesson that day, and scene at the base of a multipitch climb on Tahquitz
after that near-miss I’ve always been more vigilant Rock, in Idyllwild, California. There was a doubled
whenever I pull a rope down. First I make an assess- rope, seemingly abandoned, hanging from the first
ment on where the rope will go; if anyone is in the pitch of a moderate climb I was planning on tak-
path, I explain that I’m going to pull a rope and ask ing my client up. I pulled on one end of the rope. It
them to move out of the way beforehand. didn’t budge. At the base of the climb were telltale

132 RAPPELLING

signs of a nighttime epic: a dozen cigarette butts, an through the rappel anchor, then the solution is rela-
empty pint bottle of gin, and a few discarded bat- tively simple and fairly straightforward: Prusik up
teries. Upon reaching the ledge at the top of the both strands of the rope, fix the problem, and rappel
pitch, I found the rope was simply wedged deeply back down (see prusiking in chapter 9).
in a crack—jammed solid, but easily extracted from If you have only one strand of rope at your
my position. position, and the rope is jammed somewhere above
A stuck rope can be your worst nightmare.Visu- you, then you face a risky proposition and the
alizing and anticipating what might happen when worst-case scenario: Prusiking up a single strand
you pull your rope will prevent most mishaps; be with the other strand jammed on who knows what
especially vigilant for situations where your rope is not advisable. If you’re a climber in a climb-
can get pulled into a crack. If you have two ropes ing situation, you can use what rope you have for
tied together, the joining knot is what you need to a belay line (placing protection if possible) as you
watch out for on the pull-down; using the flat over- prusik up the single strand and hopefully reach the
hand will present a cleaner profile (with the tails jam. If you’re on the ground with little rope length
pointed away from the rock) if you’re concerned available, you may want to abandon the rope and
about the knot getting stuck. return with another rope to properly re-lead up to
Any twists in your rope at the anchor can make the jammed rope.
pulling the rope difficult, and even impossible Again, be aware that many rockfall accidents
if there is friction with the rope running over a occur when a rappel rope is being pulled down
ledge or contacting lots of rough rock. a cliff; sometimes the rope jams behind blocks or
If your rope is stuck at the anchor, and you loose rocks, then the vigorous pulling to free the
have both strands available, and both strands are still rope launches a barrage of rocks on those below.
“Rope!” is the universal signal to use before

tossing down a rappel rope. To prevent
tangles, butterfly coil the rope first. At crowded
climbing and rappelling sites, when people
are down below, a better method is to simply
lower the rope from the ends until the entire
rope is down.

c h a p t e r s e v e n
Single Rope Rappel Devices

for Fixed Lines
Rappelling with an The key safety point to remember when rappelling
Assisted Braking Device with a Grigri is to never take your brake hand off
the rope! If stopping for some reason while rappel-
Petzl Grigri ling with the Grigri, tie a backup knot before you
Used primarily as a belay device for climbing, the take your brake hand off the rope.
Petzl Grigri is “a belay device with assisted brak- Petzl Stop
ing” that can also be used for rappelling a single
fixed rope. Petzl’s current design, the Grigri 2, can The Petzl Stop is a self-braking descender for
be used on ropes from 8.9mm to 11mm in diam- single-rope rappels. I’ve used mine extensively and
eter, although its design is optimized for use with can attest that it is one of the smoothest devices I’ve
9.4mm- to 10.3mm-diameter rope. ever used for long rappels. It does a much better
The Grigri is built with a stainlesss steel fric- job of dissipating heat on long rappels than a Grigri
tion plate and stainless steel cam that locks onto the does; however, it does not lock off as securely as the
rope when the handle is closed. To rappel with the Grigri. When you stop, the rope can creep slowly
Grigri, the left hand opens the handle to unlock through the device. Anything that presses against
the cam, while the right hand holds the rope as the the handle will release the braking mechanism, so
brake hand. I prefer to use a glove for my brake if you take your brake hand off the rope, back up
hand when rappelling with a Grigri. To rappel the Stop by taking a bight of rope through the cara-
smoothly with a Grigri requires practice, as you can biner and looping it over the top of the device.
regulate the braking effect by varying the release of Petzl describes the Stop as “One of the most
the position of the handle and how tightly you grip popular devices for cave descents worldwide. It
the brake strand. The Grigri is far from foolproof, offers exceptional control and versatility, while the
and many lowering accidents have occurred with self-braking function facilitates on-rope maneu-
the device when inexperienced belayers released vers.” The Stop is also very popular with profes-
the handle and took their brake hand off the rope. sional riggers and on-cliff photographers and
camera operators, as it allows smooth descents and
hands-free operation once it’s locked off. Another
advantage of the Stop is the ingenious design that
allows the device to be installed onto and removed
from the rope without disconnecting the device
Beginning the 1,200 foot free-hanging rappel from the carabiner attaching it to the harness. The
into the Golondrinas Cave, Mexico. Stop is about twice as heavy as the Grigri (326
Photo by Kevin Powell grams compared to 170 grams).
135

Rappelling with a Grigri. The Petzl Stop.
Rappel Rack
Really just a high-tech version of a carabiner brake
system, the rappel rack is favored by cavers for mak-
ing long drops on free-hanging ropes into deep pits
and sumps. Because it has few moving parts (unlike
the Petzl Stop or Petzl Grigri), it is less likely to be
rendered inoperable due to the wet, muddy, or dirty
ropes often encountered in a caving environment.
The rappel rack does not impart twists to the
rope, and the device dissipates heat by using mul-
tiple brake bars. The rack’s big advantage is that
more friction can be added as needed, based on
the weight of the rope below the device and the
terrain. One way to do this is to simply add and
The Trango Cinch is another popular assisted engage more brake bars into the system. Another
braking device that can also be used for way is by adjusting the brake bars and pushing them
rappelling. closer together. For a big free-hanging rappel, the
136 RAPPELLING

weight of the rope itself adds friction to the system
at the beginning of the rappel, which can be huge
for a big drop of over several hundred feet. As the
caver approaches the bottom of the rappel, there is
relatively little weight from the rope, and more fric-
tion can be easily added mid-rappel by engaging
additional brake bars.
Another big advantage of using a rappel rack
in a dirty/muddy environment like caving is that
the system has no moving mechanical parts that
can become inoperable when caked with dirt or
clogged with mud. Some cavers use a file to carve a
small groove in the top brake bar to keep the rope
aligned and centered, and manufacturers also make
brake bars with grooves in them. When rigged cor-
rectly the rope should not rub against the top of the
frame, as this causes wear to the frame. Brake bars
are available in both aluminum and stainless steel.
Stainless steel is much more expensive but far more
durable in the long run.
It is important to note that when using a rap-
pel rack, the fireman’s belay backup will not prove
effective, especially if there is a good amount of
rope between the belayer and the rappeller. The rappel rack.
Caving
T he National Speleological Society (NSS), with over 10,000 members, is the largest organiza-
tion in the United States that “encourages responsible management of caves and their unique
resources; and promotes responsible caving.” The NSS website, www.caves.org, is a good resource
for information on clubs, training, safety, techniques, and conservation.
The longest vertical drop of any cave in the world is deep within the Lukina Jama cave, in Croatia,
requiring a rappel of 516 meters (1,692 feet).
The deepest cave entrance pits are located in Mexico, the longest being the El Sotano del El
Barro cave, requiring a rappel of 410 meters (1,345 feet), with a close second being the famous
Golondrinas pit at 376 meters (1,233 feet), which is also popular with base jumpers because the pit
widens as it deepens, from 160 feet in diameter at the top to 445 feet across the narrowest dimension
of the great room at the base.
Single Rope Rappel Devices for Fixed Lines 137

