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30 Reading Basic PDF

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30 Reading Basic

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PART 1
1. William Henry Perkin 07
2. Cork 11
3. Crop-growing skyscrapers 14
4. The story of silk 18
5. The megafires of California 22
6. The life and work of Marie Curie 25
7. Sheet glass manufacture: the float process 30
8. Stepwells 33
9. The Falkirk Wheel 36
10. Raising the Mary Rose 40

PART 2

11. Land of the rising sun 44

12. Tea and the industrial revolution 48

13. European transport systems 1990-2010 51

14. The meaning and power of smell 54

15. Air traffic control in the USA 57

16. Is there anybody out there? 60

17. The little ice age 65

18. How does the biological clock tick? 68

19. A Chronicle of Timekeeping 71
20. Hearing loss 75

PART 3

21. Biological control of pests 80

22. An introduction to film sound 84

23. Striking back at lightning with lasers 88

24. The history of the tortoise 92

25. Autumn leaves 96

26. Venus in transit 99

27. Young children’s sense of identity 104

28. Reducing the Effects of Climate Change 109
29. Research using twins 113
30. Collecting ant specimens 117

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LỜI GIỚI THIỆU

Chào các bạn,

Các bạn đang cầm trên tay cuốn “Boost your vocabulary” được biên soạn bởi mình và các bạn trong
nhóm IELTS Family. Cuốn sách được viết nhằm mục đích giúp các bạn đang muốn cải thiện vốn từ
vựng cho phần thi Reading trong IELTS. Sách được viết dựa trên nền tảng bộ Cambridge IELTS của
Nhà xuất bản Đại học Cambridge – Anh Quốc.
Trong quá trình thực hiện, mình và các bạn trong nhóm đã dành nhiều thời gian để nghiên cứu cách
thức đưa nội dung sao cho khoa học và dễ dùng nhất với các bạn. Tuy vậy, cuốn sách không khỏi có
những hạn chế nhất định. Mọi góp ý để cải thiện nội dung cuốn sách mọi người xin gửi về email

Trân trọng cảm ơn,

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3

TÁC GIẢ & NHÓM THỰC HIỆN

Đinh Thắng
Hiện tại là giáo viên dạy IELTS tại Hà Nội từ cuối năm 2012. Chứng chỉ
ngành ngôn ngữ Anh, đại học Brighton, Anh Quốc, 2016.Từng làm việc
tại tổ chức giáo dục quốc tế Language Link Việt Nam (2011-2012)
Facebook.com/dinhthangielts

… cùng các bạn Đức Duy, Xuân Anh, Bùi Minh Châu, Thu Hằng, Thu Anh, Hạnh Ngô

Tài trợ
Team làm sách xin trân trọng cảm ơn HP Academy - trung tâm đã tài trợ một phần kinh phí để làm nên
bộ sách này.

HP Academy là NHÀ dành cho việc dạy và học IELTS tại 2 cơ sở Tân Bình và Gò Vấp, TP.HCM.
Ở HP, các bạn sẽ KHÔNG được cam kết đầu ra. Kết quả của các cựu học viên chính là câu trả lời chính xác nhất cho chất
lượng dạy và học.
www.hpacademy.vn

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4

03 LÝ DO TẠI SAO NÊN HỌC TỪ VỰNG

THEO CUỐN SÁCH NÀY
1. Không còn mất nhiều thời gian cho việc tra từ
Các từ học thuật (academic words) trong sách đều có kèm giải thích hoặc từ đồng nghĩa. Bạn
tiết kiệm được đáng kể thời gian gõ từng từ vào từ điển và tra. Chắc chắn những bạn thuộc
dạng “không được chăm chỉ lắm trong việc tra từ vựng” sẽ thích điều này.
2. Tập trung bộ nhớ vào các từ quan trọng
Mặc dù cuốn sách không tra hết các từ giúp bạn nhưng sách đã chọn ra các từ quan trọng và
phổ biến nhất giúp bạn. Như vậy, bạn có thể tập trung bộ nhớ vào các từ này, thay vì phải mất
công nhớ các từ không quan trọng. Bạn nào đạt Reading từ 7.0 trở lên đều sẽ thấy rất nhiều
trong số các từ này thuộc loại hết sức quen thuộc
3. Học một từ nhớ nhiều từ
Rất nhiều từ được trình bày theo synonym (từ đồng nghĩa), giúp các bạn có thể xem lại và học
thêm các từ có nghĩa tương đương hoặc giống như từ gốc. Có thể nói, đây là phương pháp học
hết sức hiệu quả vì khi học một từ như impact, bạn có thể nhớ lại hoặc học thêm một loạt các từ
nghĩa tương đương như significant, vital, imperative, chief, key. Nói theo cách khác thì nếu khả
năng ghi nhớ của bạn tốt thì cuốn sách này giúp bạn đấy số lượng từ vựng lên một cách đáng
kể.

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5

HƯỚNG DẪN SỬ DỤNG SÁCH

ĐỐI TƯỢNG SỬ DỤNG SÁCH
Nhìn chung các bạn cần có mức độ từ vựng tương đương 5.5 trở lên (theo thang điểm 9 của
IELTS), nếu không có thể sẽ gặp nhiều khó khăn trong việc sử dụng sách này.

CÁC BƯỚC SỬ DỤNG

CÁCH 1: LÀM TEST TRƯỚC, HỌC TỪ VỰNG SAU

Bước 1: Bạn in cuốn sách này ra. Nên in bìa màu để có thêm động lực học. Cuốn sách
được thiết kế cho việc đọc trực tiếp, không phải cho việc đọc online nên bạn nào đọc online sẽ
có thể thấy khá bất tiện khi tra cứu, đối chiếu từ vựng

Bước 2: Tìm mua cuốn Cambridge IELTS (8 cuốn mới nhất từ 6-14) của Nhà xuất bản
Cambridge để làm. Hãy cẩn thận đừng mua nhầm sách lậu. Sách của nhà xuất bản Cambridge
được tái bản tại Việt Nam thường có bìa và giấy dày, chữ rất rõ nét.

Bước 3: Làm một bài test hoặc passage bất kỳ trong bộ sách trên. Ví dụ passage 1,
test 1 của Cambridge IELTS 9.

Bước 4: Đối chiếu với cuốn sách này, bạn sẽ lọc ra các từ vựng quan trọng cần học.
Ví dụ passage 1, test 1 của Cambridge IELTS 9, bài về William Henry Perkin: Bạn sẽ thấy
4.1 Cột bên trái là bản text gốc, trong đó bôi đậm các từ học thuật - academic word
4.2 Cột bên phải chứa các từ vựng này theo kèm định nghĩa (definition) hoặc từ đồng
nghĩa (synonym)

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6

CÁCH 2: HỌC TỪ VỰNG TRƯỚC, ĐỌC TEST SAU

Bước 2: Đọc cột bên trái như đọc báo. Duy trì hàng ngày. Khi nào không hiểu từ nào
thì xem nghĩa hoặc synonym của từ đó ở cột bên phải. Giai đoạn này giúp bạn phát triển
việc đọc tự nhiên, thay vì đọc theo kiểu làm test. Bạn càng hiểu nhiều càng tốt. Cố gắng
nhớ từ theo ngữ cảnh.

Bước 3: Làm một bài test hoặc passage bất kỳ trong bộ sách Cambridge IELTS. Ví
dụ bạn đọc xong cuốn Boost your vocabulary 9 này thì có thể quay lại làm các test trong
cuốn 8 chẳng hạn. Làm test xong thì cố gắng phát hiện các từ đã học trong cuốn 9.
Bạn nào có khả năng ghi nhớ tốt chắc chắn sẽ gặp lại rất nhiều từ đã học. Bạn nào có
khả năng ghi nhớ vừa phải cũng sẽ gặp lại không ít từ.

Bước 4: Đọc cuốn Boost your vocabulary tương ứng với test bạn vừa làm. Ví dụ trong cuốn
Boost your vocabulary 8.
Tóm lại, mình ví dụ 1 chu trình đầy đủ theo cách này
B1. Đọc hiểu và học từ cuốn Boost your vocabulary 9
B2. Làm test 1 trong cuốn Boost your vocabulary 8
B3. Đọc hiểu và học từ cuốn Boost your vocabulary 8 & tìm các từ lặp lại mà bạn đã đọc trong cuốn Boost your
vocabulary 9

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synthetic = artificial, man-made. sɪnˈθetɪk

T he man who invented synthetic dyes

Henry Perkin was born on March 12,1838, in London,
dye= color, tint, pigment. daɪ

curiosity = the desire to know about

something. # apathy kjʊəriˈɒsəti
prompt = to make someone decide to do
England. something. (= encourage, stimulate, motivate)
prɒmpt
stumble on/across/upon something = come
across = to find or discover something by
As a boy, Perkin’s curiosity prompted early interests in chance and unexpectedly. ˈstʌmbəl ɒn
əˈkrɒs əˈpɒn ˈsʌmθɪŋ
the arts, sciences, photography, and engineering. But it run-down = in bad condition, badly
maintained. rʌn - daʊn
was a chance stumbling upon a run-down, yet functional= useful, handy, practical ˈfʌŋkʃənəl
solidify = strengthen, to make an agreement,
functional, laboratory in his late grandfather’s home that plan, attitude etc more definite and less likely
solidified the young man’s enthusiasm for chemistry. to change. səˈlɪdɪfaɪ
enthusiasm= interest, passion #apathy
ɪnˈθjuːziæzəm

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As a student at the City of London School, Perkin immersed in = become completely

became immersed in the study of chemistry. His talent involved in an activity ɪˈmɜːst ɪn
devotion= commitment = dedication = the
and devotion to the subject were perceived by his
strong love that you show when you pay a
teacher, Thomas Hall, who encouraged him to attend a lot of attention to someone or something.
series of lectures given by the eminent scientist Michael dɪˈvəʊʃən
perceive= recognize, see, identify, notice.
Faraday at the Royal Institution. Those speeches fired
pəˈsiːv
the young chemist’s enthusiasm further, and he later attend= join, be present, go to əˈtend
went on to attend the Royal College of Chemistry, which eminent= famous, prominent ˈemɪnənt
fired= inspire, excite, arouse faɪəd
he succeeded in entering in 1853, at the age of 15.
enrolment= the process of arranging to join a
school, university, course etc. ɪnˈrəʊlmənt
At the time of Perkin’s enrolment, the Royal College of head= control, rule, lead, supervise. hed
noted= well-known, famous, eminent nəʊtɪd
Chemistry was headed by the noted German chemist gift= talent, genius, ability. ɡɪft
August Wilhelm Hofmann. Perkin’s scientific gifts soon catch sb attention= to make someone notice
you, especially because you want to speak to
caught Hofmann’s attention and, within two years, he them or you need their help kætʃ ˈsʌmbɒdi
əˈtenʃən
became Hofmann’s youngest assistant. Not long after breakthrough= advance, innovation,
revolution, new idea, invention. ˈbreɪkθruː
that, Perkin made the scientific breakthrough that would fame= reputation, recognition, celebrity
# obscurity feɪm
bring him both fame and fortune. fortune= wealth, riches, opulence, prosperity
#poverty ˈfɔːtʃən

quinine= a drug used for treating fevers,

At the time, quinine was the only viable medical especially malaria ˈkwɪniːn
viable= feasible, possible, successful ˈvaɪəbəl
treatment for malaria. The drug is derived from the treatment= cure, medicine, therapy ˈtriːtmənt
malaria= a disease that is common in hot
bark of the cinchona tree, native to South America, and countries and that you get when a type of
mosquito bites you məˈleəriə
by 1856 demand for the drug was surpassing the derive from= originate, develop, come from
dɪˈraɪv frəm
available supply. Thus, when Hofmann made some bark= the outer covering of a tree bɑːk
native to= existing naturally in a place ˈneɪtɪv tə
surpass= transcend, exceed, go beyond
passing comments about the desirability of a synthetic səˈpɑːs
desirability= something that is desirable is
substitute for quinine, it was unsurprising that his star worth having or doing dɪˈzaɪərəbəl
substitute= alternate, replacement ˈsʌbstɪtjuːt
pupil was moved to take up the challenge. be moved= to make someone feel strong
emotions bi muːvd
take up= start, accept, engage in teɪk ʌp

During his vacation in 1856, Perkin spent his time in the

laboratory on the top floor of his family’s house. He was

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attempting to manufacture quinine from aniline, an attempt= try, endeavor, make an effort əˈtempt
manufacture= produce, make, create.
inexpensive and readily available coal tar waste product. mænjəˈfæktʃə
Despite his best efforts, however, he did not end up with coal tar= a thick black sticky liquid made by
heating coal without air kəʊl tɑː
quinine. Instead, he produced a mysterious dark end up with= to be in a particular situation,
state, or place after a series of events,
sludge. Luckily, Perkin’s scientific training and nature especially when you did not plan it end ʌp wɪð
prompted him to investigate the substance further. mysterious= strange, unexplained, enigmatic
mɪˈstɪəriəs
Incorporating potassium dichromate and alcohol into the sludge= soft thick mud, especially at the
aniline at various stages of the experimental process, he bottom of a liquid slʌdʒ
nature= character, personality ˈneɪtʃ
finally produced a deep purple solution. And, proving incorporate= merge, combine, include #divide
ɪnˈkɔːpəreɪt
the truth of the famous scientist Louis Pasteur’s words deep= a deep colour is dark and strong #light
‘chance favours only the prepared mind’, Perkin saw the diːp
solution= mixture, liquid, blend səˈluːʃən
potential of his unexpected find. favour= help, support, back, approve ˈfeɪvə

textile= fabric, cloth, material ˈtekstaɪl

Historically, textile dyes were made from such natural excretion= the waste material that people or
animals get rid of from their bodies. ɪkˈskriːʃən
sources as plants and animal excretions. Some of mucus= a thick liquid produced in parts of
your body such as your nose ˈmjuːkəs
these, such as the glandular mucus of snails, were outrageously= very shocking and extremely
unfair or offensive aʊtˈreɪdʒəs
difficult to obtain and outrageously expensive. Indeed, extract something from something= to
carefully remove a substance from something
the purple colour extracted from a snail was once so which contains it, using a machine, chemical
process etc. ɪkˈstrækt ˈsʌmθɪŋ frəm ˈsʌmθɪŋ
costly that in society at the time only the rich could afford afford= pay for, manage to pay for, have
enough money. əˈfɔːd
it. Further, natural dyes tended to be muddy in hue and muddy= unclear, murky #clear ˈmʌdi
hue= tone, tint, color, shade hjuː
fade quickly. It was against this backdrop that Perkin’s fade= lighten, lose color #darken feɪd
backdrop= the conditions or situation in which
discovery was made. something happens. ˈbækdrɒp

grasp= understand, comprehend. ɡrɑːsp

Perkin quickly grasped that his purple solution could be fabric= material, clothe, textile. ˈfæbrɪk
lost no time in doing smt= to do
used to colour fabric, thus making it the world’s first something immediately lɒst nəʊ taɪm ɪn ˈduːɪŋ
ˈsʌmθɪŋ
synthetic dye. Realising the importance of this patent= to obtain a special document giving
you the right to make or sell a new invention or
breakthrough, he lost no time in patenting it. But product. ˈpeɪtnt
perhaps the most fascinating of all Perkin’s reactions to instant= immediate, instantaneous, prompt
ˈɪnstənt
his find was his nearly instant recognition that the new recognition= detection, perception,
identification rekəɡˈnɪʃən
dye had commercial possibilities. commercial= money-making, profitable,
saleable kəˈmɜːʃəl

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Perkin originally named his dye Tyrian Purple, but it later assure= ensure, promise, confirm,
became commonly known as mauve (from the French for guarantee. əˈʃʊə
relatively= something that is relatively
the plant used to make the colour violet). He asked small, easy etc is fairly small, easy etc
advice of Scottish dye works owner Robert Pullar, who compared to other things ˈrelətɪvli
assured him that manufacturing the dye would be well fierce= strong, intense, severe #gentle fɪəs
objection= opposition, doubt, concern
worth it if the colour remained fast (i.e. would not fade)
əbˈdʒekʃən
and the cost was relatively low. So, over the fierce mentor= adviser, tutor, guide ˈmentɔː
objections of his mentor Hofmann, he left college to give birth to= the time when something
new starts to exist ɡɪv bɜːθ tə
give birth to the modern chemical industry.

With the help of his father and brother, Perkin set up a set up= establish, start, organize set ʌp
factory not far from London. Utilising the cheap and utilise= use, apply, exploit, make use of.
ˈjuːtəlaɪz
plentiful coal tar that was an almost unlimited by
plentiful=more than enough in quantity
product of London’s gas street lighting, the dye works ˈplentɪfəl
began producing the world’s first synthetically dyed boost= increase, improvement,
material in 1857. The company received a commercial enhancement buːst
boost from the Empress Eugenie of France, when she empress= queen, ruler, monarch, king
decided the new colour flattered her. Very soon, mauve ˈemprɪs
was the necessary shade for all the fashionable ladies in flatter= to make someone look as
that country. attractive as they can. ˈflætə
shade= hue, tint, color ʃeɪd

not to be outdone = in order not to let

Not to be outdone, England’s Queen Victoria also someone else do better or seem better than
appeared in public wearing a mauve gown, thus making you nɒt tə bi aʊtˈdʌn
it all the rage in England as well. The dye was bold and gown= a long dress that a woman wears on
fast, and the public clamoured for more. Perkin went formal occasions ɡaʊn
back to the drawing board. be all the rage= to be very popular or
fashionable. bi ɔːl ðə reɪdʒ
Although Perkin’s fame was achieved and fortune bold=very strong or bright so that you notice
assured by his first discovery, the chemist continued his them bəʊld
research. Among other dyes he developed and clamour for= to demand something loudly.
introduced were aniline red (1859) and aniline black ˈklæmə fə
go back to the drawing board= if you go
(1863) and, in the late 1860s, Perkin’s green. It is back to the drawing board, you start again with
important to note that Perkin’s synthetic dye discoveries a completely new plan or idea, after the one
had outcomes far beyond the merely decorative. The you tried before has failed. ɡəʊ bæk tə ðə ˈdrɔːɪŋ
dyes also became vital to medical research in many bɔːd
achieve= attain, get, reach əˈtʃiːv
ways. For instance, they were used to stain previously
merely= only, just, simply. ˈmɪəli
invisible microbes and bacteria, allowing researchers to vital= very important, crucial, necessary,
identify such bacilli as tuberculosis, cholera, and anthrax. central. ˈvaɪtl
Artificial dyes continue to play a crucial role today. And, stain= mark, spot steɪn
in what would have been particularly pleasing to Perkin, crucial= vital, very important, central. ˈkruːʃəl
pleasing to= giving pleasure, enjoyment, or
their current use is in the search for a vaccine against
satisfaction ˈpliːzɪŋ tə
malaria.

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Remarkable=extraordinary,
outstanding, significant, incredible…

Tough= strong.

Elastic= stretchy, flexible…

Cork Buoyant= able to float.
Cork - the thick bark of the cork oak tree (Quercus Fire-resistant= unaffected by fire.
suber) - is a remarkable material. It is tough, elastic,
buoyant, and fire-resistant, and suitable for a wide Extraordinary=remarkable,
range of purposes. It has also been used for outstanding, significant, incredible…
millennia: the ancient Egyptians sealed then
sarcophagi (stone coffins) with cork, while the ancient Insulate= to cover or protect
Greeks and Romans used it for anything from something with a material that stops
beehives to sandals. electricity, sound, heat etc from
getting in or out
And the cork oak itself is an extraordinary tree. Its
bark grows up to 20 cm in thickness, insulating the Particular= unique.
tree like a coat wrapped around the trunk and
branches and keeping the inside at a constant 20°C all Replicate= duplicate, copy…
year round. Developed most probably as a defence
against forest fires, the bark of the cork oak has a Pressure= stress.
particular cellular structure - with about 40 million
cells per cubic centimetre - that technology has never Flourish= grow, thrive…
succeeded in replicating. The cells are filled with air,
which is why cork is so buoyant. It also has an Thrive= flourish…
elasticity that means you can squash it and watch it
spring back to its original size and shape when you Soil= the top layer of the earth in
release the pressure. which plants grow.
Cork oaks grow in a number of Mediterranean Moisture=wetness, dampness…
countries, including Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and
Morocco. They flourish in warm, sunny climates Nutrient= a chemical or food that
where there is a minimum of 400 millimetres of rain provides what is needed for plants
per year, and no more than 800 millimetres. Like grape or animals to live and grow
vines, the trees thrive in poor soil, putting down deep
root in search of moisture and nutrients. Southern
Portugal’s Alentejo region meets all of these
requirements, which explains why, by the early 20th
century, this region had become the world’s largest
producer of cork, and why today it accounts for roughly
half of all cork production around the world.