A “tensionless anchor” rigged by simply wrapping the rope around the tree trunk several times
and tying a figure eight loop that is clipped back into the load strand with a locking carabiner. This
rigging method is favored by cavers, since the rappel line is fixed and will be used for ascending
when disembarking from the pit. Barring any sharp edges that could cut the rope, and discounting
any tree under 4 inches in diameter, this is probably the strongest way to rig a tree anchor, since
the knot at the end is not under tension.
Rope Protectors overhanging wall, then retreated to gather them-

selves for another attempt, leaving two ropes tied
In the summer of 1978, Chris Robbins, a promis- together as a fixed line. When they returned, Chris
ing young climber from Southern California, was went first and began the arduous, 400-foot free-
attempting an early repeat ascent of El Capitan’s hanging jumar back up to their high point. Unbe-
Tangerine Trip route in Yosemite. Chris and his knownst to Chris, the rope was slowly sawing back
partner had climbed partway up the immense, and forth over the edge of an overhang, and with
138 RAPPELLING

magnified, since a single point on the rope is saw-
ing back and forth. In most situations the sheath
of the rope will sustain some damage, but the rope
won’t cut completely. Static and low-stretch ropes
are far more abrasion resistant than dynamic ones,
but any rope can cut over a sharp rock edge when
under strain. For fixed line work, the best solution
is to use a commercially made edge protector. These
are made from a very tough ballistic cloth material
with a Velcro closure. They can be attached to the
rope with a short piece of cord tied with a friction
hitch to position the protector as needed. They are
indispensable when working with fixed lines. If you
have to deal with a sharp edge and don’t have an
edge protector with you, an improvised technique
is to use a sling over the edge, then knot the rope
to carabiners on each end of the sling, with a bit of
slack in between, so the sling takes all the abrasion
and not the rope.
Passing a Knot
When rappelling fixed lines where two or more
ropes are tied together between anchor points, as
is often the case in big wall climbing, caving, and
mountaineering, you’ll need the skill to pass a knot
safely during the rappel. The process isn’t overly
complicated, but you’ll want to be prepared with
the right equipment and use a backup knot for
safety during the process.
In 1988 a young Yugoslavian climber by the
A rope protector is attached with a klemheist name of Dragan Rogic died from a fall as a result
knot. of a failed attempt to pass a knot while descending
fixed lines on the Aquarian Wall route on El Capi-
tan. In the investigation after the accident, Dragan’s
each bounce and shift of his weight on the rope it two climbing partners, Cujc and Meic, character-
cut deeper. Just before Chris reached the anchor, his ized him as a stubborn climber whose ego fre-
rope was severed, and he plummeted to his death. quently got in the way—someone who would not
Nylon ropes, particularly dynamic ropes, are listen to their advice, relying instead on his brute
rather easily cut under the tension of body weight strength to get him out of tough spots. Dragan rap-
with the rope over a sharp rock edge. When pelled on a figure eight descender to just above
using fixed lines tied to an anchor, the problem is the knot, then attached a jumar ascender to the

rope above him. Investigators later pointed out that the rope about 5 feet below the knot, then clip
the figure eight descender he was using was actu- it into your harness belay loop with a locking
ally large enough for the knot to pass through the carabiner. This is your backup knot.
device without him unclipping it. Dragan muscled 2. Rig a friction knot (e.g., prusik or klemheist) on
himself up by pulling up on the climbing rope to a prusik cord just above your rappel device and
take his weight off the jumar, then unclipped his clip a pear-shaped locking carabiner to the cord.
jumar ascender from the rope. In the process his
3. Clip a nylon cordelette to your harness belay
figure eight descender also unclipped from his har-
loop with a locking carabiner, then Munter/
ness, which the investigation revealed was attached
mule the cordelette to the pear-shaped locking
to the harness with a non-locking carabiner. Now
carabiner clipped to the prusik cord. When
Dragan was hanging from the rope by both hands,
you clip the cordelette to your harness, make
his strength ebbing, unable to clip back into the
sure the double fisherman’s knot on your
rope. His last words just before he lost his grip were
cordelette is on the other end of it, giving you
“Now I will die,” then he took a long and final fall.
the maximum length of cordelette to work with
Yosemite park ranger Kim Aufhauser com-
without the double fisherman’s knot coming
mented that Rogic was “an experienced free
into play.
climber but lacked experience on long routes, use
of ascenders, and passing knots.” Aufhauser added 4. Rappel down a few inches on your original
that “passing a knot while on rappel is not a diffi- rappel device until all your weight is on the
cult or uncommon practice, and he had all the gear Munter/mule.
needed to perform this maneuver safely.” 5. Pull some slack through your rappel device,
then take the device off the rope.
Passing a Knot with a Cordelette
6. Clip your rappel device into the rope just below
Additional equipment required: the knot tying the two ropes together, and back
• Cordelette: A standard 18- to 20-foot (unknotted it up with an autoblock.
length) 7mm-diameter nylon cord tied into a 7. Release the mule knot and lower yourself down
loop with a double fisherman’s knot. on the Munter hitch until all your weight is
• Prusik cord (5mm or 6mm soft nylon cord): on your rappel device (backed up with the
I buy a cut length of 4 feet, then tie it with a autoblock).
double fisherman’s knot. 8. Reach up and untie the prusik so you can take
• Several locking carabiners, including one large, it with you.
pear-shaped locking carabiner for tying the 9. Double-check your system, unclip/untie the
Munter/mule on. backup knot, then continue the rappel.
If you’re using a standard rappelling device (fig-
ure eight descender, tube or plate device, carabiner Passing a Knot with a
brake, etc.), rig an autoblock backup in advance. If Self-locking Rappel Device,
you’re using a Grigri or Cinch or an auto-locking Mechanical Ascenders, and Etriers
device, you don’t need the autoblock backup. Rap- Rappel down to just a few feet above the knot
pel down to just a few feet above the knot where where the ropes are tied together. If you don’t have
the ropes are tied together. mechancial ascenders, you can substitute a prusik
1. Pull up some rope and tie a figure eight loop on instead.
140 RAPPELLING

1. Pull up some rope and tie a figure eight loop high-rise buildings, bridges, dams, towers, rigs, and
on the rope about 5 feet below the knot joining iconic structures (like the Washington Monument
the two ropes, then clip it into your harness or Mount Rushmore).
belay loop with a locking carabiner. This is your Vertical rope access involves rappelling and
backup knot. rope ascending techniques. To comply with indus-
2. Clamp both ascenders on the rope above your try standards (and be OSHA compliant), the basic
rappel device. Each ascender should be attached vertical rope access system requires a full body har-
to your harness with a sling, and if it is steep ness for the worker and a two-rope system, with
terrain, each ascender should have an etrier each rope independently anchored. One rope is the
(pronounced a-tree-a) rigged on it. working rope, which is the line the worker rappels
and ascends on. The other rope is the safety rope,
3. Release the tension on the rappel device until
which is not under tension like the rappel rope.
all your weight is on the ascenders, then take
This is an important safeguard, since a rope under
your rappel device off the rope.
tension is more easily cut, and if both ropes are
4. Clip the rope to your rappel device just below under tension by the weight of the worker, both
the knot joining the two ropes. ropes can be more easily cut over a sharp edge or
5. Down jumar, alternating your weight back and by a falling object. The worker attaches a shock-
forth on the ascenders (with your feet in the absorbing lanyard to her harness and clips into the
etriers if needed), until all your weight is on the safety line with a fall-protection device.
rappel device.Your weight must be completely
off the ascenders for you to release the cam
(without taking it off the rope) and slide it
down the rope.
6. Detach the mechanical ascenders, double-check
your system, unclip/untie the backup knot, then
continue rappelling.
Vertical Rope Access Techniques

Vertical rope access is defined as work at height, an
exposed location, or a confined space, where the
worker will need to be suspended from a rope to
achieve a safe work position. These situations occur
when the work station cannot be accessed by use of
a ladder, scaffold, lift, crane, etc., or where it might
be more expedient to use a rope for safety.
Vertical rope access methods first gained wide-
spread use for inspections of oil and gas platforms
in the North Sea. Today vertical rope access tech-
niques are used extensively in construction, wind
energy, and oil and gas industries for inspection,
repair, maintenance, and work on infrastructure like The Petzl Rig.

Detail of a typical vertical rope access rappel. The worker is rappelling using a Petzl Rig attached to
the D ring on his harness waist belt. The black rope is his safety line, to which he’s connected using a
Petzl ASAPsorber attached to his harness’s upper D ring with a shock-absorbing lanyard.
The Petzl Company, in particular, has led the been largely replaced by a new and innovative Petzl
way in developing innovative equipment for use in product called the ASAPsorber, a fall protection
the vertical rope access environment, including self- device consisting of a toothed wheel that travels up
braking descenders used for rappelling. One exam- and down the safety line with no need for manipu-
ple is the Petzl Rig, essentially an industrial strength lation by the worker. The big disadvantage of the
Grigri that has become the device of choice for Shunt was that to descend, the device had to be
most professionals. Petzl also makes a similar device, towed down with a piece of cord in the hand of the
called the ID, which includes an “anti-panic func- rappeller, who was keeping the device in the “open”
tion,” meaning that if the handle is pulled all the position to freely slide down the rope; letting go of
way open the device locks off, just as it does when the cord caused the device to engage and lock on
the handle is released and closed. the rope, stopping a fall. However, it was recently
The Petzl Shunt, long used as the standard discovered that in a fall, human reflex is too slow to
device for clipping into the safety line, has now react and let go of the cord, leading to accidents.
142 RAPPELLING

Vertical rope access workers are currently working on seismic retrofitting projects of aging Southern
California dams.
Vertical Rope Access Trade Organizations
S PRAT (Society of Professional Rope Access Technicians) is a US-based trade organization offer-
ing training, certifications, industry guidelines, and networking. SPRAT has been instrumental in
raising awareness and setting safety standards for rope access work in North America. Their publi-
cations, Rope Access Work and Certification Requirements for Rope Access Work, set groundbreaking
standards for the rope access industry. For more information on SPRAT, visit their website at www
.sprat.org.
IRATA (International Rope Access Trade Association) is a global organization, based in the UK,
offering training, certifications, career and job information, and safety standards for the rope access
industry. Their website is www.irata.org.

Using the ASAPsorber does not require constant of force is generated in a fall. When using this system,
tending by the worker, as the device freely descends workers must keep in mind the distance required for
and ascends with the worker, requiring no additional the device to engage and the lanyard to deploy, and
manipulation once clipped onto the rope. The only be careful to allow for enough clearance.
downside of the ASAPsorber is that if it does get While working, the rappel device is locked off,
below the worker, and the working line fails, the allowing a hands-free work position. To ascend the
slack in the system will create a higher impact force. rope, the Petzl Rig is used in conjunction with a
For this reason Petzl specifies that the ASAPsorber mechanical ascender. The mechanical ascender is
be used only in conjunction with a shock-absorbing clamped onto the rope above the assisted brak-
lanyard, which deploys if more than 2.5 kN (562 lbs.) ing device (ABD), attached to the worker with a
Worker rappelling with a Petzl Rig, holding a

piece of cord attached to a Petzl Shunt, to keep
it open as he tows it down on his rappel. This
technique has largely been superseded by
the innovation of the Petzl ASAPsorber, which
requires no manipulation—it simply follows you
up or down the rope as you work. The Shunt is
Here the worker rappels into his work station still used for work positioning and can be used
using the red rope; the black line is his safety as a rappel backup rigged below an extended
rope. rappel device.
144 RAPPELLING

lanyard. The worker pulls on this (and can use a the entire time. One trick I teach to military special
foot sling for steep terrain if needed) simultaneously forces is to clip the rope from the brake side of the
pulling up slack through the ABD. It’s a simple sys- Rig up to a small pulley at the mechanical ascender,
tem, but very safe and effective, as the ABD remains so now you can pull down on the rope as you stand
on the rope both for descent and ascent, and the up, each time with a 2:1 pulley hoist, using brain
backup ASAPsorber is in place on the safety line over brawn.
Here the worker has clamped a mechanical ascender to the yellow rope, attached to his harness with
a lanyard made of nylon rope. The Rig descender stays on so that he can use it to take up the slack
as he ascends the rope; it locks off when he hangs on it. If the slope were steeper, he could attach one
etrier to the top ascender and use the foot sling to stand in, pulling up rope through the Rig descender
as he simultaneously stands up.

c h a p t e r e i g h t
Canyoneering Techniques
Canyoneering is the sport of traveling through can- were designed to allow the rappeller to add or sub-
yons. In many places in the southwestern United tract friction at the device by the way the rope is
States, canyoneering has evolved to a highly techni- clipped to it and by taking additional wraps around
cal adventure involving rappelling, climbing, and the device with the rope during a rappel (see pho-
even swimming through arduous, and often nar- tos on pages 148 and 149). These are complicated
row, slot canyons. Many sophisticated rappelling devices. When you purchase one, carefully study
techniques have been developed specifically for the manufacturer’s instructions for proper use.
canyoneering, including advanced rope retrieval
techniques. In many situations weight is a critical
Canyoneering Rope Retrieval
factor, so rappelling on a single rope with a light
retrieval rope is often the standard method for long Techniques
rappels.
Carabiner and Knot Blocks
Blocking a rappel rope is a technique used to anchor
Canyoneering Rappel Devices a single strand of rope to an anchor while still allow-
Oftentimes the initial drop into a canyon consists ing for rope retrieval. The rappel anchor must be
of a lengthy vertical rappel. At the beginning of rigged with rappel rings, chains, or quick links to
the rappel, the entire weight of the rope below the facilitate rigging a block. The block is either a cara-
rappel device creates a huge amount of friction at biner or a knot that jams into one side of the rappel
the rappel device. As the rappeller descends, the anchor, allowing a single-strand rappel on the other
weight of the rope hanging below lessens, and as side. To retrieve the rope, the strand on the blocked
the rappeller approaches the base, more friction is side is pulled down. Blocks can be rigged with a
required for proper braking. More than one nov- single rope or two ropes tied together. With a single
ice canyoneer has been caught off guard by this rope, simply tie a figure eight loop on one side of
phenomenon. To solve this dilemma, sophisticated the anchor and clip it back to the other strand (the
devices, like the Petzl Pirana and the Sterling ATS, rappel strand) with a locking carabiner. For rigging a
block with two ropes, the Reepschnur method (see
below) is the most common technique.
Canyoneers choose to block their rappel rope
for numerous reasons. When descending into a
wet canyon with a stream, the rappel can be mea-
sured and tossed down, then blocked at the anchor.
Rappelling in Purcaraccia Canyon, Corsica. The remaining rope can be placed into a dry bag,
Pho to liCensed by shuttersto CK.Com which is carried down by the last rappeller. The
147

The Petzl Pirana is a versatile device favored by canyoneering enthusiasts
because it allows you to easily vary the amount of friction at the device.
148 RAPPELLING

The Sterling ATS is another sophisticated rappelling device designed for canyoneering, offering
various rigging profiles.
most popular canyoneering rappel device, the Petzl that when you retrieve your rope, this carabiner will
Pirana, works well on a single line, and additional get banged up on the way down.
friction can be added as the rappeller nears the In rock climbing situations, blocking the rap-
bottom. Obviously, the carabiner or knot used as a pel rope can allow the rappeller to descend using
block must be larger than the aperture of the rappel an assisted braking device (e.g., the Petzl Grigri
rings, chain links, or quick links. The key to safely or Trango Cinch). In situations where weight is a
using a block, however, is to always rig a backup to critical factor, a standard diameter rope (10mm or
the block, simply by tying a figure eight loop and thicker) can be used in conjunction with a light
clipping it into the rappel strand with a locking line (7mm), with the rappel made on the single,
carabiner. One of the drawbacks of using a block is thicker line.
Canyoneering Techniques 149