Most cork forests are family-owned. Many of these

family businesses, and indeed many of the trees

themselves, are around 200 years old. Cork

production is, above all, an exercise in patience. From Patience= the ability to continue
the planting of a cork sapling to the first harvest takes waiting or doing something for a
25 years, and a gap of approximately a decade must long time without becoming angry or
separate harvests from an individual tree. And for top- anxious.
quality cork, it’s necessary to wait a further 15 or 20
years. You even have to wait for the right kind of Strip= to remove something that is
summer’s day to harvest cork. If the bark is stripped covering the surface of something
on a day when it’s too cold - or when the air is damp - else
the tree will be damaged.
Specialised= trained, designed, or
Cork harvesting is a very specialised profession. No developed for a particular purpose,
mechanical means of stripping cork bark has been type of work, place etc
invented, so the job is done by teams of highly skilled
workers. First, they make vertical cuts down the bark Mechanical= motorized.
using small sharp axes, then lever it away in pieces as
large as they can manage. The most skilful cork- Boil= to wash something, using
strippers prise away a semi-circular husk that runs the boiling water.
length of the trunk from just above ground level to the
first branches. It is then dried on the ground for about Thermal= relating to or caused by
four months, before being taken to factories, where it heat
is boiled to kill any insects that might remain in the
cork. Over 60% of cork then goes on to be made into Acoustic= relating to sound and the
traditional bottle stoppers, with most of the remainder way people hear things
being used in the construction trade, Corkboard and
cork tiles are ideal for thermal and acoustic Manufacture= production.
insulation, while granules of cork are used in the
manufacture of concrete. Monopoly= if a company or
government has a monopoly of a
Recent years have seen the end of the virtual business or political activity, it has
monopoly of cork as the material for bottle stoppers, complete control of it so that other
due to concerns about the effect it may have on the organizations cannot compete with it
contents of the bottle. This is caused by a chemical
compound called 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), which Spoil= ruin, destroy…
forms through the interaction of plant phenols, chlorine
and mould. The tiniest concentrations - as little as Substitute= something new or
three or four parts to a trillion - can spoil the taste of different that can be used instead of
the product contained in the bottle. The result has something else.
been a gradual yet steady move first towards plastic
stoppers and, more recently, to aluminium screw caps. Sustainable= able to continue
These substitutes are cheaper to manufacture and, in without causing damage to the
the case of screw caps, more convenient for the user. environment.

The classic cork stopper does have several

advantages, however. Firstly, its traditional image is
more in keeping with that of the type of high quality
goods with which it has long been associated.
Secondly - and very importantly - cork is a
sustainable product that can be recycled without
difficulty. Moreover, cork forests are a resource which

support local biodiversity, and prevent

desertification in the regions where they are planted. Biodiversity= the variety of plants
So, given the current concerns about environmental and animals in a particular place.
issues, the future of this ancient material once again
looks promising. Prevent= stop.

Desertification= the process by

which useful land, especially
farmland, changes into desert.

B y the year 2050, nearly 80% of the Earth’s

population will live in urban centres. Applying the most
Urban= city, inner-city, metropolitan, town #
rural, suburban (urb=city. i.e. suburb, urbanity)
conservative estimates to current demographic ˈɜːbən
trends, the human population will increase by about Conservative=be likely to be less than the real
three billion people by then. An estimated 109 hectares amount. kənˈsɜːvətɪv
of new land (about 20% larger than Brazil) will be Current= present, existing, recent. ˈkʌrənt
needed to grow enough food to feed them, if traditional Demographic= relating to the population and
farming methods continue as they are practised today. groups of people in it (dem=people, i.e:
At present, throughout the world, over 80% of the land democracy) deməˈɡræfɪk
that is suitable for raising crops is in use. Historically, raise crops = grow plants such
some 15% of that has been laid waste by poor as wheat, rice, or fruits… reɪz krɒps
Practice= habit, tradition, or custom ˈpræktɪs
management practices. What can be done to ensure
Ensure= make sure, confirm, make certain.
enough food for the world’s population to live on?
ɪnˈʃʊə
The concept of indoor farming is not new, since Hothouse = a heated glass building in
hothouse production of tomatoes and other produce which plants are grown.ˈhɒthaʊs

has been in vogue for some time. What is new is the Vogue= fashion, trend, raze/fad. vəʊɡ
Urgent= very important and needing to be dealt
urgent need to scale up this technology to with immediately. ˈɜːdʒənt
Scale up= increase, expand, develop. skeɪl ʌp
accommodate another three billion people. Many Accommodate= to give someone what
is needed. əˈkɒmədeɪt
believe an entirely new approach to indoor farming is Employ = use, utilize, exploit, apply. ɪmˈplɔɪ
Cutting-edge= modern, newest, most advanced.
required, employing cutting-edge technologies. One ˈkʌtɪŋ edʒ
Proposal= suggestion, application, plan.
such proposal is for the ‘Vertical Farm’. The concept is prəˈpəʊzəl
Vertical farming= an idea for a way of farming in
of multi-storey buildings in which food crops are grown which plants are grown or animals are kept in tall
structures with many levels.ˈvɜːtɪkl̩ ˈfɑːmɪŋ
in environmentally controlled conditions. Situated in the Multi-storey= many floors.ˈmʌlti - ˈstɔːri
Drastically=radically, extremely, significantly.
heart of urban centres, they would drastically reduce ˈdræstɪkl̩ i
Implement= fulfill, put into practice, take action.
the amount of transportation required to bring food to ˈɪmpləment
Proponent= advocate, supporter >< opponent.
consumers. Vertical farms would need to be efficient, prəˈpəʊnənt
Urban renewal= the improvement and
cheap to construct and safe to operate. If successfully sometimes replacement of buildings in a city,
(re-= do again, i.e: rebuild, resuable..)
implemented, proponents claim, vertical farms offer ˈɜːbən rɪˈnjuːəl
Sustainable= environmentally friendly, eco-
the promise of urban renewal, sustainable production friendly, green. səˈsteɪnəbəl
of a safe and varied food supply (through year-round year-round= happening or continuing through
the whole year. ˈjiə - ˈraʊnd
production of all crops), and the eventual repair of Sacrifice= decide not to have something in order
to get something that is more important ˈsækrəfaɪs
ecosystems that have been sacrificed for horizontal Horizontal farming = traditional farming, crops
are planted at only one level >< vertical farmig.
farming. hɒrɪˈzɒntl̩ ˈfɑːmɪŋ

Take sb/st for granted= do not realize or show

It took humans 10,000 years to learn how to grow most
that sb/st is greatful.ˈteɪk ˈsʌmbədi ˈsʌmθɪŋ fə
of the crops we now take for granted. Along the way, ˈɡrɑːntɪd
Despoil=damage, spoil, ruin (de-= reduce, i.e
we despoiled most of the land we worked, often turning decline) dɪˈspɔɪl
verdant, natural ecozones into semi-arid deserts. Verdant= lush, green, grassy ˈvɜːdənt
Semi-arid= having little rain but not completely
Within that same time frame, we evolved into an urban
dry (Semi-= half, i.e: semi-natural) ˈsemi - ˈærɪd
species, in which 60% of the human population now Evolve= develop gradually, change, grow (vol- =
turn i.e: revolt, evolution) ɪˈvɒlv
lives vertically in cities. This means that, for the majority,
Shelter= cover, protection from danger. ˈʃeltə
we humans have shelter from the elements, yet we Subject smt to smt= cause smt to experience
smt, especially smt unpleasant sʌbˈdʒekt ˈsʌmθɪŋ
subject our food-bearing plants to the rigours of the
tu ˈsʌmθɪŋ
great outdoors and can do no more than hope for a Food-bearing plants= plants provide food such
as tomato, vegetable. fuːd - ˈbeərɪŋ plɑːnts
good weather year. However, more often than not now,
The rigours of something= the unpleasant or
due to a rapidly changing climate, that is not what severe conditions of smth. ðə ˈrɪɡəz əv ˈsʌmθɪŋ

happens. Massive floods, long droughts, hurricanes Drought= a long period of dry weather when
there is not enough water draʊt
and severe monsoons take their toll each year, Hurricane= cyclone, typhoon, tornado, storm
ˈhʌrɪkən
destroying millions of tons of valuable crops. Monsoon= heavy rain, rains. mɒnˈsuːn
Take their toll= to have a very bad effect on smt
or smb over a long period of time ˈteɪk ðeə təʊl

The supporters of vertical farming claim many potential Optimum= most favorable, best, greatest
(optim= best, i.e: optimal) ˈɒptəməm
advantages for the system. For instance, crops would Failure = not successful. ˈfeɪljə
Pest= an insect or small animal that is harmful
be produced all year round, as they would be kept in or damages crops pest
Eliminate = remove, eradicate, put an end to, get
artificially controlled, optimum growing conditions.
rid of. ɪˈlɪməneɪt
There would be no weather-related crop failures due to Herbicide=a substance used to kill unwanted
plants (herb=grass, i.e herbal, herbivore #
droughts, floods or pests. All the food could be grown cid=kill .i.e pesticide) ˈhɜːbɪsaɪd
Pesticide= a chemical substance used to kill
organically, eliminating the need for herbicides, insects and small animals that destroy
crops(cid=kill) ˈpestɪsaɪd
pesticides and fertilisers. The system would greatly Fertilizer= a substance that is put on the soil to
make plants grow ˈfɜːtəlaɪzə
reduce the incidence of many infectious diseases that Incidence= occurrence, frequency, rate.ˈɪnsɪdəns
Infectious=, able to pass a disease from one
are acquired at the agricultural interface. Although the person, animal, or plant to another ɪnˈfekʃəs
Interface=edge, border, line (inter = among,
system would consume energy, it would return energy between, i.e: intersection) ˈɪntəfeɪs
Compost= to collect and store plant material so it
to the grid via methane generation from composting can decay and be added to soil to improve its
quality. ˈkɒmpɒst
non edible parts of plants. It would also dramatically Edible=suitable to be eaten, not poisonous (ed=
reduce fossil fuel use, by cutting out the need for eat) ˈedəbəl
Tractor= a strong vehicle with large wheels, used
tractors, ploughs and shipping. for pulling farm machinery (tract=pull, draw. i.e:
traction) ˈtræktə
Plough= a piece of farm equipment used to turn
over the earth so that seeds can be planted plaʊ

A major drawback of vertical farming, however, is that Drawback= disadvantage, downside,

the plants would require artificial light. Without it, those negative. ˈdrɔːbæk
plants nearest the windows would be exposed to more Artificial= synthetic, non-natural, man-made
sunlight and grow more quickly, reducing the efficiency ɑːtɪˈfɪʃəl
of the system. Single-storey greenhouses have the Expose= show, reveal, display (ex= out, i.e:
exterior, exclude) ɪkˈspəʊz
benefit of natural overhead light; even so, many still
need artificial lighting.
A multi-storey facility with no natural overhead light
would require far more. Generating enough light could Prohibitively= at a very high price that does
be prohibitively expensive, unless cheap, renewable not seem reasonable. prəˈhɪbətɪv
energy is available, and this appears to be rather a Aspiration= ambition, goal, aim, target
æspəˈreɪʃən
future aspiration than a likelihood for the near future.
Likelihood= probability, possibility ˈlaɪklihʊd

One variation on vertical farming that has been Variation = difference (vari= vary, i.e:
developed is to grow plants in stacked trays that move variety) veəriˈeɪʃən
on rails. Moving the trays allows the plants to get Stacked trays = Having sections that are
enough sunlight. This system is already in operation, arranged vertically. stækt treɪz
and works well within a single-storey greenhouse with
light reaching it from above: it Is not certain, however,
Overhead = above, upstairs >< below
that it can be made to work without that overhead
əʊvəˈhed
natural light.

Vertical farming is an attempt to address the undoubted Address= tackle, deal with əˈdres
problems that we face in producing enough food for a
growing population. At the moment, though, more needs
to be done to reduce the detrimental impact it would Detrimental= harmful, damaging, negative
have on the environment, particularly as regards the use detrəˈmentl
of energy. While it is possible that much of our food will
Skyscraper= a very tall modern city
be grown in skyscrapers in future, most experts
building ˈskaɪskreɪpə
currently believe it is far more likely that we will simply
use the space available on urban rooftops.

T he history of the world’s most luxurious fabric,

Luxurious= expensive, costly lʌɡˈzjʊəriəs
from ancient China to the present day
Fabric= material, cloth ˈfæbrɪk

Silk is a fine, smooth material produced from the Fine= well, excellent, top quality faɪn
cocoons - soft protective shells - that are made by
mulberry silkworms (insect larvae). Legend has it that Smooth= downy, soft, flat smuːð
it was Lei Tzu, wife of the Yellow Emperor, ruler of Legend= myth, fairy tale ˈledʒənd
China in about 3000 BC, who discovered silkworms.
One account of the story goes that as she was taking a Responsible= being the primary cause
walk in her husband’s gardens, she discovered that of something (spon=guarantee, assurance.i.e
sponsus, spondere) rɪˈspɒnsəbəl
silkworms were responsible for the destruction of
several mulberry trees. She collected a number of Destruction= ruin, damage
cocoons and sat down to have a rest. It just so # construction dɪˈstrʌkʃən
happened that while she was sipping some tea, one of

the cocoons that she had collected landed in the hot Land in= fall into lænd ɪn
Unravel= untie, loosen, separate out ʌnˈrævəl
tea and started to unravel into a fine thread. Lei Tzu Thread= a long thin string of cotton, silk etc
used to sew or weave cloth θred
found that she could wind this thread around her Wind= roll, twist wɪnd
fingers. Subsequently, she persuaded her husband to Persuade= convince pəˈsweɪd
Rear= raise, nurture rɪər
allow her to rear silkworms on a grove of mulberry Grove= a group of trees planted close together
ɡrəʊv
trees. She also devised a special reel to draw the Devise= invent, come up with, formulate,
fibres from the cocoon into a single thread so that they design dɪˈvaɪz
Reel= a round object around which you wind
would be strong enough to be woven into fabric. While such things as thread riːl
Fibre= a mass of threads used to make rope,
it is unknown just how much of this is true, it is certainly cloth etc. ˈfaɪbə
known that silk cultivation has existed in China for Fabric = cloth or material for making clothes,
covering furniture ˈfæbrɪk
several millennia. Cultivation= growing, planting kʌltəˈveɪʃən

Restrict something to something= limit

Originally, silkworm farming was solely restricted to
rɪˈstrɪkt ˈsʌmθɪŋ tə ˈsʌmθɪŋ
women, and it was they who were responsible for the
Royalty= members of a royal family ˈrɔɪəlti
growing, harvesting and weaving. Silk quickly grew into
Be entitled to (do) something= to have the
a symbol of status, and originally, only royalty were right/ to be allowed to do smt bi ɪnˈtaɪ.təld tuː
entitled to have clothes made of silk. The rules were (duː) ˈsʌmθɪŋ
gradually relaxed over the years until finally during the Peasant= poor farmer ˈpezənt
Qing Dynasty (1644—1911 AD), even peasants, the Caste= social class kɑːst
lowest caste, were also entitled to wear silk. Sometime Prized= treasured, precious, valued praɪzd
during the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD), silk was so Currency= money ˈkʌrənsi
prized that it was also used as a unit of currency. Diplomatic= relating to the work of diplomats
Government officials were paid their salary in silk, and who officially represent their government in
farmers paid their taxes in grain and silk. Silk was also a foreign country dɪpləˈmætɪk
used as diplomatic gifts by the emperor. Fishing Emperor= royal leader, monarch ˈempərə
lines, bowstrings, musical instruments and paper were Indication= sign, mark ɪndɪˈkeɪʃən
all made using silk. The earliest indication of silk Tomb= burial place for last resting place tuːm
paper being used was discovered in the tomb of a Noble= a member of the highest social class
noble who is estimated to have died around 168 AD. ˈnəʊbəl

Demand for this exotic fabric eventually created the Exotic= unusual, unconventional,
lucrative trade route now known as the Silk Road, extravagant, unfamiliar ɪɡˈzɒtɪk
taking silk westward and bringing gold, silver and wool
Lucrative= profitable, thriving, flourishing
to the East. It was named the Silk Road after its most
ˈluːkrətɪv
precious commodity, which was considered to be
worth more than gold. The Silk Road stretched over Precious= valuable, important ˈpreʃəs
6,000 kilometres from Eastern China to the
Mediterranean Sea, following the Great Wall of China, Commodity= product, item kəˈmɒdəti
climbing the Pamir mountain range, crossing modern-

day Afghanistan and going on to the Middle East, with Merchandise= goods, products ˈmɜːtʃəndaɪz
a major trading market in Damascus. From there, the Merchant= businessman, tradesman ˈmɜːtʃənt
Middlemen= someone who buys things in
merchandise was shipped across the Mediterranean
order to sell them to someone else, or who
Sea. Few merchants travelled the entire route; goods helps to arrange business deals for other
were handled mostly by a series of middlemen. people ˈmɪdlmæn

With the mulberry silkworm being native to China, the Region=an area of a country, especially one
that has a particular characteristic or is
country was the world’s sole producer of silk for many
known for something ˈriːdʒən
hundreds of years. The secret of silk-making eventually
reached the rest of the world via the Byzantine Empire, Smuggle= take/send/bring goods/people
which ruled over the Mediterranean region of southern secretly and illegally into/out of a country
Europe, North Africa and the Middle East during the ˈsmʌɡəl
Conceal= hide, cover kənˈsiːl
period 330—1453 AD. According to another legend, Hollow= having a hole or empty space inside
monks working for the Byzantine emperor Justinian ˈhɒləʊ
smuggle silkworm eggs to Constantinople (Istanbul in Secretive= a secretive person or
organization likes to keep their thoughts,
modern-day Turkey) in 550 AD, concealed inside
intentions, or actions hidden from others
hollow bamboo walking canes. The Byzantines were ˈsiːkrətɪv
as secretive as the Chinese, however, and for many Imperial= relating to an empire or to the
centuries the weaving and trading of silk fabric was a person who rules it ɪmˈpɪəriəl
Monopoly= domination= exclusiveness
strict imperial monopoly. Then in the seventh century,
(mono-=only.i.e monotone, monist) məˈnɒpəli
the Arabs conquered Persia, capturing their Conquer= defeat, beat, overpower ˈkɒŋkə
magnificent silks in the process. Silk production thus Capture= take over, take ˈkæptʃə
spread through Africa, Sicily and Spain as the Arabs Magnificent= great, fine, wonderful
swept, through these lands. Andalusia in southern (magn=big, large .i.e magnitude,
magnificien) mæɡˈnɪfəsənt
Spain was Europe’s main silk-producing centre in the
Export= sell abroad, sell overseas, sell to
tenth century. By the thirteenth century, however, Italy other countries # import ˈekspɔːt
had become Europe’s leader in silk production and Settle in somewhere = to go to live in a new
export. Venetian merchants traded extensively in silk place, and stay there for a long time ˈsetl ɪn
and encouraged silk growers to settle in Italy. Even ˈsʌmweə
Esteemed= respected, admired, honored
now, silk processed in the province of Como in ɪˈstiːmd
northern Italy enjoys an esteemed reputation. Reputation= fame repjəˈteɪʃən

The nineteenth century and industrialisation saw the

downfall of the European silk industry. Cheaper
Japanese silk, trade in which was greatly facilitated by Facilitate= make easy, make possible,
the opening of the Suez Canal, was one of the many enable fəˈsɪlɪteɪt
factors driving the trend. Then in the twentieth century,
Manmade= artificial, synthetic,
new manmade fibres, such as nylon, started to be
manufactured # natural mænˈmeɪd
used in what had traditionally been silk products, such
as stockings and parachutes. The two world wars,

which interrupted the supply of raw material from Interrupt= stop, end, halt ɪntəˈrʌpt
Japan, also stifled the European silk industry. After the Raw= unprocessed, unrefined, natural rɔː
Second World War, Japan’s silk production was Stifle= prevent st from happing ˈstaɪfəl
restored, with improved production and quality of raw
silk. Japan was to remain the world’s biggest producer
of raw silk, and practically the only major exporter of
raw silk, until the 1970s. However, in more recent
decades, China has gradually recaptured its position Recapture= bring back, take over again
as the world’s biggest producer and exporter of raw silk riːˈkæptʃə
and silk yarn. Today, around 125,000 metric tons of
silk are produced in the world, and almost two thirds of Silk yarn= thread used for making cloth
that production takes place in China. or for knitting sɪlk jɑːn

Drought= a long period of dry weather

when there is not enough water for
plants and animals to live.

Oversupply= the state of having more

of something than you need or can sell.
The megafires of California
Tinder= dry material that burns easily
Drought, housing expansion, and oversupply of and can be used for lighting fires.
tinder make for bigger, hotter fires in the western
United States Menace= threat, danger…
Wildfires are becoming an increasing menace in the Squad= team, crew, group…
western United States, with Southern California being
the hardest hit area. There's a reason fire squads Blaze= fire.
battling more frequent blazes in Southern California
are having such difficulty containing the flames, Erratically= randomly, unpredictably…
despite better preparedness than ever and decades of
experience fighting fires fanned by the ‘Santa Ana Unintentional= unplanned, accidental,
Winds’. The wildfires themselves, experts say, are not deliberately…
generally hotter, faster, and spread more erratically
than in the past. Consequence= result, effect,
outcome…
Megafires, also called ‘siege fires’, are the increasingly
frequent blazes that burn 500,000 acres or more - 10 Halt= stop, pause…
times the size of the average forest fire of 20 years
ago. Some recent wildfires are among the biggest ever Eradication= abolition.
in California in terms of acreage burned, according to
state figures and news reports. Underbrush= undergrowth, bushes…
One explanation for the trend to more superhot fires is
that the region, which usually has dry summers, has
had significantly below normal precipitation in many
recent years. Another reason, experts say, is related to
the century- long policy of the US Forest Service to
stop wildfires as quickly as possible.
The unintentional consequence has been to halt the
natural eradication of underbrush, now the primary
fuel for megafires.