The Reepschnur
This technique is the most common rigging
method to block a rappel rope when two ropes are
tied together. The larger rope is threaded through
the anchor and tied to the thinner line with a flat
overhand—or a bulkier knot if needed. Remember,
the knot must be bulky enough to jam into the
rappel rings, chain links, or quick links. Below the
jamming knot, a figure eight loop is tied on the
thinner line and clipped to the rappel strand with
a locking carabiner. This is a critical backup that is
the key to safely rappelling with the Reepschnur
method.
A tragic accident occurred in Yosemite Valley
in May 2011 when Brian Ellis (age 31) and Japhy
Dhungana (age 25) were rappelling down after
completing a multipitch route. They were using two
ropes: a 10.2mm-diameter dynamic lead line and a
6mm tag or haul line. At a two-bolt anchor rigged
with nylon webbing and rappel rings, they rigged
a Reepschnur system. They threaded the 10.2mm
rope through the two rappel rings, joined the 6mm
cord to the 10.2mm rope with a flat overhand (and
backed it up with a second overhand) to form a
block, then Ellis rappelled on the 10.2mm rope
with a Trango Cinch.
Perhaps distracted by wanting to photograph
other climbers who were climbing up the route
they were descending, both Ellis and his partner
failed to tie the backup knot, which proved to
be a fatal mistake when the jamming knot pulled
through the rings. Dhungana tried to grab the 6mm
cord to stop Ellis’s plunge, but the thin rope burned
through his hands. Somehow the cord tangled and
jammed at the rings, but the impact force broke the
cord, and Ellis fell 400 feet to his death.
Canyoneering carabiner block technique Dhungana later commented: “During every
using a clove hitch. The rappel strand in this single rappel that Brian and I had done together with
configuration is the strand on the right. Note this system, we have tied the backup knot. The prin-
how the rope runs inside the locking carabiner cipal overhand knot had never passed through the
to close the system. rings before. However, the one time we forgot to tie
the backup, sadly, was when it was most critical.”
150 RAPPELLING

Again, the key to safe rigging of the Reep- potential danger. Casualness is not taking things
schnur is to always tie a backup figure eight loop seriously enough—complacency reinforced by
below the jamming knot and clip it to the rappel repeatedly getting away with practicing poor safety
strand with a locking carabiner. habits when nothing goes wrong. Distraction is
John Dill, head of YOSAR (Yosemite Search when something takes your mind off the important
and Rescue) cites three states of mind that regu- task at hand, and your brain simply moves on to the
larly contribute to accidents: ignorance, casualness, next task without completely checking what you’ve
and distraction. Ignorance is being unaware of a just done.
Knot block. This technique allows you to rappel The Reepschnur method. The blue rope is the
on a single line, in this case the right strand, and rappel line and the green line is a tag line for
retrieve your rope by pulling on the left strand. retrieval. Always tie a safety backup—shown
here with a figure eight loop clipped into the
rappel strand with a locking carabiner—so if by
chance the overhand knot pulled through the
rings, your rappel line would still be attached.

Canyoneering
F or more information on canyoneering techniques, I highly recommend reading Canyoneering,

by David Black, a FalconGuide published by Globe Pequot Press and part of the How to Climb
series.
The American Canyoneering Academy is a national organization offering training, rendezvous,
workshops, outings, and resources. See more at www.canyoneering.net.
Utah offers some of the greatest canyoneering adventures in the United States. For details on
some of these classic excursions, visit www.canyoneeringusa.com.
Rigging for Canyoneering release the tension on the Munter/mule/overhand

Contingencies on the rappel strand, transferring the load to the
belay Munter. With enough slack on the rappel
With a large group of rappellers descending into a line, the rappeller can hopefully fix the problem.
canyon, planning for potential problems can avert Now secure the rappel line’s Munter with a mule/
a disaster. If there is plenty of rope (at least double overhand backup, communicate with the rappel-
the distance of the rappel), attach the middle of the ler to make sure he has his brake hand in position,
rope to the anchor with a Munter/mule/overhand then release the mule/overhand backup to the belay
(which is releasable under tension) and toss down Munter. Continue belaying as the rappeller contin-
the rappel rope. The rappeller ties in to the other ues the descent.
end of the rope and is belayed with a Munter hitch Another option is to simply lower the rappel-
directly off the anchor. If anything gets jammed ler to the ground by releasing the mule/overhand
in the rappel device (clothing, hair, etc.), or if the backup on the rappel line.
rappeller encounters a knot or problem with the Rigging the rappel line with a Munter/mule/
rope, there are two options. One is also discussed in overhand also allows the rope length to be changed
chapter 5 (see Rigging for Contingencies): Secure periodically, to avoid abrasion at any single point on
the belay Munter with a mule/overhand knot, then the rope if there are edge abrasion issues.
152 RAPPELLING

Belayed rappel scenario. The rappel rope is tied to the anchor with a releasable system (Munter/
mule/overhand combo), and the belayer is using a Munter to belay with, directly off the anchor.

c h a p t e r n i n e
Rope Ascending Techniques
Improvised Rope Ascending: Prusiking is a verb for the act of ascending a

Prusiking rope using friction hitches. It’s a generic term, since
the prusik knot was the first friction hitch used for
One of my favorite movie scenes is in the James such purposes, although it’s still called prusiking if
Bond classic For Your Eyes Only, where Bond makes other friction hitches are used.
a preposterous roped solo climb up a towering rock When rappelling, there are a few situations
formation in Meteora, Greece. Before he can reach where improvised rope ascending skills will prove
the enemy stronghold, he (of course) takes a mon- indispensable. One situation is when something
strous fall, which was performed by stuntman and gets stuck and jammed in your rappel device, like
climber Rick Sylvester. Rick was a ballsy climber, an article of clothing or long hair.You’ll be unable
and the first person to ski off El Capitan (and pop to proceed, and to fix the problem you’ll need to
a parachute) before it was illegal. Rick performed take the weight off your rappel device. If the rappel
the same stunt in the opening of the Bond flick is low angle, it may be as simple as standing on the
The Spy Who Loved Me, skiing off Mount Asgard in rock to unweight your rappel device and yanking it
Baffin Island and popping a Union Jack parachute out. If it’s a steep or overhanging rappel, then you’ll
for the 4,000-foot ride down. But I digress. In For need to perform a basic self-rescue. First make sure
Your Eyes Only, Rick performed a 165-foot fall, tied you’ve backed up your brake hand, because you’ll
into two 11mm-diameter ropes that were rubber- need both hands free to perform this maneuver. If
banded together. In the movie, after Bond takes the you have previously rigged an autoblock backup,
catastrophic plunge, he dangles like a dazed spider simply slide the autoblock up until it engages. If
for a moment, collects himself, then unties his shoe- you don’t have an autobock backup rigged, a simple
laces to use for prusiking up the rope. At the top and fast backup is the leg wrap (see photo on page
he encounters a bad guy trying to bang out his sole 87). Tie a friction hitch (e.g., prusik or klemheist)
anchor piton with a gun, so Bond hurls a piton at on the rope about a foot above your device, then
him, knife-thrower style, which pierces the guy’s take a double-length sling (48 inches) or two
chest and sends him over the brink. 24-inch slings girth-hitched together and clip it
to the friction hitch. Stand in the sling so you can
unweight your device. Don’t grab the friction hitch
itself, as this can cause it to slide down the rope.
Another situation, sometimes encountered in
rock climbing and alpine climbing, is when you’ve
Shatzi Sovich jummars at the Lizard’s Mouth,
Santa Barbara, California.
completed a double-rope rappel and proceed to
pull on one strand to retrieve your rope—and the
rope is hopelessly jammed. This can happen when
155