Three other factors contribute to the trend, they add.

First is climate change, marked by a 1-degree Active= lively, dynamic…
Fahrenheit rise in average yearly temperature across
the western states. Second is fire seasons that on Volcano= a mountain with a large hole
average are 78 days longer than they were 20 years at the top, through which lava (=very hot
ago. Third is increased construction of homes in liquid rock) is sometimes forced out.
wooded areas.
‘We are increasingly building our homes in fire-prone Intensity= strength, power, amount…
ecosystems,’ says Dominik Kulakowski, adjunct
professor of biology at Clark University Graduate Progress= development, growth,
School of Geography in Worcester, Massachusetts. improvement…
‘Doing that in many of the forests of the western US is
like building homes on the side of an active volcano.' Scorch= burn.

In California, where population growth has averaged Criticism= disapproval.

more than 600,000 a year for at least a decade, more
residential housing is being built. ‘What once was open Bungle= to fail to do something
space is now residential homes providing fuel to make properly, because you have made
fires burn with greater intensity,’ says Terry McHale of stupid mistakes – used especially in
the California Department of Forestry firefighters' news reports.
union. ‘With so much dryness, so many communities
to catch fire, so many fronts to fight, it becomes an Personnel= workers, staff, employees,
almost incredible job.' workforce, human resources…

That said, many experts give California high marks for Fulfilled= satisfied.
making progress on preparedness in recent years,
after some of the largest fires in state history Insufficient= lacking, not enough…
scorched thousands of acres, burned thousands of
homes, and killed numerous people. Stung in the past Funding= financial support, money…
by criticism of bungling that allowed fires to spread
when they might have been contained, personnel are Administration= management,
meeting the peculiar challenges of neighborhood - and government…
canyon- hopping fires better than previously, observers
say. Proactive= positive, upbeat…

State promises to provide more up-to-date engines,

planes, and helicopters to fight fires have been
fulfilled. Firefighters’ unions that in the past
complained of dilapidated equipment, old fire engines,
and insufficient blueprints for fire safety are now
praising the state's commitment, noting that funding
for firefighting has increased, despite huge cuts in
many other programs. ‘We are pleased that the current
state administration has been very proactive in its
support of us, and [has] come through with budgetary
support of the infrastructure needs we have long

sought,' says Mr. McHale of the firefighters’ union.

Upgrade= improve.
Besides providing money to upgrade the fire engines
that must traverse the mammoth state and wind Traverse= cross, pass though…
along serpentine canyon roads, the state has invested
in better command-and-control facilities as well as in Mammoth= enormous, huge,
the strategies to run them. ‘In the fire sieges of earlier massive…
years, we found that other jurisdictions and states
were willing to offer mutual-aid help, but we were not Command= the control of a group of
able to communicate adequately with them,’ says Kim people or a situation.
Zagaris, chief of the state's Office of Emergency
Services Fire and Rescue Branch. After a Jurisdiction= the right to use an official
commission examined and revamped power to make legal decisions, or the
communications procedures, the statewide response area where this right exists.
‘has become far more professional and responsive,’
he says. There is a sense among both government Commission= official group, committee,
officials and residents that the speed, dedication, and authority…
coordination of firefighters from several states and
jurisdictions are resulting in greater efficiency than in Revamp= improve, refurbish, restore,
past ‘siege fire’ situations. do up…

In recent years, the Southern California region has Strategy= plan, policy…
improved building codes, evacuation procedures, and
procurement of new technology. ‘I am extraordinarily Adequately= sufficiently, satisfactorily…
impressed by the improvements we have witnessed,’
says Randy Jacobs, a Southern California- based Responsive= quick to respond…
lawyer who has had to evacuate both his home and
business to escape wildfires. ‘Notwithstanding all the Coordination= the organization of
damage that will continue to be caused by wildfires, we people or things so that they work
will no longer suffer the loss of life endured in the past together well.
because of the fire prevention and firefighting
measures that have been put in place,’ he says. Extraordinarily= extremely, very,
particularly…

Impress= amaze.

Evacuate= abandon, leave…

Prevention= avoidance.

M arie Curie is probably the most famous woman probably= perhaps, maybe, possibly
ˈprɒbəbli
scientist who has ever lived. Born Maria Sklodowska radioactivity : the sending out
in Poland in 1867, she is famous for her work on of radiation (=a form of energy) when
radioactivity, and was twice a winner of the Nobel the nucleus (=central part) of an atom has
Prize. With her husband, Pierre Curie, and Henri broken apart reɪdɪəʊækˈtɪvɪti
Becquerel, she was awarded the 1903 Nobel Prize award= prize, reward, gift. əˈwɔːd
for Physics, and was then sole winner of the 1911 sole= only, single, individual. səʊl
Nobel Prize for Chemistry. She was the first woman
to win a Nobel Prize.
remarkable= outstanding, noteworthy,
extraordinary rɪˈmɑːkəbəl
prodigious= extraordinary, phenomenal,
From childhood, Marie was remarkable for her
unusual, remarkable, impressive. prəˈdɪdʒəs
on completion of= the act of finishing
prodigious memory, and at the age of 16 won a gold something ˈɒn kəmˈpliːʃn̩ ɒv
secondary education= the education,
medal on completion of her secondary education. teaching etc of children between the ages of
11 and 16 or 18 ˈsekəndri edʒʊˈkeɪʃn̩

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Because her father lost his savings through bad earnings= salary, wage, income. ˈɜːnɪŋz
finance= support, fund, back, sponsor.
investment, she then had to take work as a teacher. ˈfaɪnæns
on the understanding that= if you agree to
From her earnings she was able to finance her sister something on the understanding that
something else will be done, you agree to it,
Bronia's medical studies in Paris, on the believing that it will be done ˈɒn ði ʌndəˈstændɪŋ
ðæt
understanding that Bronia would, in turn, later help in turn= one after the other in an agreed
order ɪn tɜːn
her to get an education.

In 1891 this promise was fulfilled and Marie went to fulfill (a promise) = accomplish,
complete, finish, carry out. fʊlˈfɪl (ə ˈprɒmɪs)
Paris and began to study at the Sorbonne (the far into the night= extending until a late
University of Paris). She often worked far into the hour ˈfɑːr ˈɪntə ðə naɪt
live on sth=to have a particular amount
night and lived on little more than bread and butter of money to buy food and other
and tea. She came first in the examination in the necessary things ˈlaɪv ˈɒn ˈsʌmθɪŋ
bread and butter (work)= work that is
physical sciences in 1893, and in 1894 was placed not very exciting but provides you with
second in the examination in mathematical sciences. most of the money that you need in order
It was not until the spring of that year that she was to live bred ənd ˈbʌtə (ˈwɜːk)
examination= exam, test, assessment.
introduced to Pierre Curie. ɪɡˌzæməˈneɪʃən

mark= to be a sign of an important

Their marriage in 1895 marked the start of a change or an important stage in the
partnership that was soon to achieve results of world development of something mɑːk
significance. Following Henri Becquerel's discovery in partnership= collaboration, affiliation,
companionship. ˈpɑːtnəʃɪp
1896 of a new phenomenon, which Marie later called phenomenon= occurrence, experience,
'radioactivity', Marie Curie decided to find out if the event. fɪˈnɒmənən
radioactivity discovered in uranium was to be found find out= realize, learn, discover. faɪnd
ˈaʊt
in other elements. She discovered that this was true
for thorium. mineral= a substance that is formed naturally
in the earth, such as coal, salt, stone,
or gold. minerals can be dug out of the ground
Turning her attention to minerals, she found her and used. ˈmɪnərəl
draw sb to sth= to attract someone or make
them want to do something drɔː ˈsʌmbədi tu
interest drawn to pitchblende, a mineral whose ˈsʌmθɪŋ
pitchblende= a dark shiny substance dug
radioactivity, superior to that of pure uranium, could from the earth, from which uranium and
radium are obtained ˈpɪtʃblend
superior = better quality, greater. advanced,
be explained only by the presence in the ore of small enhanced #inferior. suːˈpɪəriə
pure = unmixed, real, genuine. pjʊə
ore = rock or earth from which metal can
be obtained ɔː

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quantities of an unknown substance of very high substance = element, material, ingredient,

element. ˈsʌbstəns
activity. Pierre Curie joined her in the work that she undertake to do sth= to promise or agree to
do something ʌndəˈteɪk tu du: ˈsʌmθɪŋ
had undertaken to resolve this problem, and that led resolve= to find a satisfactory way of dealing
with a problem or difficulty= solve, work out.
to the discovery of the new elements, polonium and rɪˈzɒlv
devote your time/ energy/ attention/
radium. While Pierre Curie devoted himself chiefly yourself etc to something=dedicate= to use
to the physical study of the new radiations, Marie all or most of your time, effort etc in order to
do something or help someone. dɪˈvəʊt jə ˈtaɪm/
Curie struggled to obtain pure radium in the ˈenədʒi/ əˈtenʃn̩/ jɔːˈself etˈsetrə tu ˈsʌmθɪŋ
chiefly = primarily, mainly, mostly. ˈtʃiːfli
metallic state. This was achieved with the help of the radiation= a form of energy that comes
especially from nuclear reactions, which is
chemist André-Louis Debierne, one of Pierre Curie's very harmful to living things. reɪdiˈeɪʃən
struggle to do sth = to try extremely hard to
pupils. Based on the results of this research, Marie achieve something, even though it is very
difficult ˈstrʌɡl̩ tu du: ˈsʌmθɪŋ
Curie received her Doctorate of Science, and in 13
obtain= get, gain, find, acquire. əbˈteɪn
Marie and Pierre shared with Becquerel the Nobel metallic = made of metal or containing metal
məˈtælɪk
Prize for Physics for the discovery of radioactivity. doctorate= a university degree of the highest
level ˈdɒktərət

The births of Marie's two daughters, Irène and Eve, in interrupt= disrupt, suspend, stop. ɪntəˈrʌpt
1897 and 1904 failed to interrupt her scientific work. appoint= assign, select, choose. əˈpɔɪnt

She was appointed lecturer in physics at the École experimental= used for, relating to, or
resulting from experiments ɪkˌsperəˈmentl
Normale Supérieure for girls in Sèvres, France
demonstration=an act of explaining and
(1900), and introduced a method of teaching based
showing how to do something or how
on experimental demonstrations. In December
something works demənˈstreɪʃən
1904 she was appointed chief assistant in the
chief= highest in rank tʃiːf
laboratory directed by Pierre Curie.

The sudden death of her husband in 1906 was a bitter= making you feel very unhappy and
bitter blow to Marie Curie, but was also a turning upset ˈbɪtə
blow= an action or event that causes
point in her career: henceforth she was to devote all difficulty or sadness for someone bləʊ
turning point= the time when an
her energy to completing alone the scientific work that important change starts, especially one
they had undertaken. On May 13, 1906, she was that improves the situation ˈtɜ:nɪŋ poɪnt
henceforth= from this time on hensˈfɔːθ
appointed to the professorship that had been left professorship= the job or position of a
university or college professor prəˈfesəʃɪp
vacant on her husband's death, becoming the first vacant = available, untaken, unused,
woman to teach at the Sorbonne. In 1911 she was free. ˈveɪkənt

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awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for the isolation= seperation, segregation
#inclusion aɪsəˈleɪʃən
isolation of a pure form of radium.

radiography= the taking of x-ray photographs

During World War I, Marie Curie, with the help of her of the inside of people's bodies for medical
daughter Irène, devoted herself to the development purposes reɪdiˈɒɡrəfi
mobile= moveable, portable, active. ˈməʊbaɪl
of the use of X-radiography, including the mobile treatment= cure, healing, medicine, therapy.
ˈtriːtmənt
units which came to be known as ‘Little Curies', used
wounded= injured, hurt, maimed. ˈwuːndɪd
for the treatment of wounded soldiers. In 1918 the operate = run, work, conduct, carry out.
ˈɒpəreɪt
Radium Institute, whose staff Irène had joined, began
in earnest= if something starts happening in
to operate in earnest, and became a centre for earnest, it begins properly - used when it was
happening in a small or informal way before ɪn
nuclear physics and chemistry. Marie Curie, now at
ˈɜːnɪst
the highest point of her fame and, from 1922, a fame= the state of being known about by a lot
of people because of your achievements feɪm
member of the Academy of Medicine, researched the
application= practical purpose for which a
chemistry of radioactive substances and their machine, idea etc can be used, or a situation
when this is used æplɪˈkeɪʃən
medical applications.

accompany= attend, go with, go along with.

In 1921, accompanied by her two daughters, Marie əˈkʌmpəni

Curie made a triumphant journey to the United triumphant= successful, winning, victorious.
traɪˈʌmfənt
States to raise funds for research on radium. Women funds= money that an organization needs or
has fʌndz
there presented her with a gram of radium for her campaign= a series of actions intended to
campaign. Marie also gave lectures in Belgium, achieve a particular result relating to politics
or business, or a social improvement kæmˈpeɪn
Brazil, Spain and Czechoslovakia and, in addition, foundation= an organization that gives or
had the satisfaction of seeing the development of the collects money to be used for special
purposes, especially for charity or for medical
Curie Foundation in Paris, and the inauguration in research faʊnˈdeɪʃən
inauguration= the act of officially putting
1932 in Warsaw of the Radium Institute, where her
someone into an important position, or the
sister Bronia became director. ceremony at which this is done. ɪˌnɔːɡjʊˈreɪʃn̩

outstanding= excellent, great, remarkable

One of Marie Curie's outstanding achievements was aʊtˈstændɪŋ
accumulate= gather, collect, amass, pile
to have understood the need to accumulate intense up. əˈkjuːmjəleɪt
intense=having a very strong effect or felt
radioactive sources, not only to treat illness but also
very strongly. ɪnˈtens
to maintain an abundant supply for research. The abundant = plentiful, rich, ample #scarce.
əˈbʌndənt

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existence in Paris at the Radium Institute of a stock of decisive= key, critical, significant, vital. dɪˈsaɪsɪv
prepare the way/ground for sb/sth=
1.5 grams of radium made a decisive contribution to to make it possible for something to be
achieved, or for someone to succeed in doing
something prɪˈpeə ðə ˈweɪ graʊnd fə ˈsʌmbədi/
the success of the experiments undertaken in the ˈsʌmθɪŋ
neutron= a part of an atom that has no electrical
years around 1930. This work prepared the way for charge ˈnjuːtrɒn
above all= more than everything else əbʌv ɔːl
the discovery of the neutron by Sir James Chadwick artificial= man-made, non-natural, synthetic
#real, natural ɑːtɪˈfɪʃəl
and, above all, for the discovery in 1934 by Irène and leukaemia = a type of cancer of the blood, that
causes weakness and sometimes death.
Frédéric Joliot-Curie of artificial radioactivity. A few luːˈkiːmiə
exposure to something = when someone is in
months after this discovery, Marie Curie died as a a situation where they are not protected from
something dangerous or unpleasant. ɪkˈspəʊʒə tu
result of leukaemia caused by exposure to ˈsʌmθɪŋ
test tube= a small glass container that is
shaped like a tube and is used in chemistry ˈtest
radiation. She had often carried test tubes ˈtju:b
isotopes = one of the possible different forms of
containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket, an atom of a
particular element (=simple chemical substance)
remarking on the pretty blue-green light they gave ˈaɪsətəʊps
give off= to produce a smell, light, heat, a sound
off. etc ɡɪv ɒf

Her contribution to physics had been immense, not immense = great, huge, enormous.
ɪˈmens
only in her own work, the importance of which had
demonstrate= show, reveal, display
been demonstrated by her two Nobel Prizes, but ˈdemənstreɪt

because of her influence on subsequent generations subsequent= following, cónequent, later

ˈsʌbsəkwənt
of nuclear physicists and chemists.

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G lass, which has been made since the time of

mixture = combination, blend, hybrid,
amalgam. ˈmɪkstʃə
the Mesopotamians and Egyptians, is little more than
molten = metal or rock has been made into a
a mixture of sand, soda ash and lime. When heated liquid by being heated to a very high temperature.
to about 1500 degrees Celsius (°C) this becomes a ˈməʊltən
harden = solidify, freeze, consolidate, #soften
molten mass that hardens when slowly cooled. The ˈhɑːdn̩
first successful method for making clear, flat glass involve= associate, engage, connect, link. ɪnˈvɒlv
unblemished = flawless, perfect, untarnished, #
involved spinning. This method was very effective as
flawed, #imperfect ʌnˈblemɪʃt
the glass had not touched any surfaces between labour = work, employment, hard work, manual
being soft and becoming hard, so it stayed perfectly labor ˈleɪbə
unblemished, with a 'fire finish'. However, the intensive = concentrated, rigorous, thorough,
exhaustive, #easy (tens=strain, stretch .i.e tension,
process took a long time and was labour intensive.
extension) ɪnˈtensɪv

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Nevertheless, demand for flat glass was very high continuous =uninterruptedly, endlessly, non-
stop, #intermittently kənˈtɪnjʊəs
and glassmakers across the world were looking for a
ribbon = length, stretch, strip ˈrɪbən
method of making it continuously. The first roller= a piece of wood, metal or plastic, shaped
continuous ribbon process involved squeezing like a tube, that rolls over and over. ˈrəʊlə
molten glass through two hot rollers, similar to an old mangle = a machine used in former
mangle. This allowed glass of virtually any thickness times to remove water from washed clothes
by pressing them between two rollers ˈmæŋɡl̩
to be made non-stop, but the rollers would leave virtually= almost, nearly, practically. ˈvɜːtʃʊəli
both sides of the glass marked, and these would then non-stop= continuously, constantly, endlessly.
need to be ground and polished. This part of the ˈnɒnˈstɒp
polished= shined, cleaned, rubbed, sparkled, #
process rubbed away around 20 per cent of the
tarnished. ˈpɒlɪʃt
glass, and the machines were very expensive. rub away= erode, wipe out, wear away ˈrʌb əˈweɪ

The float process for making flat glass was invented manufacture = production, creation, making.
by Alistair Pilkington. This process allows the mænjʊˈfæktʃə
manufacture of clear, tinted and coated glass for
buildings, and clear and tinted glass for vehicles. tinted = coloured, painted, decorated. ˈtɪntɪd
Pilkington had been experimenting with improving the coated = covered, layered, encrusted. ˈkəʊtɪd
melting process, and in 1952 he had the idea of using
a bed of molten metal to form the flat glass, eliminate= get rid of, remove, eradicate, reject,
eliminating altogether the need for rollers within the #retain ɪˈlɪmɪneɪt
float bath. The metal had to melt at a temperature
float = the surface of a liquid fləʊt
less than the hardening point of glass (about 600°C),
but could not boil at a temperature below the tin = a soft silver-white metal that is often used to
temperature of the molten glass (about 1500°C). The cover and protect iron and steel ˈtɪn
best metal for the job was tin.

The rest of the concept relied on gravity, which concept = idea, perception, belief ˈkɒnsept
guaranteed that the surface of the molten metal was rely on = depend on, count on, trust rɪˈlaɪ ɒn
perfectly flat and horizontal. Consequently, when gravity = the force that causes something to fall
pouring molten glass onto the molten tin, the to the ground or to be attracted to another planet
ɡrævɪti
underside of the glass would also be perfectly flat. If
guarantee = ensure, assure. ɡærənˈtiː
the glass were kept hot enough, it would flow over the
pour = drizzle, tip, spill, splash. pɔː
molten tin until the top surface was also flat,
horizontal= flat, smooth, straight hɒrɪˈzɒntl̩
horizontal and perfectly parallel to the bottom parallel = two lines, paths etc that are parallel to
surface. Once the glass cooled to 604°C or less it each other are the same distance apart along
was too hard to mark and could be transported out of their whole length ˈpærəlel
the cooling zone by rollers. The glass settled to a tension = stress pressure, strain. ˈtenʃn̩
thickness of six millimetres because of surface fortunate = lucky, happy, chance. ˈfɔːtʃənət
tension interactions between the glass and the tin. coincidence = when two things happen at the
By fortunate coincidence, 60 per cent of the flat same time kəʊˈɪnsɪdəns
glass market at that time was for six-millimetre glass. convince= persuade, encourage, influence.
Pilkington built a pilot plant in 1953 and by 1955 he kənˈvɪns
had convinced his company to build a full-scale full-scale = full-sized, complete, #partial fʊl ˈskeɪl

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plant. However, it took 14 months of non-stop plant = factory, workshop, manufacturing works.
production, costing the company £100,000 a month, plɑːnt
before the plant produced any usable glass.
Furthermore, once they succeeded in making
marketable flat glass, the machine was turned off for marketable= marketable goods, skills etc can
a service to prepare it for years of continuous be sold easily because people want them
production. When it started up again it took another ˈmɑːkɪtəbl̩
four months to get the process right again. They
finally succeeded in 1959 and there are now float
plants all over the world, with each able to produce
around 1000 tons of glass every day, non-stop for
around 15 years.
optical = visual, ocular, photosensitive. ˈɒptɪkl̩
Float plants today make glass of near optical quality. refine = purify, filter, distill, # contaminate rɪˈfaɪn
Several processes - melting, refining, homogenise = to change something so that its
homogenising - take place simultaneously in the parts become similar or the same. (hom=same .i.e
2000 tonnes of molten glass in the furnace. They homogeneous, homosexual) həˈmɒdʒənaɪz

occur in separate zones in a complex glass flow simultaneously= at the same time, concurrently,
driven by high temperatures. It adds up to a instantaneously sɪmlˈteɪnɪəsli
continuous melting process, lasting as long as 50 furnace= heater, boiler, oven. ˈfɜːnɪs
hours, that delivers glass smoothly and continuously occur = happen, take place, befall əˈkɜː
to the float bath, and from there to a coating zone and deliver = transport, bring, carry, send. dɪˈlɪvə
finally a heat treatment zone, where stresses formed relieved = released, eased, alleviated, reduced,
during cooling are relieved. mitigated rɪˈliːvd

The principle of float glass is unchanged since the dramatically= radically, noticeably, considerably,
1950s. However, the product has changed significantly. drəˈmætɪkl̩ i
dramatically, from a single thickness of 6.8 mm to a range = variety, series, array. reɪndʒ
range from sub-millimetre to 25 mm, from a ribbon mar = spoil, ruin, detract from something,
frequently marred by inclusions and bubbles to undermine mɑː
almost optical perfection. To ensure the highest inspection = review, examination, assessment.
quality, inspection takes place at every stage. ɪnˈspekʃn̩
Occasionally, a bubble is not removed during refining, grain = small piece, little bit, granule ɡreɪn
a sand grain refuses to melt, a tremor in the tin puts tremor = shake, tremble, vibration ˈtremə
ripples into the glass ribbon. Automated on-line ripple = wave, undulation, wrinkle, #stillness ˈrɪpl̩
inspection does two things. Firstly, it reveals process measurement= dimension, size, extent.
faults upstream that can be corrected. Inspection ˈmeʒəmənt
technology allows more than 100 million unaided = bear, unprotected, unassisted ʌnˈeɪdɪd
measurements a second to be made across the flaw= defect, mistake, fault. flɔː
ribbon, locating flaws the unaided eye would be unaided= unassisted, without help. ʌnˈeɪdɪd
unable to see. Secondly, it enables computers steer = drive, guide, direct. stɪə
downstream to steer cutters around flaws. cutter= a tool that is used for cutting something.
Float glass is sold by the square metre, and at the ˈkʌtə
final stage computers translate customer
requirements into patterns of cuts designed to
minimise waste.

Neglect= ignore, abandon…

Restoration= repair, renewal…

Former= ex, previous, past…

Glory= when something is beautiful and

impressive in appearance.
Stepwells Spectacular= fantastic, stunning, amazing,
impressive, fabulous…
A millennium ago, stepwells were fundamental to life in
the driest parts of India. Although many have been Bygone= past, former, previous…
neglected, recent restoration has returned them to
their former glory. Richard Cox travelled to north- Inhabitant= citizen, resident…
western India to document these spectacular
monuments from a bygone era. Monument= a building, statue, or other
During the sixth and seventh centuries, the large structure that is built to remind people
of an important event or famous person.
inhabitants of the modern-day states of Gujarat and
Rajasthan in North-western India developed a method Irrigate= to supply land or crops with water.
of gaining access to clean, fresh groundwater during
the dry season for drinking, bathing, watering animals Utilitarian= useful, practical, effective…
and irrigation. However, the significance of this
invention – the stepwell – goes beyond its utilitarian Unique= sole, only one of its kind,
application. distinctive…

Unique to the region, stepwells are often Heyday= peak of your success, glory days,
architecturally complex and vary widely in size and prime= the time when someone or
shape. During their heyday, they were places of something was most popular, successful, or
gathering, of leisure, of relaxation and of worship for powerful.
villagers of all but the lowest castes. Most stepwells Caste= social class in India.
are found dotted around the desert areas of Gujarat
(where they are called vav) and Rajasthan (where they Position= locate, situate, place…
are known as baori), while a few also survive in Delhi.
Some were located in or near villages as public spaces Comprise= include, contain, consist of…
for the community; others were positioned beside
roads as resting places for travellers. Descend= go down, move down, tumble
down…
As their name suggests, stepwells comprise a series
of stone steps descending from ground level to the Negotiate= consult, discuss…
water source (normally an underground aquifer) as it
Crater= hole.
recedes following the rains. When the water level was
high, the user needed only to descend a few steps to
reach it; when it was low, several levels would have to
be negotiated.

Some wells are vast, open craters with hundreds of

steps paving each sloping side, often in tiers. Others Tier= one of several levels or layers that
are more elaborate, with long stepped passages rise up one above the other.
leading to the water via several storeys built from
stone and supported by pillars, they also included Elaborate= intricate, complicated,
pavilions that sheltered visitors from the relentless complex…
heat. But perhaps the most impressive features are the
Pillar= Tower of strength= a tall upright
intricate decorative sculptures that embellish many
round post used as a support for a roof or
stepwells, showing activities from fighting and dancing bridge.
to everyday acts such as women combing their hair
and churning butter. Pavilion= exhibition area, spectator area…

Down the centuries, thousands of wells were Shelter= protect.

constructed throughout northwestern India, but the
majority have now fallen into disuse; many are derelict Intricate= complex, complicated,
and dry, as groundwater has been diverted for elaborate…
industrial use and the wells no longer reach the water
Relentless= Endless, persistent…
table. Their condition hasn’t been helped by recent dry
spells: southern Rajasthan suffered an eight-year Sculpture= statue.
drought between 1996 and 2004.
Embellish= decorate, beautify, make
However, some important sites in Gujarat have fancy…
recently undergone major restoration, and the state
government announced in June last year that it plans Derelict= neglected, abandoned…
to restore the stepwells throughout the state.
Divert= reroute, turn away…
In Patan, the state’s ancient capital, the stepwell of
Rani Ki Vav (Queen’s Stepwell) is perhaps the finest Undergo= experience.
current example. It was built by Queen Udayamati
Finest= best, most excellent…
during the late 11th century, but became silted up
following a flood during the 13th century. But the Pristine= like new, untouched, unspoiled…
Archaeological Survey of India began restoring it in the
1960s, and today it’s in pristine Depict= show, represent, describe,
condition . At 65 metres long, 20 metres wide and 27 illustrate…
metres deep, Rani Ki Vav features 500 distinct
sculptures carved into niches throughout the Incarnation= the state of living in the form
monument, depicting gods such as Vishnu and of a particular person or animal. According
Parvati in various incarnations. Incredibly, in January to some religions, people have several
2001, this ancient structure survived a devastating different incarnations.
earthquake that measured 7.6 on the Richter scale.
Devastating= harmful, damaging,
ruinous…
Another example is the Surya Kund in Modhera,
northern Gujarat, next to the Sun Temple, built by King Earthquake = a sudden shaking of the
Bhima I in 1026 to honour the sun god Surya. It’s Earth’s surface that often causes a lot of
actually a tank (kund means reservoir or pond) rather damage.
than a well, but displays the hallmarks of stepwell
architecture, including four sides of steps that descend Honour= respect, admire…

to the bottom in a stunning geometrical formation. The

terraces house 108 small, intricately carved shrines Commissioned= specially made,
between the sets of steps. custom- built…

Rajasthan also has a wealth of wells. The ancient city Ruined= broke, destroyed…
of Bundi, 200 kilometres south of Jaipur, is reknowned
for its architecture, including its stepwells. One of the Dramatic= spectacular, striking,
larger examples is Raniji Ki Baori, which was built by remarkable, extraordinary…
the queen of the region, Nathavatji, in 1699. At 46
metres deep, 20 metres wide and 40 metres long, the Comprise= include, contain, consist of,
intricately carved monument is one of 21 baoris involve…
commissioned in the Bundi area by Nathavatji.
Striking= good-looking, attractive…
In the old ruined town of Abhaneri, about 95
kilometres east of Jaipur, is Chand Baori, one of Ornate= covered with a lot of
India’s oldest and deepest wells; aesthetically, it’s decoration.
perhaps one of the most dramatic. Built in around 850
AD next to the temple of Harshat Mata, the baori Preserve= protect, save…
comprises hundreds of zigzagging steps that run
along three of its sides, steeply descending 11 storeys, Flock= gather, form a group…
resulting in a striking geometric pattern when seen
from afar. On the fourth side, covered verandas Marvel= wonder, awesome sight,
supported by ornate pillars overlook the steps. amazing thing…

Still in public use is Neemrana Ki Baori, located just off Ingenuity= cleverness, inventiveness,
the Jaipur–Dehli highway. Constructed in around 1700, creativity…
it’s nine storeys deep, with the last two levels
underwater. At ground level, there are 86 colonnaded
openings from where the visitor descends 170 steps to
the deepest water source.

Today, following years of neglect, many of these

monuments to medieval engineering have been saved
by the Archaeological Survey of India, which has
recognised the importance of preserving them as part
of the country’s rich history. Tourists flock to wells in
far-flung corners of northwestern India to gaze in
wonder at these architectural marvels from 1,000
years ago, which serve as a reminder of both the
ingenuity and artistry of ancient civilisations and of the
value of water to human existence.

A unique engineering achievement Rotating= turning in a circle, especially

around a fixed point rəʊˈteɪtɪŋ
Central= vital, essential, chief, most
The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland is the world's first and important, crucial, significant ˈsentrəl
only rotating boat lift. Opened in 2002, it is central to Restore= Repair, rebuild rɪˈstɔː
the ambitious £84.5m Millennium Link project to Navigability= the degree to which an area
restore navigability across Scotland by reconnecting
of water is deep, wide, or safe enough for a
the historic waterways of the Forth & Clyde and Union
boat to go through ˈnævəɡəbəl
Canals.

The major challenge of the project lays in the fact that

the Forth & Clyde Canal is situated 35 metres below Sequence=chain, series (sequ=follow .i.e
the level of the Union Canal. Historically, the two consequence, subsequent) ˈsiːkwəns
canals had been joined near the town of Falkirk by a Enclosed=surrounded by walls, objects,
sequence of 11 locks - enclosed sections of canal in or structures ɪnˈkləʊz
which the water level could be raised or lowered - that Dismantle= take to pieces, take apart
stepped down across a distance of 1.5 km. This had dɪsˈmæntl
been dismantled in 1933, thereby breaking the link. Launch= start lɔːntʃ
When the project was launched in 1994, the British Authority= government department ɔːˈθɒrəti
Waterways authority were keen to create a dramatic Landmark= a building or place that is easily
twenty-first-century landmark which would not only be recognized ˈlændmɑːk

a fitting commemoration of the Millennium, but also Fitting= suitable or right for a particular occasion.
ˈfɪtɪŋ
a lasting symbol of the economic regeneration of the Commemoration= something that makes you
region. remember and respect someone important or an
important event in the past.
(memor=remember .i.e memorable, memory)
kəmeməˈreɪʃən

Submit= offer, propose, suggest(mit=send .i.e

Numerous ideas were submitted for the project, emit, transmit) səbˈmɪt
Giant= extremely large ˈdʒaɪənt
including concepts ranging from rolling eggs to tilting Seesaw= a piece of equipment that children play
on, made of a board that is balanced in the
tanks, from giant seesaws to overhead monorails. middle, so that when one end goes up the other
goes down ˈsiːsɔː
The eventual winner was a plan for the huge rotating Monorail= a railway system that uses a single
rail, usually high above the ground
(mono-= one, single, ig: monopoly,
steel boat lift which was to become The Falkirk Wheel. monolingual) ˈmɒnəʊreɪl
Notably= especially, most important ˈnəʊtəbli
The unique shape of the structure is claimed to have Axe=a tool that has a heavy iron or steel blade at
the end of a long wooden handle, used for
been inspired by various sources, both manmade and cutting wood æks
Propeller= a piece of equipment consisting of
natural, most notably a Celtic double headed axe, but two or more blades that spin around, which
makes an aircraft or ship move prəˈpelə
Ribcage=the structure of ribs that
also the vast turning propeller of a ship, the ribcage protects your heart and lungs in your chest
ˈrɪbkeɪdʒ
of a whale or the spine of a fish. Spine=the line of bones down the centre of the
back that provides support for the body spaɪn

The various parts of The Falkirk Wheel were all

Assemble= bring together, put together,
constructed and assembled, like one giant toy building
gather əˈsembəl
set, at Butterley Engineering's Steelworks in
Derbyshire, some 400 km from Falkirk. A team there
Painstakingly =carefully ˈpeɪnzteɪkɪŋli
carefully assembled the 1,200 tonnes of steel,
painstakingly fitting the pieces together to an accuracy
of just 10 mm to ensure a perfect final fit. In the Lorry= a large vehicle for carrying heavy
goods ˈlɒri
summer of 2001, the structure was then dismantled Bolt= fasten something with a metal pin or
bar bəʊlt
and transported on 35 lorries to Falkirk, before all Crane= hoist (a large tall machine used by
being bolted back together again on the ground, and builders for lifting heavy things) kreɪn
Withstand= resist, stand up to= to be strong
finally lifted into position in five large sections by enough to remain unharmed by something
such as great heat, cold, pressure, etc.
crane. The Wheel would need to withstand immense wɪðˈstænd
Immense= extremely large, enormous
and constantly changing stresses as it rotated, so to ɪˈmens
make the structure more robust, the steel sections Robust= strong, tough rəˈbʌst

were bolted rather than welded together. Over 45,000 Weld= to join pieces of metal together by
heating weld
bolt holes were matched with their bolts, and each bolt Tightened= make something less easy to
was hand-tightened. move ˈtaɪtn̩d

Consist of sth= to be formed from the

The Wheel consists of two sets of opposing axe- people or things mentioned kənˈsɪst əv
shaped arms, attached about 25 metres apart to a ˈsʌmθɪŋ
Attach= to fasten or connect one object to
fixed central spine. Two diametrically opposed water- another əˈtætʃ
filled 'gondolas', each with a capacity of 360,000 Diametrically= completely daɪəˈmetrɪkli
litres, are fitted between the ends of the arms. These Gondola= a long narrow boat with a flat
bottom and high points at each end, used
gondolas always weigh the same, whether or not they
on the canals in Venice in Italy ˈɡɒndələ
are carrying boats. This is because, according to Capacity=the number of things or people
Archimedes' principle of displacement, floating that a container or space can hold
objects displace their own weight in water. So when a kəˈpæsəti
Float= to stay on the surface of
boat enters a gondola, the amount of water leaving the a liquid and not sink fləʊt
gondola weighs exactly the same as the boat. This Displace= put out of place, move dɪsˈpleɪs
keeps the Wheel balanced and so, despite its Enormous=extremely large or great
enormous mass, it rotates through 180° in five and a ɪˈnɔːməs
half minutes while using very little power. It takes just Domestic= relating to the home or family
dəˈmestɪk
1.5 kilowatt-hours (5.4 MJ) of energy to rotate the
Kettles= a container with a lid, handle and
Wheel -roughly the same as boiling eight small
a spout, used for boiling water ˈketl
domestic kettles of water.
Canal= a channel of water kəˈnæl
Boats needing to be lifted up enter the canal basin at Basin= an area of land around a large river
with streams running down into it ˈbeɪsən
the level of the Forth & Clyde Canal and then enter the Hydraulic= moved or operated by the
lower gondola of the Wheel. Two hydraulic steel pressure of water or other liquid
(hydr=water .i.e hydrogen, hydrogen)
gates are raised, so as to seal the gondola off from the haɪˈdrɒlɪk
water in the canal basin. The water between the gates Seal= shut out, close up, stop entering siːl
is then pumped out. A hydraulic clamp, which Pumped out=to remove water or other liquid
from something using a pump: pʌmpt ˈaʊt
prevents the arms of the Wheel moving while the Clamp= a piece of equipment for holding
gondola is docked, is removed, allowing the Wheel to things together klæmp
Array= a large group of things is shown in an
turn. In the central machine room an array of ten
attractive way əˈreɪ
hydraulic motors then begins to rotate the central axle. Axle= a bar connected to the centre
The axle connects to the outer arms of the Wheel, of a circular object such as a wheel that
allows or causes it to turn, especially one
which begin to rotate at a speed of 1/8 of a revolution connecting two wheels of a vehicle ˈæksəl
per minute. As the wheel rotates, the gondolas are Revolution= a complete circular movement
kept in the upright position by a simple gearing system. around a point revəˈluːʃən
Cog= a wheel with small bits sticking out
Two eight-metre-wide cogs orbit a fixed inner cog of around the edge that fit together with the bits
the same width, connected by two smaller cogs of another wheel as they turn in a machine kɒɡ
Orbit= to move in a curved path around a
travelling in the opposite direction to the outer cogs - much larger object ˈɔːbɪt

so ensuring that the gondolas always remain level.

When the gondola reaches the top, the boat passes
straight onto the aqueduct situated 24 metres above Aqueduct= a structure like a bridge, that
the canal basin. carries water across a river or valley ˈækwədʌkt

The remaining 11 metres of lift needed to reach the

Union Canal is achieved by means of a pair of locks.
Elevate= raise, lift, make higher(lev=rise.i.e
The Wheel could not be constructed to elevate boats
elevation, elevator) ˈelɪveɪt
over the full 35-metre difference between the two The presence of something= the fact that
canals, owing to the presence of the historically someone or something is in a place ðə ˈprezns
important Antonine Wall, which was built by the əv ˈsʌmθɪŋ
Romans in the second century AD. Boats travel under Tunnel= a passage that has been dug under
this wall via a tunnel, then through the locks, and the ground for cars, trains etc to go through
finally on to the Union Canal. ˈtʌnl

H ow a sixteenth-century warship was recovered

from the seabed.

Fleet= ship in a navy fliːt
On 19 July 1545, English and French fleets were
engaged in a sea battle off the coast of southern Engaged in= to be doing or to become
involved in an activity ɪnˈɡeɪdʒd ɪn
England in the area of water called the Solent,
between Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight. Among the Vessel= a ship or large boat ˈvesəl
English vessels was a warship by the name of Mary
Rose. Built in Portsmouth some 35 years earlier, she Vary= differ, be different ˈveəri
had had a long and successful fighting career, and Witness= observe ˈwɪtnəs
was a favourite of King Henry VIII. Accounts of what
happened to the ship vary: while witnesses agree that Maintain= remain, make something
continue at the same level, standard, etc.
she was not hit by the French, some maintain that she meɪnˈteɪn

was outdated, overladen and sailing too low in the Outdated=old-fashioned, old, obsolete
# current, modern, fashionable aʊtˈdeɪtɪd
water, others that she was mishandled by Overladen= filled with too many people or
undisciplined crew. What is undisputed, however, is things əʊvəˈleɪdn
that the Mary Rose sank into the Solent that day, Mishandle= to treat something roughly, often
causing damage mɪsˈhændl
taking at least 500 men with her. After the battle, Undisciplined = behaving in an uncontrolled
attempts were made to recover the ship, but these way # disciplined, well-behaved ʌnˈdɪsɪplɪnd
Crew= sailors, seamen kruː
failed.
Undisputed= acknowledged, undeniable
ʌndɪˈspjuːtɪd
The Mary Rose came to rest on the seabed, lying on
Act as sth= do a particular job ækt əz ˈsʌmθɪŋ
her starboard (right) side at an angle of approximately Current = a movement of water in
a particular direction ˈkʌrənt
60 degrees. The hull (the body of the ship) acted as a Exposed = not covered, unprotected,
trap for the sand and mud carried by Solent currents. ɪkˈspəʊzd
To be eroded = to be weaken= to be
As a result, the starboard side filled rapidly, leaving the damaged tu bi ɪˈrəʊdɪd
exposed port (left) side to be eroded by marine Marine = sea, oceanic, aquatic məˈriːn
Organism= living thing, creature ˈɔːɡənɪzəm
organisms and mechanical degradation. Because of Mechanical = connected with machines and
the way the ship sank, nearly all of the starboard half engines mɪˈkænɪkəl
Degradation= the process by which
survived intact. During the seventeenth and something changes to a worse condition
deɡrəˈdeɪʃən
eighteenth centuries, the entire site became covered Intact= unbroken, unharmed, undamaged
with a layer of hard grey clay, which minimised further # broken, damaged ɪnˈtækt
Minimize= reduce, decrease, cut down, lessen
erosion. # maximize, increase ˈmɪnəmaɪz

Then, on 16 June 1836, some fishermen in the Solent Obstruction= blockage, obstacle əbˈstrʌkʃən
found that their equipment was caught on an Sunken = having fallen to the bottom of the
underwater obstruction, which turned out to be the sea ˈsʌŋkən
Mary Rose. Diver John Deane happened to be Gear= a set of equipment or tools you need for
a particular activity ɡɪə
exploring another sunken ship nearby, and the
Dive= swim under water, go under water daɪv
fishermen approached him, asking him to free their Timber= wood ˈtɪmbə
gear. Deane dived down, and found the equipment Protrude= stick out from or through smt
caught on a timber protruding slightly from the prəˈtruːd
Uncover= detect, discover, find out
seabed. Exploring further, he uncovered several other
# cover, conceal, hide ʌnˈkʌvə
timbers and a bronze gun. Deane continued diving on Intermittently = stopping and starting
the site intermittently until 1840, recovering several repeatedly or with periods in between
more guns, two bows, various timbers, part of a pump ɪntəˈmɪtntli
and various other small finds.