Basic prusiking technique. With the top friction hitch slid as high up the rope as possible, hang in
your harness and put your foot in the sling attached to the lower friction hitch. Left, stand up in the
foot sling and slide the top friction hitch as high up the rope as you can, then, right, hang in your
harness and repeat the process.
156 RAPPELLING

the rope is twisted a few times below the anchor, or
if the rope is wedged tight in a crack.You’ll need to
prusik back up the ropes to fix the problem.
Another scenario is on a multipitch rappel where
either you’ve lost your way and can’t find the next
anchor, or your rope is too short to reach the next
ledge or anchor.You’ll need to go back up the rope
and figure out another option.
In both of these scenarios you’re dealing with a
doubled rope (two stands), and the best method is
simply to tie friction hitches around both strands of
rope. A prusik or klemheist knot is a good choice
for rope ascending. If you don’t have any prusik
cord at your disposal (a 5mm or 6mm soft nylon
cord works best) and only have slings, the klemheist
knot is preferable. A nylon sling is a better choice
than a Dyneema or Spectra sling for a friction hitch,
since nylon grips better and has a higher melting
point than Dyneema or Spectra.
There are myriad prusiking methods, but I’ll
describe only one here, because I believe it is the
fastest, simplest rig, requiring the least amount of
gear. All you’ll need are two prusik cords, three
regular length (24-inch) slings, and three locking
carabiners.
The basic setup for improvised rope ascension
is to tie two separate friction hitches, the top one
attached directly to your harness with a 24-inch
sling and the other used with a foot sling (and also
attached to your harness with a sling). The proce-
dure is a simple, inchworm-like technique. Stand on
the bottom sling and slide the top friction hitch as
high as you can reach, then immediately sit back in
your harness, with your weight on the top friction Prusik rig with cord. The top cord was rigged by
hitch. Now that you are more-or-less comfortably taking a 5-foot length of 6mm nylon cord and
hanging in your harness, move the bottom friction tying a loop in both ends, with the top loop large
hitch up until your leg in the foot sling is bent at a enough to tie a prusik knot. The bottom length of
90 degree angle at the knee. Stand up in the sling, cord is 11 feet long, tied with loops on both ends
using your hands for balance by grabbing the rope and a larger loop in the middle to accommodate
with both hands below the top friction hitch, and the prusik knot.
slide the top friction hitch up again as high as you
can reach. Remember, don’t grab the body of the
Rope Ascending Techniques 157

friction hitch itself, as this can loosen the hitch and
cause it to slide down the rope.
Although it may sound complicated, and can
be a little awkward, the technique can be mas-
tered quickly with a bit of practice. To back up
the friction hitches, simply take both rope strands
together and tie a figure eight loop below the fric-
tion hitches, then clip the loop into your harness
belay loop with a locking carabiner. This is known
as “clipping in short” and should be done at regular
intervals (every 15 feet or so) when you’re ascend-
ing a long way.
Ascending a Single Fixed Rope

To ascend a single strand of fixed line, the same
methods just described apply, although you may
need an extra wrap with your friction hitch to add
a little more friction on a single rope. For example,
if ascending a doubled 10mm-diameter rope with
a prusik, two wraps of your prusik cord (i.e., four
strands) will probably suffice, where on a single cord
three wraps (six strands) is usually optimal.
If you have an ABD (like a Petzl Grigri) or an
autoblocking belay/rappel device (like the Petzl
Reverso or Black Diamond ATC Guide), there is a
very simple system you can use to ascend a single-
strand fixed rope. Clip the Grigri or ABD device
into your harness belay loop; if you’re using an
autoblocking belay device, clip it into your harness Ascending a single fixed line with a friction hitch
belay loop in the autoblocking mode.Tie a friction and a Grigri.
hitch (prusik or klemheist) on the rope above your
device and attach a 48-inch foot sling to the fric-
tion hitch. Slide the friction hitch up until your foot again until your knee is bent at a 90-degree angle,
sling is positioned at the height where your leg is then repeat the process.Tying a slip hitch for your
bent 90 degrees at the knee. Grab the rope above you sling foot helps your foot stay put. As a backup, clip in
with your non-brake hand and stand up in the sling, short every 15 feet or so by tying a figure eight loop
simultaneously pulling the rope through the device and clipping it into your harness belay loop with a
at your waist by pulling straight up on the brake locking carabiner.This is an easy and quick method
strand with your brake hand, then sit back and rest in for a short rope ascent, but if you plan on extensive
your harness on the locked-off device.When you’re fixed line ascending, then mechanical ascenders are
hanging in your harness, slide the friction hitch up the way to go.
158 RAPPELLING

Mini ascenders like the Petzl Tibloc, left, and the Wild Country Ropeman, right, can be used in lieu
of friction hitches for rope ascending.
Jumaring and protection, typically by ascending the fixed

rope the leader has tied off, leaving the leader free
The original mechanical ascender was the Jumar, to haul up the haul bag on a separate rope. Unlike
a Swiss-made invention that revolutionized rope prusiks, jumars can be removed and reattached to a
ascending in the 1960s for the golden age of big rope very quickly, a process required when the rope
wall climbing in Yosemite. Before jumars, climb- is clipped in and under tension at the carabiner
ers laboriously prusiked up fixed lines on big walls. clipped to a point of protection.
With the advent of jumars, not only was it easier Now there are a wide variety of mechanical
and faster to ascend fixed ropes, but cleaning a ascenders on the market, but since the Jumar was
pitch also became more efficient. Cleaning a pitch the original design the name became generic, and
on a big wall is a task for the follower, where they the act of “jumaring” became a generic verb for
remove all the gear the leader has placed for aid ascending a rope with mechanical ascenders.

The Petzl Ascension
ascender.
Scott Cosgrove
jumaring high above
Yosemite Valley, with
El Capitan in the
background. Both
jumars are attached to
his harness with slings,
and he’s chosen to
place both etriers on his
lower ascender.
160 RAPPELLING

Todd Gordon demonstrates basic rigging of mechanical ascenders for vertical and less-than-vertical
terrain. Nylon daisy chains have been threaded through both harness tie-in points and attached to
the ascenders with locking carabiners. The etriers are clipped with non-locking carabiners into the
locking carabiners at the ascenders (biner to biner) for easy detachment of the etriers—allowing
them to be disconnected without unlocking the attachment carabiner. This is handy for when the
terrain becomes low angle and you no longer need the etriers, but still want a safe connection to the
ascenders as you slide them up the rope. The daisy chain length to the top ascender (in this case
his right-hand ascender) can be adjusted by which loop you use on the daisy chain. When using a
daisy chain, never clip the carabiner into two pockets—it’s a weak (3 kN or 674 lbs.) and dangerous
connection. For vertical and less-than-vertical jumaring, the top daisy’s length should be adjusted so
that when you’re sitting in the harness you can reach up and comfortably grab the jumar’s handle.

Setup for overhanging jumaring. Here both etriers are clipped to the lower ascender, and the length of
the daisy chain connection has been shortened.
162 RAPPELLING

The Yosemite Method off the top ascender. With the bottom ascender
The Yosemite method is based on safety and sim- placed just below the top one, bend your leg at a
plicity. Both ascenders are attached to the harness 90-degree angle and place it into a foot loop on your
with slings, and both ascenders have etriers (aka etrier. When you straighten out your leg and stand
aiders) clipped to them. An etrier is a stirrup-style up, simultaneously slide the top ascender up as far as
ladder of foot loops made from nylon webbing. you can, then immediately lean back and sit in your
For the slings you can use daisy chains, a PAS, or harness. Use your leg strength, not your arm strength.
regular slings. I recommend nylon over Dyneema Jumaring takes some practice, but once you get the
or Spectra for any sling connection, since nylon hang of it, you can zip up a fixed line quickly.
has a bit of stretch, whereas Dyneema and Spectra When I teach someone jumaring for the first
have no stretch. The daisy chain or PAS allows you time, I give them only one etrier (for the bottom
to adjust the distance easily by clipping in to differ- ascender) and break it down like this: “Stand on
ent loops. Whatever style of sling you use, attach it the bottom ascender and sit on the top ascender.”
to your harness, not with a carabiner but by girth- Once you get this concept down, you’ll be much
hitching it into both tie-in points on your harness more proficient and use far less arm strength while
(the same two points where you thread the rope to jumaring. The best angle to learn on is a fixed line
tie in). This method eliminates a carabiner connec- on a wall or cliff that is slightly less than vertical.
tion, thus removing the possibility for inadvertent Adjusting the length of the slings connecting the
un-clipping. ascenders to your harness will make the process
Attach each ascender to its sling with a locking more efficient. The rule is this: The lower the angle,
carabiner. I like to attach my etriers with a non- the longer the sling; the steeper the angle, the
locking carabiner clipped to the locking carabiner shorter the sling. Again, the sling connecting the
on my ascenders (biner to biner), so I can quickly top ascender to your harness is the critical length.
remove the etriers without unlocking the carabiner A good technique for free-hanging jumaring is
that attaches the jumars to my harness. to place both etriers on the bottom ascender and
Mechanical ascenders can be bought as a pair, keep the sling to your top ascender very short. Start
one designated “right hand” and the other “left with both knees bent at 90 degrees in the etriers.
hand,” because the release lever is designed for the When you straighten out both legs in unison,
thumb side of the hand for quick and efficient simultaneously and quickly slide the top ascender
removal and reattachment to the rope. I always lead up, immediately hang in your harness, then repeat
with my left-hand ascender on top, even though the process.
I’m right-handed, probably because that’s the way I I consider two mechanical ascenders on the rope
learned, but go with whatever hand you feel most to be safe; one ascender, not safe. So if you take one
comfortable. I use my right leg in the etrier on the ascender off the rope, you should have a backup,
bottom ascender. like clipping in short by tying a loop knot below
The key to efficient jumaring is the length of the the ascenders and clipping it to your harness belay
slings and where you position your feet in the etriers. loop with a locking carabiner, or tethering to an
The top sling should be adjusted so that when you’re anchor with a sling if you’re passing an anchor point.
hanging in your harness off the top ascender, you can Remember, mechanical ascenders are designed for
reach up and comfortably grasp the handle of the body weight only and are not intended to hold the
ascender with your hand. The sling connection from force of a fall. Most mechanical ascenders will shear
the bottom ascender to your harness is not critical, off the sheath of the rope at around 5 kN (1,124 lbs.)
since when you’re hanging, you’ll always be hanging of force.

Rappel from Sandberg
Spire, Needles, South
Dakota.
Pho to by bob gaines

Glossary
ABD (assisted braking device): a device that locks bight: a bend in the rope where the two strands do
off the rope when it is suddenly loaded. The not cross; used for knot tying, threading into a
most commonly used ABD is the Petzl Grigri. belay device, etc.
American Triangle: a rigging method whereby a biner, biners: see carabiner
sling or cord is threaded through two anchor bolt: an artificial anchor placed in a hole drilled for
points and tied in such a manner as to create that purpose
a triangular configuration that unnecessarily
bomber: absolutely fail-safe (as in a very solid
increases the forces on the anchor points. The
anchor or big, big handhold); strong enough
larger the angle at the base of the triangle, the
to withstand the greatest possible force that
greater the force on the two anchor points.
could ever be exerted in a given climbing
AMGA (American Mountain Guides or rappelling situation; sometimes called
Association): a national organization that bombproof
trains and certifies professional climbing guides
bombproof: see bomber
and instructors, promotes safety in guiding, and
accredits guide services brake bar: an aluminum or steel bar used to create
friction for braking on a rappel rack or with a
ATC (Air Traffic Controller): a belay/rappel device
carabiner
made by Black Diamond Equipment
cam: short for spring-loaded camming device; also
backpacker coil: a method of coiling a rope, also
refers to the single lobe or cam or camming
known as the “butterfly coil,” that reduces
device; also a verb used to describe the act of
kinking in the rope during coiling and
counterforce wherein a downward and outward
facilitates carrying the rope like a backpack
force is created against the walls of a crack
bartack: a high-strength stitch pattern used by
camming device: common term for a spring-
climbing equipment manufacturers to sew
loaded camming device (SLCD)
slings and webbing into loops
carabiner: a high-strength aluminum alloy ring
belay: procedure of protecting a climber by the use
equipped with a spring-loaded snap gate;
of a rope
sometimes called a biner
belay device: a piece of equipment into which the
CE: Certified for Europe
rope is threaded/attached to provide friction
for belaying or rappelling cliff: a high, steep, or overhanging face of rock
belayer: the person managing the rope on the end clove hitch: a secure and adjustable hitch used to
opposite the climber; responsible for holding attach a rope to a carabiner
the climber in the event of a fall
165

cold shuts: metal hooks commonly found in pairs Friend: the name of the original spring-loaded
as anchors atop short sport climbs to facilitate camming device (SLCD) designed by Ray
lowering off; can be open, with gates, or Jardine and marketed by the Wild Country
welded shut Company in 1977. The word friend became a
cordelette: a short length of cord, normally 18 to generic term for any SLCD.
25 feet in length, often tied into a loop, used girth-hitch: a hitch used to connect webbing or
to equalize multiple anchor points. For nylon cord around a feature or to another sling by
cord, 7mm is the standard diameter. High- looping around the object then back through
strength (Technora or Dyneema) cord is often the webbing or cord
used in 5mm or 6mm diameter. Grigri: an assisted braking device manufactured by
crack: a fissure in the rock varying from extremely Petzl
thin and narrow to as wide as a chimney jumar: the original mechancical ascender, first
crag: another name for a cliff or rock formation introduced in the 1960s; also a generic term for
dynamic rope: a climbing rope with built-in a mechanical ascender; also used as a verb, e.g.,
stretch to absorb the energy of a fall, typically “jumar up a fixed line”
around 9 percent stretch under body weight jumaring: the act of ascending a fixed rope with
and up to 30 percent in a big fall mechanical ascenders
EN: European Norm magic X: see sliding X
etrier (pronounced a-tree-a): a stirrup-like ladder master point: the equalized point in an anchor
made of nylon webbing, used with mechanical system; the point a climber clips into; also
ascenders called power point
fireman’s belay: a technique used to belay a MBS: minimum breaking strength
rappelling climber by pulling down on the rope Munter hitch: a hitch used for belaying or
below the rappeller, creating tension that stops rappelling that requires no gear other than a
the rappeller from further movement down the carabiner
rope natural anchor: an anchor made from a feature
fixed anchor: any permanent anchor left for all occurring in nature, such as a chockstone, rock
rappellers to utilize, typically bolts or pitons tunnel, horn, tree, boulder, etc.
flaking a rope: uncoiling a rope into a loose pile, N.F.P.A.: The National Fire Protection Association,
with one end on the bottom and the other end which is an organization that develops safety
on the top of the pile; also called “stacking” a standards for the fire department that are
rope widely adopted by departments involved in life
friction hitch: one of several hitches tied around safety and search and rescue
a rope using a piece of smaller cord or a sling, nut: a wedged-shaped piece of metal designed to be
which grips when weight is applied but can be used as an anchor in a crack; also called a chock
loosened and slid up the rope when not under pegs: see pitons
tension; commonly used to ascend a rope and
pins: see pitons
in self-rescue techniques
166 Glossary