The Mary Rose then faded into obscurity for another Fade into obscurity= being in the state of not
being known or remembered feɪd ˈɪntə əbˈskjʊərɪti
hundred years. But in 1965, military historian and Military = used by, involving, or relating to
the army, navy, or air force ˈmɪlətəri

amateur diver Alexander McKee, in conjunction with Amateur # professional ˈamətə

the British Sub-Aqua Club, initiated a project called Conjunction=combination kənˈdʒʌŋkʃən
Initiate= start, set off ɪˈnɪʃieɪt
‘Solent Ships’. While on paper this was a plan to
Wreck= a ship that has sunk rek
examine a number of known wrecks in the Solent,
Ordinary= normal, usual, regular,common
what McKee really hoped for was to find the Mary ˈɔːdənəri
Rose. Ordinary search techniques proved Unsatisfactory = not good enough or
unsatisfactory, so McKee entered into collaboration not acceptable ʌnsætəsˈfæktəri
with Harold E. Edgerton, professor of electrical Collaboration= teamwork,
engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of partnership kəlæbəˈreɪʃən
Sonar= relating to sun ˈsəʊnɑː
Technology. In 1967, Edgerton’s side-scan sonar
Reveal= discover, make known
systems revealed a large, unusually shaped object, # hide, conceal rɪˈviːl
which McKee believed was the Mary Rose.

Further excavations revealed stray pieces of timber Excavation= digging ekskəˈveɪʃn

and an iron gun. But the climax to the operation came Climax= peak, highest point ˈklaɪmæks
Frame= structure freɪm
when, on 5 May 1971, part of the ship’s frame was
Wreck = a ship that has sunk rek
uncovered. McKee and his team now knew for certain
House = provide space for
that they had found the wreck, but were as yet something haʊs
unaware that it also housed a treasure trove of Treasure trove= a group of valuable or
beautifully preserved artefacts. Interest in the project interesting things ˈtreʒə trəʊv
grew, and in 1979, The Mary Rose Trust was formed, Artefacts= historical objects ˈɑːtɪfækts
with Prince Charles as its President and Dr Margaret
Rule its Archaeological Director. The decision whether Salvage = to save goods from damage or
or not to salvage the wreck was not an easy one, destruction, especially from a ship that has
sunk ˈsælvɪdʒ
although an excavation in 1978 had shown that it
might be possible to raise the hull. While the original Feasible= possible, practicable,
aim was to raise the hull if at all feasible, the operation workable… # impractical ˈfiːzəbəl
was not given the go-ahead until January 1982, when Go-ahead = an occasion when permission
all the necessary information was available. is given for someone to start doing
An important factor in trying to salvage the Mary Rose something ˈɡəʊ əhed
was that the remaining hull was an open shell. This led
to an important decision being taken: namely to carry
out the lifting operation in three very distinct stages. Distinct = clearly different or belonging to
The hull was attached to a lifting frame via a network a different type dɪˈstɪŋkt
of bolts and lifting wires. The problem of the hull being Attach= glue, join, connect əˈtætʃ
sucked back downwards into the mud was overcome Overcome = defeat or succeed in
by using 12 hydraulic jacks. These raised it a few controlling or dealing with something
centimetres over a period of several days, as the lifting əʊvəˈkʌm
Jack = a piece of equipment used
frame rose slowly up its four legs. It was only when the to lift a heavy weight off the ground, such
hull was hanging freely from the lifting frame, clear of as a car, and support it while it is in the air
dʒæk

the seabed and the suction effect of the surrounding Hook= a curved piece of metal or plastic
mud, that the salvage operation progressed to the that you use for hanging things on hʊk
second stage. In this stage, the lifting frame was fixed Crane= a large tall machine used by
to a hook attached to a crane, and the hull was lifted builders for lifting heavy things kreɪn
completely clear of the seabed and transferred Precise= exact, specific, accurate
underwater into the lifting cradle. This required precise # imprecise, inaccurate prɪˈsaɪs
positioning to locate the legs into the ‘stabbing Stabbing = very sharp, sudden and strong
guides’ of the lifting cradle. The lifting cradle was ˈstæbɪŋ
designed to fit the hull using archaeological survey Guide= intruction= direction ɡaɪd
drawings, and was fitted with air bags to provide Cradle = a structure that is used
additional cushioning for the hull’s delicate timber to lift something heavy up or down ˈkreɪdl
framework. The third and final stage was to lift the Framework= the main supporting parts of
entire structure into the air, by which time the hull was a building, vehicle, or object ˈfreɪmwɜːk
also supported from below. Finally, on 11 October Hold (one’s) breath (idiom)= wait for
1982, millions of people around the world held their something specific to happen ˈhəʊld (wʌnz)
breath as the timber skeleton of the Mary Rose was breθ (ˈɪdɪəm)
lifted clear of the water, ready to be returned home to Skeleton= the main structure that
Portsmouth. supports a building, bridge etc. ˈskelətən

A
Japan has a significantly better record in terms of
significantly = considerably, significantly,
#insignificantly. sɪɡˈnɪfɪkəntli
average mathematical attainment than England and average = calculated by adding several amounts
Wales. Large sample international comparisons of together, finding a total, and dividing the total by
pupils' attainments since the 1960s have established
the number of amounts ˈævərɪdʒ
that not only did Japanese pupils at age 13 have
better scores of average attainment, but there was attainment = achievement, accomplishment,
also a larger proportion of 'low' attainers in England, fulfillment, #failure əˈteɪnmənt
where, incidentally, the variation in attainment incidentally = in a way that was not planned but
scores was much greater. The percentage of Gross
that is connected with something else ɪnsɪˈdentəli
National Product spent on education is reasonably
similar in the two countries, so how is this higher and consistent: constant, stable, steady, #
more consistent attainment in maths achieved? inconsistent kənˈsɪstənt
B
Lower secondary schools in Japan cover three school
virtually = almost, nearly, not quite, practically
years, from the seventh grade (age 13) to the ninth
ˈvɜːtʃʊəli
grade (age 15). Virtually all pupils at this stage attend = appear, take part in, enroll, go to əˈtend
attend state schools: only 3 per cent are in the sector = division, area, zone ˈsektə
private sector. Schools are usually modem in design,
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set well back from the road and spacious inside. spacious = airy, commodious, capacious,
Classrooms are large and pupils sit at single desks in #cramped, narrow. ˈspeɪʃəs
let off steam = relax, unwind, let hair down ˈlet ɒf
rows. Lessons last for a standardised 50 minutes and stiːm
are always followed by a 10-minute break, which mutual= related= feeling the same emotion, or
gives the pupils a chance to let off steam. Teachers doing the same thing to or for each other ˈmjuːtʃuəl
begin with a formal address and mutual bowing, and bowing = the act of bending the top part of your
body forward to show respect for someone when
then concentrate on whole-class teaching.
you meet them ˈbəʊɪŋ
Classes are large - usually about 40 - and are unstreamed = to not be put into groups according
unstreamed. Pupils stay in the same class for all to students' ability ʌnˈstriːmd
lessons throughout the school and develop considerable = significant, great, huge
considerable class identity and loyalty. Pupils kənˈsɪdərəbl̩
identity = uniqueness, distinctiveness,
attend the school in their own neighbourhood, which characteristics aɪˈdentɪti
in theory removes ranking by school. In practice in concentration = attention, focus, #distraction
Tokyo, because of the relative concentration of kɒnsənˈtreɪʃn̩
schools, there is some competition to get into the competition = contest, championship,
tournament, quiz kɒmpəˈtɪʃn̩
'better' school in a particular area.
particular = certain, precise, specific pəˈtɪkjʊlə

C
Traditional ways of teaching form the basis of the remarkably = surprisingly, extraordinarily,
lesson and the remarkably quiet classes take their outstandingly, #unremarkably rɪˈmɑːkəbli
demonstrate: display, show, explain (monstra=
own notes of the points made and the examples show .i.e demonstrator) ˈdemənstreɪt
demonstrated. Everyone has their own copy of the compulsory = obligatory, mandatory, required,
textbook supplied by the central education authority, #optional kəmˈpʌlsəri
Monbusho, as part of the concept of free compulsory on the whole = generally, in general, all in all ˈɒn
ðə həʊl
education up to the age of 15. These textbooks are,
presumably = probably, seemingly, likely
on the whole, small, presumably inexpensive to prɪˈzjuːməbli
produce, but well set out and logically developed. accessible = approachable, available, handy,
(One teacher was particularly keen to introduce reachable, #inaccessible (ac= toward or movement
.i.e accelerate, action) əkˈsesəbl̩
colour and pictures into maths textbooks: he felt this
centralise = to organize the control of a country,
would make them more accessible to pupils brought organization, or system so that everything is done
up in a cartoon culture.) Besides approving textbooks, or decided in one place (cen= middle .i.e center,
Monbusho also decides the highly centralised centre) ˈsentrəlaɪz
national curriculum and how it is to be delivered. curriculum = subjects, program, course.
kəˈrɪkjʊləm

D
pattern = form, model, plan ˈpætn̩
Lessons all follow the same pattern. At the
elaborate= say more, explain, give details, go into
beginning, the pupils put solutions to the homework
detail ɪˈlæbəreɪt
on the board, then the teachers comment, correct or
principle = standard, idea, moral rule, belief
elaborate as necessary. Pupils mark their own ˈprɪnsəpl̩
homework: this is an important principle in Japanese enable = aid, assist, support, facilitate, # prevent
schooling as it enables pupils to see where and why ɪˈneɪbl̩
they made a mistake, so that these can be avoided in ignorance = unawareness, inexperience,
future. No one minds mistakes or ignorance as long unintelligence, lack of knowledge or information
as you are prepared to learn from them. about something. ˈɪɡnərəns
After the homework has been discussed, the teacher
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explains the topic of the lesson, slowly and with a lot repetition = reiteration, repeating, replication
repɪˈtɪʃn̩
of repetition and elaboration. Examples are elaboration = illustration, amplification,
demonstrated on the board; questions from the explanation ɪˌlæbəˈreɪʃn̩
work through = to manage a problem that has
textbook are worked through first with the class, and many different parts step by
then the class is set questions from the textbook to do step ˈwɜ:k θruː
supplementary = additional, extra, added (ple=fill,
individually. Only rarely are supplementary full .i.e plenty, replete) sʌplɪˈmentri
worksheets distributed in a maths class. The distribute = allocate, dispense, spread dɪˈstrɪbjuːt
comprehensive= complete, far-reaching, wide-
impression is that the logical nature of the textbooks ranging, #incomplete, #sketchy (com= together .i.e
and their comprehensive coverage of different types combine, complete) kɒmprɪˈhensɪv
coverage = attention, reportage, reporting
of examples, combined with the relative ˈkʌvərɪdʒ
homogeneity of the class, renders work sheets homogeneity = consistency, regularity,
#unevenness (hom=same .i.e homogeneous)
unnecessary. At this point, the teacher would həʊmədʒɪˈnɪəti
circulate and make sure that all the pupils were render = make, leave, cause to be/become ˈrendə
circulate = mingle, move around, communicate.
coping well. (circ= circle .i.e circus, circular) ˈsɜːkjʊleɪt
E
It is remarkable that large, mixed-ability classes could individual = personal, private, specific, for one
be kept together for maths throughout all their person ɪndɪˈvɪdʒʊəl
compulsory schooling from 6 to 15. Teachers say observe = study, see, notice, witness əbˈzɜːv
that they give individual help at the end of a lesson or struggle = fight, effort, strive
strugglers = those who struggleˈstrʌɡl̩
after school, setting extra work if necessary. In
assist = help, aid, support, help out, give
observed lessons, any strugglers would be
somebody a hand, lend a hand əˈsɪst
assisted by the teacher or quietly seek help from seek = search for, look for, find siːk
their neighbour. Carefully fostered class identity foster = encourage, promote, cultivate,
makes pupils keen to help each other - anyway, it is #discourage ˈfɒstə
in their interests since the class progresses together. progress = development, improvement, growth
This scarcely seems adequate help to enable slow prəˈɡres
scarcely = barely, hardly, just ˈskeəsli
learners to keep up. However, the Japanese attitude
adequate = enough, sufficient,
towards education runs along the lines of 'if you work
#inadequate, #insufficient ˈædɪkwət
hard enough, you can do almost anything'. Parents enable =allow, permit, assist, facilitate,
are kept closely informed of their children's progress #prevent ɪˈneɪbl̩
and will play a part in helping their children to keep keep up = follow, catch up, continue kiːp ʌp
up with class, sending them to 'Juku' (private evening play a part in = play a role in, involve in, take part

tuition) if extra help is needed and encouraging them in, participate in pleɪ ə pɑ:t ɪn
tuition = education, teaching, schooling,
to work harder. It seems to work, at least for 95 per
instruction tjuːˈɪʃn̩
cent of the school population. the school population = learners, students,
pupils ðə sku:l ˌpɒpjʊˈleɪʃn̩
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F
So what are the major contributing factors in the
success of maths teaching? Clearly, attitudes are
important. Education is valued greatly in Japanese
emphasis= focus, stress, prominence,
culture; maths is recognised as an important highlighting ˈemfəsɪs
compulsory subject throughout schooling; and the couple with = combine, link with/to ˈkʌpl̩ wɪð
emphasis is on hard work coupled with a focus on accuracy = correctness, precision, exactness, #
inaccuracy ˈækjərəsi
accuracy.

relevant = related, appropriate, #unrelated rɪˈleɪʃn̩

Other relevant points relate to the supportive attitude
quote = recite, repeat, refer to kwəʊt
of a class towards slower pupils, the lack of
relation = connection, association, link rɪˈleɪʃən
competition within a class, and the positive emphasis
unfair = unjust, unequal, inequitable, biased
on learning for oneself and improving one's own ʌnˈfeə
standard. And the view of repetitively boring lessons unjustified = unfair, unwarranted,
and learning the facts by heart, which is sometimes #justified ʌnˈdʒʌstɪfaɪd
quoted in relation to Japanese classes, may be inspirational = providing encouragement or new
unfair and unjustified. No poor maths lessons were ideas for what you should do = motivational
observed. They were mainly good and one or two ɪnspəˈreɪʃn̩əl

were inspirational.

Anthropological= the scientific study

of people, their societies, cultures etc.

Wrestle with something=

to try to understand or find a solution to
a difficult problem.

Tea and the Industrial Enigma= mystery, puzzle…

Revolution Puzzle= mystery, enigma…

A Cambridge professor says that a change in drinking Take off= start out, begin…

habits was the reason for the Industrial Revolution in

Britain. Anjana Abuja reports Drive= run.

A Alan Macfarlane, professor of anthropological Urban= city, town, metropolitan…

science at King’s College, Cambridge has, like other
historians, spent decades wrestling with the enigma of Labour= workforce, workers,
the Industrial Revolution. Why did this particular Big employees…
Bang – the world-changing birth of industry-happen in
Britain? And why did it strike at the end of the 18th Criterion= standard, principle…
century?
Sufficient= adequate, enough…
B Macfarlane compares the puzzle to a combination
lock. ‘There are about 20 different factors and all of
them need to be present before the revolution can Coal= a hard black mineral which is dug
happen,’ he says. For industry to take off, there needs out of the ground and burnt to produce
to be the technology and power to drive factories, large heat
urban populations to provide cheap labour, easy
Convinced= persuaded.
transport to move goods around, an affluent middle-
class willing to buy mass-produced objects, a market-
driven economy and a political system that allows this to
happen. While this was the case for England, other
nations, such as Japan, the Netherlands and France
also met some of these criteria but were not
industrialising. All these factors must have been
necessary. But not sufficient to cause the revolution,
says Macfarlane. ‘After all, Holland had everything
except coal while China also had many of these factors.
Most historians are convinced there are one or two

missing factors that you need to open the lock. Propose= suggest.
’
C The missing factors, he proposes, are to be found in Ingredient= element, part…
almost even kitchen cupboard. Tea and beer, two of the
Flourish= thrive, grow…
nation’s favourite drinks, fuelled the revolution. The
antiseptic properties of tannin, the active ingredient in Succumb= give in, surrender…
tea, and of hops in beer – plus the fact that both are
made with boiled water – allowed urban communities to Eccentric= unusual, weird, strange…
flourish at close quarters without succumbing to
water-borne diseases such as dysentery. The theory Deduction= reasoning, conclusion,
sounds eccentric but once he starts to explain the logic…
detective work that went into his deduction, the
scepticism gives way to wary admiration. Macfarlane’s Scepticism= an attitude of doubting that
case has been strengthened by support from notable particular claims or statements are true or
quarters – Roy Porter, the distinguished medical that something will happen.
historian, recently wrote a favourable appraisal of his
Strengthen= support, reinforce…
research.
Appraisal= assessment, evaluation,
D Macfarlane had wondered for a long time how the judgment, review…
Industrial Revolution came about. Historians had
alighted on one interesting factor around the mid-18th Notable= important, interesting, excellent,
century that required explanation. Between about 1650 or unusual enough to be noticed or
and 1740，the population in Britain was static. But then mentioned.
there was a burst in population growth. Macfarlane
says: ‘The infant mortality rate halved in the space of Wonder= self=question.
20 years, and this happened in both rural areas and
Alight on= to suddenly think of or notice
cities, and across all classes. People suggested four something or someone.
possible causes. Was there a sudden change in the
viruses and bacteria around? Unlikely. Was there a Static= constant, unchanging…
revolution in medical science? But this was a century
before Lister’s revolution*. Was there a change in Infant= newborn baby.
environmental conditions? There were improvements in
agriculture that wiped out malaria, but these were small Mortality= death.
gains. Sanitation did not become widespread until the
19th century. The only option left is food. But the height Wipe out= destroy, eliminate, remove…
and weight statistics show a decline. So the food must
Sanitation= the protection of public health
have got worse. Efforts to explain this sudden reduction
by removing and treating waste, dirty
in child deaths appeared to draw a blank.’ water etc.

E This population burst seemed to happen at just the Statistics= data, information, figures…
right time to provide labour for the Industrial Revolution.
‘When you start moving towards an industrial revolution,
it is economically efficient to have people living close
together,’ says Macfarlane. ‘But then you get disease,
particularly from human waste.’ Some digging around in
historical records revealed that there was a change in

the incidence of water-borne disease at that time,

especially dysentery. Macfarlane deduced that Incidence= frequency, occurrence, rate…
whatever the British were drinking must have been
important in regulating disease. He says, ‘We drank Deduce= assume, reason, figure out…
beer. For a long time, the English were protected by the
Regulate= control.
strong antibacterial agent in hops, which were added to
help preserve the beer. But in the late 17th century a Preserve= protect.
tax was introduced on malt, the basic ingredient of
beer. The poor turned to water and gin and in the 1720s Malt= grain, usually barley, that has been
the mortality rate began to rise again. Then it suddenly kept in water for a time and then dried. It is
dropped again. What caused this?’ used for making beer, whisky etc..
F Macfarlane looked to Japan, which was also
developing large cities about the same time, and also Prevalence= dominance.
had no sanitation. Water-borne diseases had a much
looser grip on the Japanese population than those in Extraordinary= strange, unusual,
Britain. Could it be the prevalence of tea in their surprising…
culture? Macfarlane then noted that the history of tea in Coincidence= when two things happen at
Britain provided an extraordinary coincidence of the same time, in the same place, or to the
dates. Tea was relatively expensive until Britain started same people in a way that seems
a direct dipper trade with China in the early 18th surprising or unusual.
century. By the 1740s, about the time that infant
mortality was dipping, the drink was common. Dipping= plummeting, dropping,
Macfarlane guessed that the fact that water had to be reducing…
boiled, together with the stomach-purifying properties
of tea meant that the breast milk provided by mothers Purify= clean, get rid of impurities…
was healthier than it had ever been. No other European
nation sipped tea like the British, which, by Macfarlanes Out of contention= no longer having a
chance of winning something.
logic, pushed these other countries out of contention
for the revolution. Forge ahead= to make progress,
especially quickly.
G But, if tea is a factor in the combination lock, why
didn’t Japan forge ahead in a tea-soaked industrial Literacy= the state of being able to read
revolution of its own? Macfarlane notes that even and write.
though 17th-century Japan had large cities, high
literacy rates, even a futures market, it had turned its Abandoned= neglected.
back on the essence of any work-based revolution by
giving up labour-saving devices such as animals, afraid
that they would put people out of work. So, the nation
that we now think of as one of the most technologically
advanced entered the 19th century having ‘abandoned
the wheel’.

Prospect= possibility, likelihood, chance,

option…

Conceive=imagine, visualize, think of….

EUROPEAN TRANSPORT
Vigorous= strong and healthy…
SYSTEMS 1990-2010
What have been the trends and what are the Efficient= effective, useful, helpful, well-
prospects for European transport systems? organized…

A It is difficult to conceive of vigorous economic Facilitate= aid, help, assist…

growth without an efficient transport system. Although
Substantial= significant, considerable…
modern information technologies can reduce the
demand for physical transport by facilitating
teleworking and teleservices, the requirement for Frontier= border, boundary, edge…
transport continues to increase. There are two key
factors behind this trend. For passenger transport, the Abolish= eliminate, put an end to, stop,
determining factor is the spectacular growth in car use. close down, get rid of…
The number of cars on European Union (EU) roads
saw an increase of three million cars each year from Emphasis= stress.
1990 to 2010, and in the next decade the EU will see a
further substantial increase in its fleet. Labour-intensive = an industry or type of
work that is labour-intensive needs a lot of
B As far as goods transport is concerned, growth is
due to a large extent to changes in the European workers.
economy and its system of production. In the last 20
years, as internal frontiers have been abolished, the Assembly= gathering, meeting, get-
EU has moved from a ”stock” economy to a ”flow”
economy. This phenomenon has been emphasised together…
by the relocation of some industries, particularly those Candidate= applicant.
which are labourintensive, to reduce production
costs, even though the production site is hundreds or Haulage =moving, carrying, shipping…
even thousands of kilometres away from the final
assembly plant or away from users. Export= sell abroad, sell overseas, sell to
other countries…
C The strong economic growth expected in countries
which are candidates for entry to the EU will also Import= bring in, trade in, buy from abroad,
increase transport flows, in particular road haulage buy from overseas, buy from other
traffic. In 1998, some of these countries already countries…
exported more than twice their 1990 volumes and
Inherit= be left, take over…
imported more than five times their 1990 volumes.
And although many candidate countries inherited a

transport system which encourages rail, the Distribution= sharing, spreading,

distribution between modes has tipped sharply in allocation…
favour of road transport since the 1990s. Between
1990 and 1998，road haulage increased by 19.4%, Imperative= vital, very important,
while during the same period rail haulage decreased crucial, essential…
by 43.5%, although – and this could benefit the
enlarged EU – it is still on average at a much higher Sustainable= able to continue for a long
level than in existing member states. time.

D However, a new imperative-sustainable Adapt= get a feel to, get used to,
development – offers an opportunity for adapting the familiarize yourself…
EU common transport policy. This objective, agreed
by the Gothenburg European Council, has to be Policy= rule, guiding principle, strategy,
achieved by integrating environmental considerations plan…
into Community policies, and shifting the balance
between modes of transport lies at the heart of its Objective= aim, purpose, goal,
strategy. The ambitious objective can only be fully intention…
achieved by 2020, but proposed measures are
nonetheless a first essential step towards a Integrate= put together, mix, combine…
sustainable transport system which will ideally be in
place in 30 years‟ time, that is by 2040. Strategy= plan.

E In 1998, energy consumption in the transport sector Propose= suggest, recommend,

was to blame for 28% of emissions of CO2，the advise…
leading greenhouse gas. According to the latest
estimates, if nothing is done to reverse the traffic Ideally= perfectly, well…
growth trend, CO2 emissions from transport can be
expected to increase by around 50% to 1,113 billion Blame= hold responsible, accused…
tonnes by 2020，compared with the 739 billion tonnes
Emission= release, discharge…
recorded in 1990. Once again, road transport is the
main culprit since it alone accounts for 84% of the
Reverse = overturn.
CO2 emissions attributable to transport. Using
alternative fuels and improving energy efficiency is
Culprit= cause, reason…
thus both an ecological necessity and a technological
challenge.
Account for= represent, explain,
answer for…
F At the same time greater efforts must be made to
achieve a modal shift. Such a change cannot be
Deterioration = worsening, decline,
achieved overnight, all the less so after over half a
weakening…
century of constant deterioration in favour of road.
This has reached such a pitch that today rail freight
Marginalise= to make a person or a
services are facing marginalisation, with just 8% of
group of people unimportant and
market share, and with international goods trains
powerless in an unfair way.
struggling along at an average speed of 18km/h. Three
possible options have emerged.
Emerge= appear, come out…

G The first approach would consist of focusing on road

transport solely through pricing. This option would not Accompany= go along with, go
be accompanied by complementary measures in the together with…
other modes of transport. In the short term it might
curb the growth in road transport through the better Complementary= balancing.
loading ratio of goods vehicles and occupancy rates
of passenger vehicles expected as a result of the Ratio= proportion, percentage…
increase in the price of transport. However, the lack of
measures available to revitalise other modes of Curb= hold back, limit, restrain, reduce,
transport would make it impossible for more cut back…
sustainable modes of transport to take up the baton.
Occupancy= the number of people who
H The second approach also concentrates on road stay, work, or live in a room or building
transport pricing but is accompanied by measures to at the same time.
increase the efficiency of the other modes (better
quality of services, logistics, technology). However, Concentrate on= focus on.
this approach does not include investment in new
infrastructure, nor does it guarantee better regional Logistics= the business of transporting
cohesion. It could help to achieve greater uncoupling things such as goods to the place where
than the first approach, but road transport would keep they are needed.
the lion‟s share of the market and continue to
concentrate on saturated arteries, despite being the Infrastructure= the basic systems and
most polluting of the modes. It is therefore not enough structures that a country or organization
to guarantee the necessary shift of the balance. needs in order to work properly, for
example roads, railways, banks etc.
I The third approach, which is not new, comprises a
series of measures ranging from pricing to revitalising Cohesion= unity, consistency,
alternative modes of transport and targeting organization…
investment in the trans-European network. This
integrated approach would allow the market shares of Uncoupling= disconnection,
the other modes to return to their 1998 levels and thus separation…
make a shift of balance. It is far more ambitious than it
looks, bearing in mind the historical imbalance in Saturated= soaked, wet…
favour of roads for the last fifty years, but would
achieve a marked break in the link between road Artery= a main road, railway line, river
transport growth and economic growth, without placing etc.
restrictions on the mobility of people and goods.
Revitalizing= refreshing, renewing…

Bear in mind=since, given that…

T he sense of smell, or olfaction, is powerful.

Odours affect us on a physical, psychological and
olfaction= the action of smelling ɒlˈfæk.ʃən
odour = smell, whiff, scent, fragrance,
perfume, aroma. ˈəʊdə
aroma = a pleasant smell, especially from food
social level. For the most part, however, we breathe in or coffee. əˈrəʊmə
consciously = aware, intentionally, on
the aromas which surround us without being purpose, unintentionally ˈkɒnʃəsli
consciously aware of their importance to us. It is only faculty = a natural ability, capacity, sense, #
when the faculty of smell is impaired for some reason inability ˈfæklti
that we begin to realise the essential role the sense of impair = harm, damage, weaken, worsen,
smell plays in our sense of well-being #enhance ɪmˈpeə

A conduct = do, make, carry out. (duc=make .i.e

A survey conducted by Anthony Synott at Montreal’s produce, introduce) kənˈdʌkt
Concordia University asked participants to comment on evoke = induce, arouse, stir up, #suppress
how important smell was to them in their lives. It ɪˈvəʊk
rush = flow, pour, gush, stream rʌʃ
became apparent that smell can evoke strong foul = unpleasant, disgusting, horrible. faʊl
emotional responses. A scent associated with a good grimace = twist, pull a face, make a face,
experience can bring a rush of joy, while a foul odour #smile. ɡrɪˈmeɪs
or one associated with a bad memory may make us disgust = revulsion, repugnance, loathing,
grimace with disgust. Respondents to the survey hatred, #attraction dɪsˈɡʌst
respondent = responder, participant,
noted that many of their olfactory likes and dislikes
interviewee, answerer. rɪˈspɒndənt
were based on emotional associations. Such
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associations can be powerful enough so that odours association = connection, involvement,
that we would generally label unpleasant become correlation əˌsəʊʃiˈeɪʃn̩
agreeable, and those that we would generally consider consist= contain, involve, comprise kənˈsɪst
fragrant become disagreeable for particular individuals.
The perception of smell, therefore, consists not only of
sensation=feeling, sense, awareness senˈseɪʃn̩
the sensation of the odours themselves, but of the
experiences and emotions associated with them.

B
Odours are also essential cues in social bonding. One cue = hint, clue, signal, sign kjuː
respondent to the survey believed that there is no true bonding= connection, relationship,
emotional bonding without touching and smelling a association. ˈbɒndɪŋ
loved one. In fact, infants recognise the odours of their infant= baby, child, newborn. ˈɪnfənt
mothers soon after birth and adults can often identify
spouse = husband/wife, partner, other half.
their children or spouses by scent. In one well-known
spaʊz
test, women and men were able to distinguish by
smell alone clothing worn by their marriage partners distinguish = recognize, identify, discern.
from similar clothing worn by other people. Most of the dɪˈstɪŋɡwɪʃ
subjects would probably never have given much
thought to odour as a cue for identifying family register = realize, notice= if something
members before being involved in the test, but as the registers, or if you register it, you realize or
experiment revealed, even when not consciously notice it, and then remember it ˈredʒɪstə
considered, smells register.
C
In spite of its importance to our emotional and sensory sensory= sensual, bodily, #intellectual
lives, smell is probably the most undervalued sense in (sens=feel.i.e sensitive, sensible) ˈsensəri
many cultures. The reason often given for the low undervalued = underestimate, underrated.
ʌndəˈvæljuːd
regard in which smell is held is that, in comparison with
feeble = weak, ineffective, poor, #strong, #
its importance among animals, the human sense of
effective ˈfiːbl̩
smell is feeble and undeveloped. While it is true that
possess = have, hold, own, retain, #lack
the olfactory powers of humans are nothing like as fine pəˈzes
as those possessed by certain animals, they are still remarkably = extraordinarily, amazingly,
remarkably acute. Our noses are able to recognise outstandingly, extremely. rɪˈmɑːkəbli
thousands of smells, and to perceive odours which are acute = sharp, sensitive, heightened əˈkjuːt
present only in extremely small quantities. perceive= notice, sense, recognize. pəˈsiːv
D
Smell, however, is a highly elusive phenomenon. elusive = indefinable, indescribable, hard to
Odours, unlike colours, for instance, cannot be named pin down. ɪˈluːsɪv
in many languages because the specific vocabulary phenomenon = occurrence, fact, event,
simply doesn’t exist. ‘It smells like...,’ we have to say happening fɪˈnɒmɪnən
when describing an odour, struggling to express our struggle =strive, strain, make an effort ˈstrʌɡl̩
olfactory experience. Nor can odours be recorded: capture = catch, seize, take, pick up,
#release. (capt=hold, take .i.e captivate) ˈkæptʃə
there is no effective way to either capture or store
realm = area, field, department, scope. relm
them over time. In the realm of olfaction, we must
implication = suggestion, association,
make do with descriptions and recollections. This has
insinuation. ɪmplɪˈkeɪʃn̩
implications for olfactory research.

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E
Most of the research on smell undertaken to date has undertake = carry out, do # neglect ʌndəˈteɪk
been of a physical scientific nature. Significant
advances have been made in the understanding of the proper = correct, appropriate, accurate ˈprɒpə
biological and chemical nature of olfaction, but many
objectively = accurately, empirically,
fundamental questions have yet to be answered.
Researchers have still to decide whether smell is one demonstrably, tangibly, #subjectively
sense or two - one responding to odours proper and əbˈdʒektɪvli
the other registering odourless chemicals in the air. psychology = the mental processes involved
Other unanswered questions are whether the nose is
the only part of the body affected by odours, and how in believing in something or doing
smells can be measured objectively given the a certain activity saɪˈkɒlədʒi
nonphysical components. Questions like these mean
inevitably = predictably, unsurprisingly,
that interest in the psychology of smell is inevitably
set to play an increasingly important role for without doubt. ɪnˈevɪtəbli
researchers.
F
However, smell is not simply a biological and
psychological phenomenon. Smell is cultural, hence it invest = supply, enable, put in. ɪnˈvest
is a social and historical phenomenon. Odours are
offensive = unpleasant, distasteful, disgusting
invested with cultural values: smells that are
considered to be offensive in some cultures may be əˈfensɪv
perfectly acceptable in others. Therefore, our sense of model = example, type, sort, genre ˈmɒdl̩
smell is a means of, and model for, interacting with the intimate = private, personal, secret, #public
world. Different smells can provide us with intimate ˈɪntɪmeɪt
and emotionally charged experiences and the value
attach = connect, stick, glue, #detach əˈtætʃ
that we attach to these experiences is interiorised by
the members of society in a deeply personal way. interior = inner, inside >< exterior. ɪnˈtɪərɪə
Importantly, our commonly held feelings about smells
can help distinguish us from other cultures. The study essence = the most basic and important
of the cultural history of smell is, therefore, in a very
quality of something. ˈesns
real sense, an investigation into the essence of human
culture.

A n accident that occurred in the skies over the establishment = founding, launch, creation.
ɪˈstæblɪʃmənt

Grand Canyon in 1956 resulted in the federal Aviation Administration (FAA) of

the United States = a national authority with
establishment of the Federal Aviation Administration
powers to regulate all aspects of flying in
(FAA) to regulate and oversee the operation of aircraft aircraft. ˈfedərəl ˌeɪviˈeɪʃn̩ ədˌmɪnɪˈstreɪʃn̩ (FAA)
in the skies over the United States, which were
congested = full of traffic, overfilled, blocked,
becoming quite congested. The resulting structure of air
crowded, #empty, #clear kənˈdʒestɪd
traffic control has greatly increased the safety of flight in
the United States, and similar air traffic control procedure = process, way, method.
prəˈsiːdʒə
procedures are also in place over much of the rest of
the wor
B rudimentary = basic, elementary, simple,
Rudimentary air traffic control (ATC) existed well before fundamental # advanced ruːdɪˈmentri
the Grand Canyon disaster. As early as the 1920s, the manually = by hand, physically, # mental
earliest air traffic controllers manually guided aircraft in ˈmænjʊəli
the vicinity of the airports, using lights and flags, while vicinity (of something) = neighborhood,
beacons and flashing lights were placed along cross- locality, surrounding area vɪˈsɪnɪti
beacon = signal, sign, warning light, ˈbiːkən
country routes to establish the earliest airways.
purely = entirely, wholly, totally, completely,
However, this purely visual system was useless in bad # partly ˈpjʊəli
weather, and, by the 1930s, radio communication was
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coming into use for ATC. The first region to have
something approximating today’s ATC was New York
metropolitan= urban, municipal, civic
City, with other major metropolitan areas following metrəˈpɒlɪtən
soon after.
C
In the 1940s, ATC centres could and did take advantage regulation = control, guideline, adjustment,
of the newly developed radar and improved radio rule. reɡjʊˈleɪʃn̩
communication brought about by the Second World fortuitous = lucky, fortunate, miraculous.
fɔːˈtjuːɪtəs
War, but the system remained rudimentary. It was only
advent = arrival, beginning, initiation, #
after the creation of the FAA that full-scale regulation of departure ˈædvent
America’s airspace took place, and this was fortuitous, jet engine = an engine that pushes out
for the advent of the jet engine suddenly resulted in a a stream of hot air and gases behind it, used
large number of very fast planes, reducing pilots’ in aircraft ˈdʒet ˈendʒɪn
margin of error and practically demanding some set of margin of error = the degree to which
a calculation might or can be wrong ˈmɑːdʒɪn
rules to keep everyone well separated and operating əv ˈerə
safely in the air.
D consist of = comprise, be made up of, be
Many people think that ATC consists of a row of compose of, comprise, make up. kənˈsɪst ɒv
controllers sitting in front of their radar screens at the
nation’s airports, telling arriving and departing traffic
what to do. This is a very incomplete part of the picture. realise = recognize, understand,
The FAA realised that the airspace over the United comprehend, # misunderstand ˈrɪəlaɪz
States would at any time have many different kinds of
planes, flying for many different purposes, in a variety of
weather conditions, and the same kind of structure was accommodate = adapt, acclimatize, adjust.
needed to accommodate all of them. əˈkɒmədeɪt
E
To meet this challenge, the following elements were put put into effect = to make a plan or idea
into effect. First, ATC extends over virtually the entire happen ˈpʊt ˈɪntə ɪˈfekt
United States. In general, from 365m above the ground
virtually = almost, nearly, near. ˈvɜːtʃʊəli
and higher, the entire country is blanketed by controlled
airspace. In certain areas, mainly near airports, blanket = to cover something with a
controlled airspace extends down to 215m above the thick layer. ˈblæŋkɪt
ground, and, in the immediate vicinity of an airport, all regulation= rule, guideline, directive.
the way down to the surface. Controlled airspace is that reɡjʊˈleɪʃn̩
airspace in which FAA regulations apply. Elsewhere, in bind = require, force, oblige. baɪnd
uncontrolled airspace, pilots are bound by fewer recreation = fun, enjoyment, pleasure,
regulations. In this way, the recreational pilot who good/great time, a blast, entertainment,
simply wishes to go flying for a while without all the relaxation, leisure. rekrɪˈeɪʃn̩
restrictions imposed by the FAA has only to stay in impose= force, require, obey, make rules.
uncontrolled airspace, below 365m, while the pilot who ɪmˈpəʊz
does want the protection afforded by ATC can easily afford= give, offer, provide, allow. əˈfɔːd
enter the controlled airspace.
F
The FAA then recognised two types of operating meteorological = atmospheric, climatic,
environments. In good meteorological conditions, flying weather. miːtjərəˈlɒdʒɪkl̩

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would be permitted under Visual Flight Rules (VFR), reliance = dependence, rely on, hinge on.
which suggests a strong reliance on visual cues to rɪˈlaɪəns
maintain an acceptable level of safety. Poor visibility necessitate = essential, require, need,
necessitated a set of Instrumental Flight Rules (IFR), demand. nɪˈsesɪteɪt
under which the pilot relied on altitude and cue = signal, indication, clue. kjuː
navigational information provided by the plane’s altitude = height above sea level. ˈæltɪtjuːd
instrument panel to fly safely. On a clear day, a pilot in navigation= direction-finding, steering,
controlled airspace can choose a VFR or IFR flight plan, routing. nævɪˈɡeɪʃn̩
and the FAA regulations were devised in a way which devise = plan, develop, create, set up.
accommodates both VFR and IFR operations in the dɪˈvaɪz
same airspace. However, a pilot can only choose to fly possess = own, have, hold, keep, #lack
IFR if they possess an instrument rating which is above pəˈzes
and beyond the basic pilot’s license that must also be
held.
G
Controlled airspace is divided into several different
types, designated by letters of the alphabet. designate= elect, label, entitle, define.
Uncontrolled airspace is designated Class F, while ˈdezɪɡneɪt
controlled airspace below 5,490m above sea level and
not in the vicinity of an airport is Class E. All airspace
above 5,490m is designated Class A. The reason for the
stem from= arise from, originate from, come
division of Class E and Class A airspace stems from from. stem frɒm
the type of planes operating in them. Generally, Class E
airspace is where one finds general aviation aircraft (few
of which can climb above 5,490m anyway), and turboprop= an aircraft that gets power from
commercial turboprop aircraft. Above 5,490m is the this type of engine. tɜːbəʊˈprɒp
realm of the heavy jets, since jet engines operate more realm = area, space, range, field. relm
efficiently at higher altitudes. The difference between
instrumentation= the set of instruments
Class E and A airspace is that in Class A, all operations
used to help in controlling a machine
are IFR, and pilots must be instrument-rated, that is, ɪnstrʊmenˈteɪʃn̩
skilled and licensed in aircraft instrumentation. This is
correspond = realate, tally, link, match up.
because ATC control of the entire space is essential.
kɒrɪˈspɒnd
Three other types of airspace, Classes D, C and B,
govern the vicinity of airports. These correspond municipal= civic, public, community,
roughly to small municipal, medium-sized metropolitan #private mjuːˈnɪsɪpl̩
and major metropolitan airports respectively, and encompass = include, cover, contain,
encompass an increasingly rigorous set of regulations. #exclude ɪnˈkʌmpəs
For example, all a VFR pilot has to do to enter Class C rigorous= precise, careful, accurate ˈrɪɡərəs
airspace is establish two-way radio contact with ATC. explicit = clear, precise, exact, #implicit.
No explicit permission from ATC to enter is needed, ɪkˈsplɪsɪt
although the pilot must continue to obey all regulations govern= rule, oversee, manage, control,
governing VFR flight. To enter Class B airspace, such regulate. ˈɡʌvn̩
as on approach to a major metropolitan airport, an cruise = fly, travel, take off, voyage. kruːz
explicit ATC clearance is required. The private pilot who
license = certificate, pass, card, permit.
cruises without permission into this airspace risks losing ˈlaɪsns
their license.