pitons: metal spikes of various shapes that are standing end: the end of the rope that is attached
hammered into the rock to provide anchors to something, such as an anchor, as opposed to
in cracks; sometimes called pins or pegs. These the running end or free end
types of anchors were common up to the 1970s static rope: a rope with virtually no stretch
but are rarely used today.
stopper knot: a safety knot tied on the end of a
power point: see master point rope to prevent rappelling off the rope’s end
pre-equalized: tying off an anchor system for an SWL: safe working load; also known as working
anticipated force in only one direction load limit, normally one-fifth of the minimum
prusik: both the knot and any means by which braking strength for quick links
you mechanically ascend a rope tag end: the very end of the rope, or the tail end
quick link: a steel screw-link used for rappel that protrudes from a knot
anchors tail: the length of the rope’s end protruding from a
rappel: to descend by sliding down a rope, typically knot
utilizing a mechanical braking device thread: a sling or cord looped through a tunnel in
rapping: informal term for rappelling the rock structure
RENE: acronym for Redundancy, Equalization, and UIAA: Union Internationale des Associations
No Extension d’Alpinisme
rope direct belay: to belay from an extended vector: a measurement of force and direction in
master point using the climbing rope anchor systems
runner: see sling water knot: a knot used to tie a loop of webbing
running end: the end of the rope you’re working webbing: synthetic fiber woven flat like a strap,
with, as opposed to the standing end used to make slings. Nylon webbing was used
self-equalizing: an anchor system that adjusts to exclusively for slings until the 1990s; now slings
withstand a force in multiple directions are also made from Spectra and Dyneema
webbing.
SLCD (spring-loaded camming device): see
Friend WLL: working load limit; also known as safe
working load, normally one-fifth of the
sliding X: a self-equalizing sling rigged between
minimum breaking strength for quick links
two anchor points; also known as magic X
Z system: a raising system with a 3:1 mechanical
sling: webbing sewn or tied into a loop; also called
advantage
a runner
spring-loaded camming device (SLCD): see
Friend
Glossary 167

Terri Condon rappels at
the Buttermilks, Bishop,
California.
Pho to by bob gaines

Index
A assisted braking devices, 135–36, Powers Power Bolt expansion

ABCDE safety checklist, 144–45, 158 (5-piece Rawl), 42–43, 44,
106, 122 autoblock (third hand), 81. See 45, 47, 50
accidents, analysis/prevention, also belays psi ratings, 43
105–7 Rawl Drive, 40–42
American Safe Climbing B red flags to watch for, 43–45,
Association (ASCA), 53 backpacker (butterfly) coil, 9–11 48–49, 51–52
American Triangle, 60, 61 belays, 108–10, 114–19, 152 replacing, 45–47
anchors bends, 71–73 SMC, 40–42, 43
equalization principles, 56–60 defined, 65 spinners, 43–45
failures, 107 double fisherman’s today’s standards, 42–43
not tethering to, 106–7 (grapevine) knot, 16, 17, two-bolt systems, 40, 45, 47,
pre-equalized systems, 56–58 71, 72 48, 49–50
redundant. See redundancy figure eight, 71 website on, 43
RENE principle, 56 triple fisherman’s knot, 71, 73 See also anchors
self-equalizing systems, 58–60 blocks bowline, 66, 69–70
tensionless, 138 autoblock (third hand), 81. See brake system, carabiner, 93–95
types of. See anchors also belays braking devices, assisted, 135–36,
(artificial); anchors knot and carabiner, 147–50 144–45, 158
(natural); bolts Reepschnur method, 150–51 butterfly (backpacker) coil, 9–11
vectors, 60–61 bollards, rock, 30, 32
anchors (artificial), 40–55 bolts C
pitons, 53–54 cordless drills for placing, 42 cams, nuts and, 54–55
safety, ASCA and, 53 dangerous relics, 40–42, 43 canyoneering techniques,
See also bolts diameter considerations, 147–53
anchors (natural), 27–40 40–42 additional information
nuts and cams, 54–55 examples of good placements, sources, 152
rigging, 35–36 45–46, 47 carabiner and knot blocks,
rock structures, 30–35 failures, 107 147–50
trees, 27–29, 138 gold standard, 42–43 rappel devices for, 147
arm rappel, 88 hand drilling process, 40 Reepschnur method, 150–51
ASAPsorbers, 142–45 Leeper hanger, 42, 43 rigging for contingencies,
ascending techniques. See rope painting to match rock color, 152–53
ascending techniques 44, 47, 51 rope retrieval, 147–51
169

carabiner blocks, 147–50 E K
carabiner rappels, 90–95 EN 1891, 7 kernmantle ropes, 3–5
brake system, 93–95 ending rappels, 87 klemheist knot, 78–80
carabiner wrap, 90–91 equalization principles, 56–60 knives, 14
Munter hitch, 91–92 pre-equalized systems, 56–58 knot blocks, 147–49
carabiner wrap, 90–91 self-equalizing systems, 58–60 knots
carabiners equipment. See specific equipment autoblock (third hand), 81
for braking, 22 etriers, passing knots with, bends, 65, 71–73
D-shaped, 23 140–41 bight defined, 65
features and characteristics, Euro death knot (flat overhand bowline, 66, 69–70
22–24 knot), 75–76 with cordelettes, passing, 140
locking, 23 double fisherman’s
oval, 22 F (grapevine) knot, 16, 17,
rappel rings, quick links and, fast roping, 87 71, 72
36–40 figure eight bend, 71 end types defined, 65
strength ratings, 24 figure eight descenders, 95–98 with etriers, passing, 140–41
use guidelines, 24–25 figure eight follow-through, figure eight bend, 71
caving, 137 66, 67 figure eight follow-through,
CE EN 1891, 7 figure eight loop, 66, 68 66, 67
checklist, safety (ABCDE), fireman’s belay, 108–10 figure eight loop, 66, 68
106, 122 flat overhand knot (Euro death flat overhand knot (Euro
coiling and uncoiling ropes, knot), 75–76 death knot), 75–76
9–12 friction hitches, 77–81 friction hitches, 77–81
cold shuts, 49, 51 autoblock (third hand), 81 hitch defined, 65
contingencies, rigging for, klemheist knot, 78–80 for joining two rappel ropes,
114–19 prusik knot, 77–78 74–76
cord and cordelettes, 20–22, 140 klemheist knot, 78–80
G load strand defined, 65
D Gigi plates, 102, 103 loop knots, 65–70
daisy chain tethers, 106–7, 121, glossary, 165–67 with mechanical ascenders,
122, 161–62 gloves, 14 passing, 140–41
double fisherman’s (grapevine) Munter hitch, 91–92
knot, 16, 17, 71, 72 H passing devices, 139–41
double-rope rappels, 71, 95, 98, half ropes, 4, 6 prusik knot, 77–78
102, 106, 114 harnesses, buying, 1 with self-locking devices,
dulfersitz rappel, 88–90 harnesses, types of, 1, 2 passing, 140–41
dynamic ropes, 4, 5–6, 8 haul bag, rappelling with, 130 standing end defined, 65
Dyneema and Spectra cord, helmets, 13 stopper knot, 82–83
20–22 tag end defined, 65
Dyneema and Spectra slings, J term definitions, 65
18–20 jumaring, 159–63 triple fisherman’s knot,
71, 73
170 Index