T he Search for Extra-terrestrial Intelligence

The question of whether we are alone in the Universe
extra-terrestrial= relating to things that
exist outside the earth. ˈekstrə təˈrestriəl
haunt= to cause problems for someone
over a long period of time hɔːnt
has haunted humanity for centuries, but we may now
poised on the brink/edge of something
stand poised on the brink of the answer to that = completely ready to do something or for
question, as we search for radio signals from other something to happen, when it is likely to
happen soon. pɔɪzd ˈɒn ðə brɪŋk/ edʒ əv
intelligent civilisations. This search, often known by ˈsʌmθɪŋ
the acronym SETI (search for extra-terrestrial civilisation= a society that is well
organized and developed, used especially
intelligence], is a difficult one. Although groups around about a particular society in a particular
the world have been searching intermittently for three place or at a particular time sɪvəl-aɪˈzeɪʃən
intermittently= sporadically= stopping
decades, it is only now that we have reached the level
and starting often and for short periods.
of technology where we can make a determined ɪntəˈmɪtntli
determined= having a strong desire to do
attempt to search all nearby stars for any sign of life.
something, so that you will not let anyone
stop you. dɪˈtɜːmɪnd

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The primary reason for the search is basic curiosity - primary= main, chief, key, principal, most
the same curiosity about the natural world that drives important. ˈpraɪməri
curiosity= the desire to know about
all pure science. We want to know whether we are something. kjʊəriˈɒsəti
alone in the Universe. We want to know whether life drive= push, impel, urge draɪv
evolves naturally if given the right conditions, or pure science= a science depending on
deductions from demonstrated truths, such as
whether there is something very special about the
mathematics or logic, or studied without regard
Earth to have fostered the variety of life forms that to practical applications. pjʊə ˈsaɪəns
we see around us on the planet. The simple detection evolve= develop, change, grow, progress ɪˈvɒlv
of a radio signal will be sufficient to answer this most foster= promote, encourage. ˈfɒstə
life form= any living thing laɪf fɔːm
basic of all questions. In this sense, SETI is another
detection= discovery, finding. dɪˈtekʃən
cog in the machinery of pure science which is sufficient= enough, plenty, adequate səˈfɪʃənt
continually pushing out the horizon of our knowledge. a cog in the machine/wheel= someone who
However, there are other reasons for being interested only has a small unimportant job in a large
organization. ə ˈkɒɡ ɪn ðə məˈʃiːn/ ˈwiːl̩
in whether life exists elsewhere. For example, we have
push smt out= to produce large quantities of
had civilisation on Earth for perhaps only a few something pʊʃ ˈsʌmθɪŋ ˈaʊt
thousand years, and the threats of nuclear war and threat= danger, risk, menace θret
pollution over the last few decades have told us that survival= existence, being #death səˈvaɪvəl
tenuous= uncertain, weak, vague ˈtenjuəs
our survival may be tenuous. Will we last another
last= survive, live, endure lɑːst
two thousand years or will we wipe ourselves out? wipe something out= to destroy, remove, or
Since the lifetime of a planet like ours is several billion get rid of something completely. waɪp ˈsʌmθɪŋ
aʊt
years, we can expect that, if other civilisations do
lifetime= lifespan, duration, lifecycle ˈlaɪftaɪm
survive in our galaxy, their ages will range from zero to expect= anticipate, await, wait for ɪkˈspekt
several billion years. Thus any other civilisation that mere= used to emphasize that something
we hear from is likely to be far older, on average, than which is small or not extreme has a big effect
ourselves. The mere existence of such a civilisation or is important mɪə
optimism= a tendency to believe that good
will tell us that long-term survival is possible, and gives things will always happen
us some cause for optimism. It is even possible that ≠pessimism ˈɒptəmɪzəm
the older civilisation may pass on the benefits of their pass smt on (to somebody)= to give
something to somebody else, especially after
experience in dealing with threats to survival such
receiving it or using it yourself pɑːs ˈsʌmθɪŋ ˈɒn
as nuclear war and global pollution, and other threats (tu ˈsʌmbədi)
that we haven’t yet discovered. deal with= to take the necessary action,
B especially in order to solve a problem diːl wɪð

In discussing whether we are alone, most SETI adopt= accept, assume, approve əˈdɒpt
ground rules= the basic rules or principles on
scientists adopt two ground rules. First, UFQs which future actions or behaviour should be
(Unidentified Flying Objects) are generally ignored based. ɡraʊnd ruːls
consider= think, believe, contemplate kənˈsɪdə
since most scientists don’t consider the evidence for evidence= proof, testimony, fact ˈevɪdəns
bear= to be responsible for or accept
them to be strong enough to bear serious something beə
consideration= thought, comtemplation,
consideration (although it is also important to keep an deliberation kənˌsɪdəˈreɪʃən

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open mind in case any really convincing evidence an open mind= if you have an open mind,
you deliberately do not make a decision or
emerges in the future). Second, we make a very form a definite opinion about something.
ən ˈəʊpən maɪnd
conservative assumption that we are looking for a
convincing= persuasive, believable,
life form that is pretty well like us, since if it differs credible. kənˈvɪnsɪŋ
emerge= arise, appear, occur, develop.
radically from us we may well not recognise it as a life ɪˈmɜːdʒ
conservative = traditional, old-fashioned,
form, quite apart from whether we are able to
conventional. kənˈsɜːvətɪv
communicate with it. In other words, the life form we assumption= supposition, guess,
hypothesis, theory, belief. əˈsʌmpʃən
are looking for may well have two green heads and radically= very, completely, totally,
seven fingers, but it will nevertheless resemble us in drastically. ˈrædɪkli
resemble= look like, be similar to #differ
that it should communicate with its fellows, be somebody’s fellows= people that you work
with, study with, or who are in the same
interested in the Universe, live on a planet orbiting a situation as you. rɪˈzembəl
star like our Sun, and perhaps most restrictively, have sb's fellows=people that you work with,
study with, or who are in the same situation
a chemistry, like us, based on carbon and water. as you ˈsəmˌbɑːdi ˈfeləʊz
orbit= to travel in a curved path around a
much larger object such as the earth, the
C sun etc. ˈɔːbɪt
Even when we make these assumptions, our
understanding of other life forms is still severely severely= strictly, cruelly, harshly #gently
limited. We do not even know, for example, how many səˈvɪəli

stars have planets, and we certainly do not know how arise= happen, occur, start, appear. əˈraɪz
likely it is that life will arise naturally, given the right observable= noticeable, visible, apparent,
conditions. However, when we look at the 100 billion obvious əbˈzɜːvəbəl
stars in our galaxy (the Milky Way), and 100 billion
inconceivable= unthinkable,
galaxies in the observable Universe, it seems
inconceivable that at least one of these planets does unimaginable, unbelievable. ɪnkənˈsiːvəbəl
not have a life form on it; in fact, the best educated educated guess= a guess that is likely to
guess we can make, using the little that we do know be correct because it is based on some
about the conditions for carbon-based life, leads us to knowledge ˈedʒʊkeɪtɪd ɡes
estimate that perhaps one in 100,000 stars might have
estimate= calculate approximately.
a life-bearing planet orbiting it. That means that our
ˈestəmət
nearest neighbours are perhaps 100 light years away,
which is almost next door in astronomical terms. astronomical= relating to the scientific
study of the stars. æstrəˈnɒmɪkəl
D
An alien civilisation could choose many different alien= in stories, a creature from another
ways of sending information across the galaxy, but world ˈeɪliən
many of these either require too much energy, or else require= need, involve, entail. rɪˈkwaɪə

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are severely attenuated while traversing the vast severely= harshly, strictly. səˈvɪəli
attenuate= weaken, reduce, decrease
distances across the galaxy. It turns out that, for a əˈtenjueɪt
given amount of transmitted power, radio waves in traverse= pass through= to move across,
the frequency range 1000 to 3000 MHz travel the over, or through something, especially an area
of land or water. ˈtrævɜːs
greatest distance, and so all searches to date have
vast= huge, massive, immense vɑːst
concentrated on looking for radio waves in this transmit= transfer, communicate, spread
frequency range. So far there have been a number of trænzˈmɪt
frequency= the number of radio waves, sound
searches by various groups around the world, waves etc that pass any point per second.
including Australian searches using the radio ˈfriːkwənsi
telescope at Parkes, New South Wales. Until now to date= up to now. tu deɪt
concentrate on= focus on, think, deliberate,
there have not been any detections from the few contemplate. ˈkɒnsəntreɪt ɒn
hundred stars which have been searched. The scale various= numerous, many, countless. ˈveəriəs
of the searches has been increased dramatically radio telescope= a piece of equipment that
collects radio waves from space and is used to
since 1992, when the US Congress voted NASA $10 find stars and other objects in space. ˈreɪdiəʊ
million per year for ten years to conduct a thorough ˈteləskəʊp
search for extra-terrestrial life. Much of the money in detection= discovery, finding, recognition
dɪˈtekʃən
this project is being spent on developing the special scale= size, level, range, degree skeɪl
hardware needed to search many frequencies at dramatically= radically, noticeably,
considerably, significantly. drəˈmætɪkli
once. The project has two parts. One part is a
congress= the group of people elected to
targeted search using the world’s largest radio make laws in the us, consisting of the senate
telescopes, the American-operated telescope in and the house of representatives ˈkɒŋɡres
Arecibo, Puerto Rico and the French telescope in conduct = do, perform, carry out kənˈdʌkt
thorough= detailed, full, comprehensive ˈθʌrə
Nancy in France. This part of the project is searching hardware= the machinery and equipment that
the nearest 1000 likely stars with high sensitivity for is needed to do something. ˈhɑːdweə
signals in the frequency range 1000 to 3000 MHz. target= aim, point, direct ˈtɑːɡɪt
sensitivity= the ability to react to very small
The other part of the project is an undirected search changes in light, heat, movement etc
which is monitoring all of space with a lower sensəˈtɪvəti
sensitivity, using the smaller antennas of NASA’s monitor= check, observe, watch, supervise
ˈmɒnɪtə
Deep Space Network. antenna= a wire rod etc used for receiving
radio and television signals ænˈtenə
E
considerable= substantial, large, significant,
There is considerable debate over how we should huge. kənˈsɪdərəbəl
debate= argument, discussion. dɪˈbeɪt
react if we detect a signal from an alien civilisation. impracticality= not sensible or possible for
practical reasons ɪmˈpræktɪkəl
Everybody agrees that we should not reply at short notice= if you do something at short
notice, you do not have very much time to
immediately. Quite apart from the impracticality of prepare for it ət ʃɔːt ˈnəʊtɪs
sending a reply over such large distances at short a host of= a large number of people or things
ə həʊst ɒv
notice, it raises a host of ethical questions that would ethical= moral, principled #unethical ˈeθɪkəl

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have to be addressed by the global community before address a problem/question/issue etc=

if you address a problem, you start trying
any reply could be sent. Would the human race face to solve it əˈdres ə ˈprɒbləm ˈkwestʃən ˈɪʃuː
etˈsetrə
the culture shock if faced with a superior and much
face= tackle, confront, handle feɪs
older civilisation? Luckily, there is no urgency about culture shock= the feeling of being
confused or anxious that you get when
this. The stars being searched are hundreds of light you visit a foreign country or a place that is
years away, so it takes hundreds of years for their very different from the one you are used to
ˈkʌltʃə ʃɒk
signal to reach us, and a further few hundred years for superior= someone who has a higher
rank or position than you, especially in a
our reply to reach them. It’s not important, then, if job suːˈpɪəriə
urgency= very important and needing to
there’s a delay of a few years, or decades, while the
be dealt with immediately ˈɜːdʒənsi
human race debates the question of whether to reply, draft= to write a plan, letter, report etc that
will need to be changed before it is in its
and perhaps carefully drafts a reply. finished form drɑːft

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T his book will provide a detailed examination of the

climatic = relating to the weather in a particular
area. klaɪˈmætɪk
shift = change, alteration, modification ʃɪft
embark on= start, begin, get on ɪmˈbɑːk ɒn
Little Ice Age and other climatic shifts, but, before I oppose = versus, against, contrasted with.
embark on that, let me provide a historical context. We (op=against .i.e, opposition) əˈpəʊz
at the mercy of =unable to do anything to protect
tend to think of climate - as opposed to weather - as yourself from someone or something ət ðə ˈmɜːsi ɒv
something unchanging, yet humanity has been at the existence = being, survival, #extinction ɪɡˈzɪstəns
mercy of climate change for its entire existence, with at glacial = icy, freezing, cold, # tropical ˈɡleɪsɪəl
irregular = unusual, abnormal, #proper (regul= rule
least eight glacial episodes in the past 730,000 years. .i.em regular, regulation) ɪˈreɡjʊlə
Our ancestors adapted to the universal but irregular dazzling = bright, strong, brilliant, harsh. ˈdæzl̩ ɪŋ
global warming since the end of the last great Ice Age, opportunism= using
every opportunity to gain power, money, or unfair
around 10,000 years ago, with dazzling opportunism. advantages – used to show disapproval.
They developed strategies for surviving harsh drought ɒpəˈtjuːnɪzəm
cycles, decades of heavy rainfall or unaccustomed cold; unaccustomed = unfamiliar, unusual, different,
strange. ʌnəˈkʌstəmd
adopted agriculture and stock-raising, which stock-raising = to look after animals ˈstɒkˌreɪzɪŋ
revolutionised human life; and founded the world’s first civilisation = a society that is well organized and
pre-industrial civilisations in Egypt, Mesopotamia and developed, used especially about a particular
place or particular time (civ=citizen .i.e civic, civilian)
the Americas. But the price of sudden climate change, in sɪvəl-aɪˈzeɪʃən
famine, disease and suffering, was often high. famine = scarcity, food crisis, food shortage.
ˈfæmɪn
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B
The Little Ice Age lasted from roughly 1300 until the glacier = a large mass of ice which moves
middle of the nineteenth century. Only two centuries ago, slowly down a mountain valley ˈɡlæsɪə
Europe experienced a cycle of bitterly cold winters; unprecedented = extraordinary, first-time
mountain glaciers in the Swiss Alps were the lowest in exceptional, unusual, #ordinary ʌnˈpresɪdentɪd
recorded memory, and pack ice surrounded Iceland for seesaw = alternation, oscillation, swing. ˈsiːsɔː
much of the year. The climatic events of the Little Ice Age
irregular = random, erratic, variable #regular
did more than help shape the modern world. They are the
ɪˈreɡjʊlə
deeply important context for the current unprecedented
interaction = communication, contact,
global warming. The Little Ice Age was far from a deep
freeze, however; rather an irregular seesaw of rapid interface. ɪntəˈrækʃn̩
climatic shifts, few lasting more than a quarter-century, switch = change, shift, adjustment. swɪtʃ
driven by complex and still little understood interactions abruptly= suddenly and unexpectedly
between the atmosphere and the ocean. The seesaw (rupt=break .i.e disrupt, interrupt) əˈbrʌptli
brought cycles of intensely cold winters and easterly mild = slight, minor, weak, warm maɪld
winds, then switched abruptly to years of heavy spring
heat wave = a period of
and early summer rains, mild winters, and frequent
unusually hot weather, especially one that
Atlantic storms, or to periods of droughts, light
continues for a long time, #cold spell hi:t weɪv
northeasterly winds, and summer heat wave.
C
Reconstructing the climate changes of the past is reconstruct = rebuilding, recreate, modernize
(struct= build .i.e construction, structure) riːkənˈstrʌkt
extremely difficult, because systematic weather observation = surveillance, scrutiny,
observations began only a few centuries ago, in Europe watching, #neglect ɒbzəˈveɪʃn̩
and North America. Records from India and tropical Africa proxy = substitution, deputation, delegation
are even more recent. For the time before records began, ˈprɒksi
supplement = addition, extra, complement.
we have only ‘proxy records’ reconstructed largely from (ple=fill, full .i.e replete, plethora) ˈsʌplɪment
tree rings and ice cores, supplemented by a few tree-ring = one of the rings that you can see in
incomplete written accounts. We now have hundreds of a tree trunk (= centre part) if you cut through it.
tree-ring records from throughout the northern triː- rɪŋ
hemisphere, and many from south of the equator, too, hemisphere = a half of the Earth, especially
one of the halves above and below the equator
amplified with a growing body of temperature data from (hemi=half.i.e hemicycle, hemicube) ˈhemɪsfɪə
ice cores drilled in Antarctica, Greenland, the Peruvian amplify = increase, strengthen, #reduce
Andes, and other locations. We are close to a knowledge ˈæmplɪfaɪ
of annual summer and winter temperature variations drill = pierce, penetrate, make a hole drɪl
variation = difference, distinction, #similarity
over much of the northern hemisphere going back 600 veərɪˈeɪʃn̩
years.
D narrative = story, tale, description ˈnærətɪv
This book is a narrative history of climatic shifts during adapt = familiarize, get used to, adjust.
the past ten centuries, and some of the ways in which əˈdæpt
people in Europe adapted to them. Part One describes norse = relating to the people
the Medieval Warm Period, roughly 900 to 1200. During of ancient Scandinavia or their language.
these three centuries, Norse voyagers from Northern nɔːs
Europe explored northern seas, settled Greenland, and voyager= traveler, explorer, adventurer
visited North America. It was not a time of uniform ˈvɔɪɪdʒə
warmth, for then, as always since the Great Ice Age, settle = stay, set up house, inhabit ˈsetl̩
there were constant shifts in rainfall and temperature. uniform = unchanging, constant, unvarying,
Mean European temperatures were about the same as # uneven ˈjuːnɪfɔːm
today, perhaps slightly cooler.
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E
It is known that the Little Ice Age cooling began in reroute = redirect, deflect, switch riˈruːt
Greenland and the Arctic in about 1200. As the Arctic ice descend = fall down, fall, decline, #ascend
pack spread southward, Norse voyages to the west were (de=decline .i.e decrease, declince, destroy) dɪˈsend
rerouted into the open Atlantic, then ended altogether. perish = die, pass away, decease, #live,
Storminess increased in the North Atlantic and North Sea. #survive ˈperɪʃ
Colder, much wetter weather descended on Europe
continent = mainland, landmass, landform,
between 1315 and 1319, when thousands perished in a
land ˈkɒntɪnənt
continent-wide famine. By 1400, the weather had
culminate = end, finish, #start. ˈkʌlmɪneɪt
become decidedly more unpredictable and stormier, with
sudden shifts and lower temperatures that culminated in cod = a large sea fish that lives in
the cold decades of the late sixteenth century. Fish were the North Atlantic kɒd
a vital commodity in growing towns and cities, where food herring= a long thin silver sea fish that can be
supplies were a constant concern. Dried cod and herring eaten. ˈherɪŋ
were already the staples of the European fish trade, but staple = a food that is needed and used all the
changes in water temperatures forced fishing fleets to time ˈsteɪpl̩
work further offshore. The Basques, Dutch, and English offshore = in or under the sea and not far from
developed the first offshore fishing boats adapted to a the coast. ɒfˈʃɔː
colder and stormier Atlantic. A gradual agricultural stem from = arise from, come from, be a
revolution in Northern Europe stemmed from concerns result of. stem frɒm
over food supplies at a time of rising populations. The
fodder = food, silage, rations, feed ˈfɒdə
revolution involved intensive commercial farming and the
growing of animal fodder on land not previously used for self-sufficient = independent, autonomous,
crops. The increased productivity from farmland made self-supporting self səˈfɪʃnt
some countries self-sufficient in grain and livestock and
offered effective protection against famine.
F vast = huge, massive, enormous. vɑːst
Global temperatures began to rise slowly after 1850, with migration = relocation, movement,
the beginning of the Modern Warm Period. There was a immigration, resettlement maɪˈɡreɪʃn̩
vast migration from Europe by land-hungry farmers and blight = disease, an unhealthy condition of
others, to which the famine caused by the Irish potato plants in which parts of them dry up and die.
blight contributed to North America, Australia, New blaɪt
Zealand, and southern Africa. Millions of hectares of unprecedented= unusual, exceptional, rare.
forest and woodland fell before the newcomers’ axes ʌnˈpresɪdentɪd
between 1850 and 1890, as intensive European farming clearance= permission, authorization,
methods expanded across the world. The allowance. ˈklɪərəns
unprecedented land clearance released vast quantities trigger = activate, cause, elicit, #halt . ˈtrɪɡə
of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, triggering for the proliferate = increase, multiply, grow.
first time humanly caused global warming. Temperatures prəˈlɪfəreɪt
climbed more rapidly in the twentieth century as the use soar =increase, rise, escalate, #plummet sɔː
of fossil fuels proliferated and greenhouse gas levels steep = sheer, sharp, vertical stiːp.
continued to soar. The rise has been even steeper since regime = system, establishment. reɪˈʒiːm
the early 1980s. The Little Ice Age has given way to a prolonged = continued, extended, long,
new climatic regime, marked by prolonged and steady sustained, # brief, short-lived prəˈlɒŋd
warming. At the same time, extreme weather events like hurricane = storm, cyclone, typhoon,
Category 5 hurricanes are becoming more frequent. tornado ˈhʌrɪkən