water knot, 16–17 R See also canyoneering
for webbing, 16–18 rappel rack, 136–37 techniques; rappelling
rappelling devices
L cardinal rule, 85 rappelling methods (for
lap links, 49, 52 common problems, 87 climbing), 121–33
Leeper hanger bolts, 42, 43 ending rappels, 87 with heavy pack/haul bag,
leg wrap, 87, 155 friction required, 85–87 130
loop strength, 18 fundamentals, 85–87 multipitch rappels, 121–29
posture/placement of feet, rope management, 131–33
M 85, 86 simul rappels, 130
magic X (sliding X), 58–60 safety tips. See safety tandem rappels, 129
mechanical ascenders, 140–41, rappelling devices Rawl Drive bolts, 40–42
144–45, 159–63. See also assisted braking devices, 135– redundancy
jumaring 36, 144–45, 158 examples, 29, 30, 32, 59–60
mountaineer’s coil, 12 canyoneering devices, 147 magic X and, 59–60
multipitch rappels, 121–29 figure eight descenders, 95–98 notes on, 63
Munter hitch, 91–92 for fixed lines (single rope), RENE principle and, 56
135–45 rings and, 36
N passing knots, 139–41 Redundancy, Equalization,
nuts and cams, 54–55 Petzl Grigri, 135, 136 No Extension (RENE)
Petzl Stop, 135, 136 principle, 56
O plate devices, 102–3 Reepschnur method, 150–51
OPO plate, 103 rappel rack, 136–37 RENE principle, 56
overhangs, 87, 119, 138–39 rescue eight, 97 rescue eight, 97
rope protectors, 138–39 retrieving rope, 131, 147–51
P tube devices, 99–101 Reverso (Petzl), 99–101
pack, rappelling with, 130 vertical rope access rings, rappel, 36–40
Petzl Grigri, 135, 136 techniques, 141–45 rock bollards, 30, 32
Petzl Pirana, 147, 148, 149 See also rappelling methods rock horns, 32
Petzl Reverso, 100–101 rappelling methods rock structures, as anchors,
Petzl Stop, 135, 136 arm rappel, 88 30–35
pitons, 53–54 carabiner brake system, 93–95 rope ascending techniques,
plate devices, 102–3 carabiner rappels, 90–95 155–63
pre-equalized systems, 56–58 carabiner wrap, 90–91 improvised ascending
problems, common, 87 for climbing. See rappelling (prusiking), 155–58
protectors, rope, 138–39 methods (for climbing) jumaring, 159–63
prusik knot, 77–78 dulfersitz rappel, 88–90 single fixed rope, 158
prusiking, 155–58 fast roping, 87 Yosemite method, 163
fundamentals of rappelling, rope types
Q 85–87 CE EN 1891, 7
quick links, 36–40 Munter hitch, 91–92 dynamic ropes, 4, 5–6, 8
non-mechanical, 87–90 general use, 7
Index 171

half ropes, 4, 6 ASCA and, 53 spring-loaded camming devices,
kernmantle, 3–5 belays, 108–10, 114–19, 152 54–55
light use, 7 dealing with stuck ropes, static ropes, 6–7, 8
low-stretch, 6, 7 131–33 Sterling ATS, 147, 149
materials, 1–3 mental checklist (ABCDE), Sterling Chain Reactor,
nylon (polyamide), 3, 5, 8, 9 106, 122 122, 124
personal escape, 7 multipitch rappels, 121–29 Sticht plates, 101, 102, 103
polyester, 3, 5, 8, 9 rock fall precaution, 133 stopper knot, 82–83
single ropes, 4, 6 scenarios to avoid, 105–7
static, 6–7, 8 stopper knot, 82–83 T
twin ropes, 4, 6 teaching rappelling, 114–19 tandem rappels, 129
ropes self-equalizing systems, 58–60 teaching rappelling, 114–19
buying, considerations, 8–9 self-locking devices, passing tensile strength, 18
canyoneering retrieval knots with, 140–41 third hand (autoblock), 81
techniques, 147–51 simul rappels, 130 tossing rope, 131
care and use, 9 single ropes, 4, 6 trees, as anchors, 27–29, 138
coiling and uncoiling, 9–12 sliding X (magic X), 58–60 triangle, American, 60, 61
diameter and sheath slings and webbing, 14–20 triple fisherman’s knot, 71, 73
percentage, 8 backing up anchors with tube devices, 99–101
dry or non-dry, 8 slings, 48, 49, 56–63 twin ropes, 4, 6
history of, 1–3 buying and using slings, 20 tying knots. See knots
joining, knots for, 74–76 flat webbing, 14
length, 8–9 knots for webbing, 16–18 V
managing, 131–33 rappel rings, quick links and, vectors, 60–61
NFPA testing/certification, 7 36–40 vertical rope access techniques,
protectors for, 138–39 Spectra and Dyneema slings, 141–45
retrieving, 131, 147–51 18–20 vertical rope access trade
sharp edge resistance, 8 techniques for using. See organizations, 143
static elongation, 8 rappelling methods references
stuck, dealing with, 131–33 tensile vs. loop strength, 18 W
tossing, 131 tubular webbing, 14–16 water knot, 17
untangling/unknotting, 87 types, illustrated, 16 webbing. See slings and webbing
vertical, access techniques, UV degradation, 16, 39
141–45 SMC hangers, 40, 41, 42, 43, 50 Y
Spectra and Dyneema cord, Yosemite method, 163
S 20–22
safety, 105–19 Spectra and Dyneema slings,
accident analysis/prevention, 18–20
105–7 spinners, 43–45
172 Index

About the Author
Bob Gaines began rock climbing and rap-

pelling in the 1970s. Since then he has pio-
neered more than 500 first ascents at Joshua
Tree National Park, Tahquitz and Suicide
Rocks in Southern California, and in Yosem-
ite Valley. Bob began his career as a profes-
sional rock climbing guide in 1983 when he
founded Vertical Adventures Rock Climbing
School, which offers climbing and rappelling
instruction at Joshua Tree. In 2008 Vertical
Adventures was voted the number one
rock climbing school in America by Outside
magazine.
Bob has worked extensively in the film
business as a climbing stunt coordinator. He
has coordinated more than forty television
commercials and films, and he was Sylvester
Stallone’s climbing instructor for the movie
Cliffhanger. Bob doubled for William Shatner
in the movie Star Trek V, as Captain Kirk free-
soloing on El Capitan in Yosemite.
Bob is an AMGA Certified Rock Climbing Instructor and currently teaches
the AMGA Single Pitch Instructor Course at Joshua Tree. He has worked
extensively training US military special forces, including the elite US Navy
SEAL Team 6, and is known for his technical expertise in anchoring and rescue
techniques.
Bob is also the author of Best Climbs Joshua Tree National Park, Best Climbs
Tahquitz and Suicide Rocks, and Toproping and the coauthor of Climbing Anchors
(with John Long). Bob splits his time between his residences in Irvine and
Joshua Tree, California.

A

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Globe Pequot Press
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FALCON
GUIDE® Rappelling

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A

HOW TO CLIMB® SERIES

descending a rope, including knots, rigging strategies, rappel information on:

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FalconGuides is an imprint of Globe Pequot Press.

Photos © Bob Gaines unless noted otherwise

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Gaines, Bob, 1959-

Printed in the United States of America

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This is an instruction book about rock climbing and rappelling, sports

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Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................................................... vii

Chapter 1. Equipment .............................................................................................................................................. 1

Harnesses ............................................................ 1 Rope Care and Use ..................................... 9

Chapter 2. Rappel Anchors ................................................................................................................................. 27

Natural Anchors ............................................... 27 Nuts and Cams .......................................... 54

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Loop Knots ....................................................... 65 Triple Fisherman’s Knot ............................ 71

Chapter 4: Rappelling Methods and Devices ........................................................................................... 85

Rappelling Fundamentals ............................... 85 Munter Hitch .............................................. 91

Chapter 5: Rappelling Safely ........................................................................................................................... 105

Accidents—Analysis and Prevention .......... 105 Teaching Rappelling ..................................... 114

Chapter 6: Rappelling Methods for Climbing ....................................................................................... 121

Multipitch Rappels ....................................... 121 Rope Management ........................................ 131

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Rappelling with an Assisted Passing a Knot .............................................. 139

Chapter 8: Canyoneering Techniques ........................................................................................................ 147

Canyoneering Rappel Devices..................... 147 The Reepschnur ....................................... 150

Chapter 9: Rope Ascending Techniques .................................................................................................... 155

Improvised Rope Ascending: Prusiking ...... 155 Jumaring......................................................... 159

Glossar y ....................................................................................................................................................................... 165

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Moonlight Rappel, Joshua Tree National Park.

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r appelling is a controlled descent

Rappelling off Headstone Rock,

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Harnesses professionals. Check the manufacturer’s guidelines

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Traditional doubled-back metal harness buckle. Modern “speed buckle.”

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Dynamic Rope Types

D ynamic ropes are sold in single, double, and twin configurations.

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UIAA and CE Certification

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Static and Low-Stretch Ropes

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Helmets increase safety in a cliff environment.

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