O ur life span is restricted. Everyone accepts

this as ‘biologically’ obvious. ‘Nothing lives for ever!’
biological clock= body clock, internal clock,
biological rhythm baɪəˈlɒdʒɪkl̩ ˈklɒk
tick = makes a short repeated sound tɪk
However, in this statement we think of artificially life span = lifetime, life expectancy, natural life
produced, technical objects, products which are ˈlaɪf spæn
subjected to natural wear and tear during use. This restrict = limit, constrain, constrict. rɪˈstrɪkt
leads to the result that at some time or other the artificially = synthetic, man-made, unnaturally,
object stops working and is unusable (‘death’ in the #naturally. ɑːtɪˈfɪʃl̩ i
biological sense). But are the wear and tear and loss organism = an animal, plant, human or any
of function of technical objects and the death of other living thing. ˈɔːɡənɪzəm
living organisms really similar or comparable?
B static = still, standing, inactive >< moving.
Our ‘dead’ products are ‘static’, closed systems. It is ˈstætɪk
always the basic material which constitutes the constitute = to be considered to be something
object and which, in the natural course of things, is ˈkɒnstɪtjuːt
wear down = to gradually become flatter or
worn down and becomes ‘older’. Ageing in this smoother, or to make something become like
case must occur according to the laws of physical this, because of rubbing or use weə daʊn
chemistry and of thermodynamics. Although the ageing = grow older, become old, get older
same law holds for a living organism, the result of ˈeɪdʒɪŋ
thermodynamics = the science that deals with
this law is not inexorable in the same way. At least the relationship betweet heat and other forms of
as long as a biological system has the ability to energy. θɜːməʊdaɪˈnæmɪks
renew itself it could actually become older without inexorable = unstoppable, inevitable,
ageing; an organism is an open, dynamic system unavoidable. ɪnˈeksərəbl̩
through which new material continuously flows. dynamic = lively, active, energetic daɪˈnæmɪk

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Destruction of old material and formation of new destruction = damage, obliteration, demolition,
material are thus in permanent dynamic #construction dɪˈstrʌkʃn̩
permanent = lasting, never-ending, everlasting,
equilibrium. The material of which the organism is
eternal, #temporary ˈpɜːmənən
formed changes continuously. Thus our bodies equilibrium = steadiness, balance, stability,
continuously exchange old substance for new, just #imbalance ˌiːkwɪˈlɪbrɪəm
like a spring which more or less maintains its form material = substance, matter, objects məˈtɪərɪəl
and movement, but in which the water molecules molecule = the smallest unit into which any
are always different. substance can be divided without losing its own
chemical nature. ˈmɒlɪkjuː
C
Thus ageing and death should not be seen as inevitable = unavoidable, predictable,
inevitable, particularly as the organism possesses foreseeable, #avoidable. ɪnˈevɪtəbl̩
many mechanisms for repair. It is not, in principle, possess = have, own, hold. pəˈzes
necessary for a biological system to age and die. existent = in existence, extant, current ɪɡˈzɪstənt
Nevertheless, a restricted life span, ageing, and mutation = a change in the genetic structure of
then death are basic characteristics of life. The any animal or plant that makes it different from
reason for this is easy to recognise: in nature, the others of the same kind. mjuːˈteɪʃn̩
existent organisms either adapt or are regularly optimal = optimum, goal, ideal, best-case
replaced by new types. Because of changes in the scenario ˈɒptɪml̩
genetic material (mutations) these have new adaptation = alteration, adjustment,
characteristics and in the course of their individual modification, change ædæpˈteɪʃn̩
lives they are tested for optimal or better immortality = the state of living forever or being
adaptation to the environmental conditions. remembered forever. ɪmɔːˈtælɪti
Immortality would disturb this system - it needs disturb = interrupt, bother, distract. dɪˈstɜːb
evolution= development, progress, progression.
room for new and better life. This is the basic
iːvəˈluːʃn̩
problem of evolution.
D
Every organism has a life span which is highly striking = outstanding, prominent, noticeable
characteristic. There are striking differences in life ˈstraɪkɪŋ
span between different species, but within one parameter = limitation, boundary, restriction.
species the parameter is relatively constant. For pəˈræmɪtə
example, the average duration of human life has attain= reach, achieve, get. əˈteɪn
hardly changed in thousands of years. Although upper = higher, better, greater. ˈʌpə
more and more people attain an advanced age as a wear and tear theory = aging theory. weər ənd
result of developments in medical care and better teə ˈθɪəri
observation = surveillance, scrutiny,
nutrition, the characteristic upper limit for most
#neglect ɒbzəˈveɪʃn̩
remains 80 years. A further argument against the
unicellular = consisting of only one cell
simple wear and tear theory is the observation juːnɪˈseljələ
that the time within which organisms age lies mammoth = enormous, massive, immense,
between a few days (even a few hours for huge, # tiny ˈmæməθ
unicellular organisms) and several thousand years,
as with mammoth trees.
E
If a life span is a genetically determined biological determine=decide, conclude, settle on dɪˈtɜːmɪn
characteristic, it is logically necessary to propose propose = suggest, recommend, offer prəˈpəʊz
the existence of an internal clock, which in some internal clock = biological clock ɪnˈtɜːnl̩ ˈklɒk
way measures and controls the ageing process and
which finally determines death as the last step in a

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fixed programme. Like the life span, the metabolic metabolism = the chemical processes by which
food is changed into energy in your body.
rate has for different organisms a fixed məˈtæbəˌlɪzəm
mathematical relationship to the body mass. In body mass index = BMI = is a value derived
comparison to the life span this relationship is from the mass (weight) and height of a person.
ˈbɒdi ˌmæs ˈɪndeks
‘inverted’: the larger the organism the lower its invert = turn upside down, turn over, double
metabolic rate. Again this relationship is valid not back. ɪnˈvɜːt
valid = is legally or
only for birds, but also, similarly on average within officially acceptable >< invalid ˈvælɪd
the systematic unit, for all other organisms (plants, systematic = methodical, organized,
animals, unicellular organisms). #disorganized sɪstəˈmætɪk
frugal = careful, cautious, sparing, #extravagant
F ˈfruːɡl̩
Animals which behave ‘frugally’ with energy
become particularly old, for example, crocodiles and chain up = capture, bind, manacle = to fasten
tortoises. Parrots and birds of prey are often held someone or something to something else using
a chain, especially in order to prevent them from
chained up. Thus they are not able to ‘experience escaping or being stolen ˈtʃeɪn ʌp
life’ and so they attain a high life span in captivity. captivity = imprisonment, confinement,
Animals which save energy by hibernation or #freedom kæpˈtɪvɪti
lethargy (e.g. bats or hedgehogs) live much longer hibernate = if an animal hibernates, it sleeps for
the whole winter. ˈhaɪbəneɪt
than those which are always active. The metabolic lethargy = weariness, tiredness, #energy.
rate of mice can be reduced by a very low ˈleθədʒi
consumption of food (hunger diet). They then may comrade = companion, friend, buddymate.
ˈkɒmreɪd
live twice as long as their well fed comrades.
distinctly = clearly, noticeably, definitely.
Women become distinctly (about 10 per cent) older dɪˈstɪŋktli
than men. If you examine the metabolic rates of the roughly = approximately, about, around,
two sexes you establish that the higher male #exactly ˈrʌfli
metabolic rate roughly accounts for the lower male energetically = actively, dynamically,
powerfully. enəˈdʒetɪkl̩ i
life span. That means that they live life intensive = concentrated, exhaustive, thorough.
‘energetically’ - more intensively, but not for as ɪnˈtensɪv
long.
G sparing = using very little of something ˈspeərɪŋ
It follows from the above that sparing use of energy reserve = keep, save, preserve. rɪˈzɜːv
reserves should tend to extend life. Extreme high cardiovascular = relating to the heart and blood
performance sports may lead to optimal vessels. kɑːdiəʊˈvæskjələ
prolong = lengthen, extend, make longer, drag
cardiovascular performance, but they quite something out #curtail prəˈlɒŋ
certainly do not prolong life. Relaxation lowers adequate = sufficient, enough, #inadequate.
metabolic rate, as does adequate sleep and in ˈædɪkwət
general an equable and balanced personality. Each equable = someone who is equable remains
calm and happy and does not often get
of us can develop his or her own ‘energy saving
annoyed. ˈekwəbl̩
programme’ with a little self-observation, critical critical = significant, vital, important. ˈkrɪtɪkl̩
self-control and, above all, logical consistency.
Experience will show that to live in this way not only
increases the life span but is also very healthy. This
final aspect should not be forgotten.
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O ur conception of time depends on the way we

measure it.
chronicle = a written record, history, story of
historical events. ˈkrɒnɪkl̩
timekeeping = the activity of recording the time
something takes ˈtaɪmˌkiːpɪŋ

A advent = coming, start, arrival, the time when

According to archaeological evidence, at least 5,000 something first begins to be widely used. ˈædvent
years ago, and long before the advent of the co-ordinate = organize, manage, direct, to make
various, separate things work together. kəʊˈɔːdnɪt
Roman Empire, the Babylonians began to measure communal = shared, common, public, relating or
time, introducing calendars to co-ordinate belonging to all the people living in a particular.
ˈkɒmjʊnl̩
communal activities, to plan the shipment of goods regulate= control, adjust, standardize. ˈreɡjʊleɪt
and, in particular, to regulate planting and solar = relating to the Sun ˈsəʊlə
harvesting. They based their calendars on three axis = alignment, centre line, (the imaginary line
around which a large round object, such as the
natural cycles: the solar day, marked by the Earth). ˈæksɪs
successive periods of light and darkness as the lunar = relating to the Moon. ˈluːnə
orbit = circle, revolve around, travel around, go
earth rotates on its axis; the lunar month, following
around, ˈɔːbɪt
the phases of the moon as it orbits the earth; and

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the solar year, defined by the changing seasons that accompany= go together with, come with, be
associated with, happen with, appear with.
accompany our planet's revolution around the sun. əˈkʌmpəni
B
Before the invention of artificial light, the moon had artificial= man-made, synthetic, non-natural.
ɑːtɪˈfɪʃl̩
greater social impact. And, for those living near the equator = an imaginary line drawn around the
equator in particular, its waxing and waning was middle of the Earth. ɪˈkweɪtə
more conspicuous than the passing of the wax and wane = to increase and decrease over
time. ˈwæks ənd weɪn
seasons. Hence, the calendars that were developed
conspicuous = obvious, clear, noticeable.
at the lower latitudes were influenced more by the kənˈspɪkjʊəs
lunar cycle than by the solar year. In more northern latitude = the distance north or south of the
climes, however, where seasonal agriculture was equator, measured in degrees. ˈlætɪtjuːd
clime = zone, region, a place that has a particular
practised, the solar year became more crucial. As type of climate. klaɪm
the Roman Empire expanded northward, it crucial = vital, fundamental, essential, important,
organised its activity chart for the most part around necessary, key. ˈkruːʃl̩
the solar year.
C
Centuries before the Roman Empire, the Egyptians formulate = invent, create, make, develop.
had formulated a municipal calendar having 12 ˈfɔːmjʊleɪt
months of 30 days, with five days added to municipal = civic, public, community, #private.
approximate the solar year. Each period of ten days mjuːˈnɪsɪpl̩
was marked by the appearance of special groups of decan= The decans (Egyptian) are 36 groups
stars called decans. At the rise of the star Sirius just of stars (small constellations) used in
before sunrise, which occurred around the all- the Ancient Egyptian astronomy. ˈdɛk(ə)n
important annual flooding of the Nile, 12 decans cosmic = relating to space or the universe.
could be seen spanning the heavens. The cosmic ˈkɒzmɪk
significance the Egyptians placed in the 12 decans interval= intermission, interlude, break. ˈɪntəvl̩
led them to develop a system in which each interval temporal hours = a unit of time used in the
of darkness (and later, each interval of daylight) was past that divided the daylight into an equal
divided into a dozen equal parts. These periods number of hours, ˈtempərəl ˈaʊəz
became known as temporal hours because their duration = the length of time that something
duration varied according to the changing length of lasts. djʊˈreɪʃn̩
days and nights with the passing of the seasons. equinox = solstice, one of the two times in a
Summer hours were long, winter ones short; only at year when night and day are of equal length.
the spring and autumn equinoxes were the hours of ˈiːkwɪnɒks
daylight and darkness equal. Temporal hours, which adopt = accept, approve, implement, apply,
were first adopted by the Greeks and then the #reject əˈdɒpt
Romans, who disseminated them through Europe,
disseminate = spread, publish, distribute.
remained in use for more than 2,500 years. dɪˈsemɪneɪt
D
In order to track temporal hours during the day, track = follow, trace, pursue. træk
inventors created sundials, which indicate time by sundial = an object used in the past for telling the
the length or direction of the sun's shadow. The time. ˈsʌndaɪəl

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sundial's counterpart, the water clock, was counterpart = equal, colleague, equivalent.
ˈkaʊntəpɑːt
designed to measure temporal hours at night. One
drip = drop, come out, leak, #stream. drɪp
of the first water clocks was a basin with a small denote = indicate, represent, refer to, #connote
hole near the bottom through which the water dɪˈnəʊt
dripped out. The falling water level denoted the dip = dunk, immerse, to put something into a
passing hour as it dipped below hour lines liquid for a very short time and take it out again.
dɪp
inscribed on the inner surface. Although these inscribed = engrave, carve, to carefully cut, print
devices performed satisfactorily around the or write on smt ɪnˈskraɪbd
Mediterranean, they could not always be depended satisfactory = pleasing, reasonable, acceptable,
on in the cloudy and often freezing weather of adequate, #unsatisfactory sætɪsˈfæktəri
northern Europe.
E
The advent of the mechanical clock meant that
arise = rise, ascend, appear, # retire əˈraɪz
although it could be adjusted to maintain temporal
hours, it was naturally suited to keeping equal ones. evolve = change, grow, advance, to develop
With these, however, arose the question of when to and change gradually over a long period of
time. ɪˈvɒlv
begin counting, and so, in the early 14th century, a
number of systems evolved. The schemes that scheme= plan, idea, method. skiːm
divided the day into 24 equal parts varied according divide= split, separate, distribute, allocate,
to the start of the count: Italian hours began at #join. dɪˈvaɪd
sunset, Babylonian hours at sunrise, astronomical astronomical = relating to the scientific study
hours at midday and 'great clock' hours, used for of the stars. æstrəˈnɒmɪkl̩
some large public clocks in Germany, at midnight. supersede = replace, supplant, displace.
Eventually these were superseded by 'small clock', suːpəˈsiːd
or French, hours, which split the day into two 12-
commence = start, begin, originate. kəˈmens
hour periods commencing at midnight.
F
The earliest recorded weight-driven mechanical weight-driven mechanical clock = a clock using
clock was built in 1283 in Bedfordshire in England. a pendulum weɪt - ˈdrɪvən mɪˈkænɪkl̩ ˈklɒk
The revolutionary aspect of this new timekeeper was
neither the descending weight that provided its descend= downward, fall, drop, go down. dɪˈsend

motive force nor the gear wheels (which had been

escapement = a piece of machinery in a clock
around for at least 1,300 years) that transferred the from the spring or weight to a wheel. ɪˈskeɪpmənt
power; It was the part called the escapement. In the
early 1400s came the invention of the coiled spring mainspring = the most important spring in a
or fusee which maintained constant force to the gear watch or clock. ˈmeɪnsprɪŋ
wheels of the timekeeper despite the changing
pendulum = a long metal stick with weight at the
tension of its mainspring. By the 16th century, a bottom that swings regularly from side to side to
pendulum clock had been devised, but the control the working of a clock. ˈpendjʊləm
pendulum swung in a large arc and thus was not
very efficient.

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G
To address this, a variation on the original the anchor escapement = a type of
escapement was invented in 1670, in England. It escapement used in pendulum clocks ði
was called the anchor escapement, which was a ˈæŋkər ɪˈskeɪpmənt
lever-based device shaped like a ship's anchor. The
escape wheel = a toothed wheel in the
motion of a pendulum rocks this device so that it
escapement of a watch or clock. ɪˈskeɪp ˈwiːl̩
catches and then releases each tooth of the escape
wheel, in turn allowing it to turn a precise amount. precise = exact, correct, accurate. prɪˈsaɪs
Unlike the original form used in early pendulum original = initial, earliest (existing or
clocks, the anchor escapement permitted the happening first). əˈrɪdʒn̩əl
pendulum to travel in a very small arc. Moreover, permit= allow, enable, facilitate. pəˈmɪt
this invention allowed the use of a long pendulum
which could beat once a second and thus led to the
development of a new floor standing case design,
which became known as the grandfather clock.
H
Today, highly accurate timekeeping instruments set accurate= correct, precise, exact. ˈækjərət
a quartz-crystal clock = is a clock that uses an
the beat for most electronic devices. Nearly all electronic oscillator that is regulated by a quartz
computers contain a quartz-crystal clock to crystal to keep time. ə kwɔːts- ˈkrɪstl ˈklɒk
beam down = to transport somebody to or from
regulate their operation. Moreover, not only do time a spaceship using special electronic equipment.
biːm daʊn
signals beamed down from Global Positioning
calibrate = standardize, adjust, regulate. ˈkælɪbreɪt
System satellites calibrate the functions of precision= accuracy, exactness, correctness.
prɪˈsɪʒn̩
precision navigation equipment, they do so as well navigation = routing, direction-finding
for mobile phones, instant stock-trading systems the science or job of planning which way you need
to go when you are travelling from one place to
and nationwide power-distribution grids. So integral another nævɪˈɡeɪʃn̩
integral = connected, central, internal, forming
have these time-based technologies become to day-
a necessary part of something. ˈɪntɪɡrəl
to-day existence that our dependency on them is dependency = reliance, enslavement, craving.

recognised only when they fail to work. dɪˈpendənsi

H earing impairment or other auditory function

deficit in young children can have a major impact on
mental/visual/cognitive/hearing etc
impairment= a condition in which a part of
a person’s mind or body is damaged or
does not work well. ˈmentl/ ˈvɪʒuəl/ ˈkɒɡnətɪv/
their development of speech and communication, ˈhɪərɪŋ et ˈsetərə ɪmˈpeəmənt
auditory = connected with hearing ˈɔːdətəri
resulting in a detrimental effect on their ability to learn deficit= shortfall, shortage, insufficiency
at school. This is likely to have major consequences #surplus ˈdefɪsɪt
speech= verbal communication= the
for the individual and the population as a whole. The ability to speak. spiːtʃ
detrimental= harmful, damaging= causing
New Zealand Ministry of Health has found from
harm or damage. detrəˈmentl
research carried out over two decades that 6-10% of consequence= result, outcome, effect.
ˈkɒnsəkwəns
children in that country are affected by hearing loss. carry out= do, perform, conduct. ˈkæri ˈaʊt

B
preliminary= initial, opening, primary
A preliminary study in New Zealand has shown that prɪˈlɪmənəri
classroom noise presents a major concern for teachers major= main, key, chief #minor ˈmeɪdʒə
and pupils. Modern teaching practices, the organisation acoustics= the shape and size of a room,
of desks in the classroom, poor classroom acoustics, which affect the way sound is heard in it.
əˈkuːstɪks

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and mechanical means of ventilation such as air- ventilation= the fact of allowing fresh air to
enter and move around a room, building, etc.
conditioning units all contribute to the number of ˈventəleɪt
contribute to= to help to make something
children unable to comprehend the teacher's voice.
happen kənˈtrɪbjuːt tə
Education researchers Nelson and Soli have also comprehend= understand, know, figure out.
kɒmprɪˈhend
suggested that recent trends in learning often involve collaborative= joint, two-away, combined
kəˈlæbərətɪv
collaborative interaction of multiple minds and tools
interaction= communication, contact,
as much as individual possession of information. This interface. ɪntərˈækʃən
multiple= several, many, various ˈmʌltəpəl
all amounts to heightened activity and noise levels,
possession= ownership, tenure. pəˈzeʃən
which have the potential to be particularly serious for amount to= sum, total, aggregate. əˈmaʊnt tə
heighten = increase, intensify, improve,
children experiencing auditory function deficit. Noise enhance ˈhaɪtn
in classrooms can only exacerbate their difficulty in potential =possibility, latent, dormant pəˈtenʃəl
exacerbate = worsen, aggravate, impair.
comprehending and processing verbal communication ɪɡˈzæsəbeɪt
verbal= spoken rather than written ˈvɜːbəl
with other children and instructions from the teacher.
instruction= teaching, training, tuition,
guidance. ɪnˈstrʌkʃən
C
Children with auditory function deficit are potentially fail to do smt= to not succeed in
failing to learn to their maximum potential because of achieving something ˈfeɪl tu du: ˈsʌmθɪŋ
generate= produce, create, make.
noise levels generated in classrooms. The effects of
ˈdʒenəreɪt
noise on the ability of children to learn effectively in typical= usual, normal, standard ˈtɪpɪkəl
typical classroom environments are now the subject of working party= team, working group,
increasing concern. The International Institute of Noise committee ˈwɜːkɪŋ ˈpɑːti
Control Engineering (I-INCE), on the advice of the evaluate= assess, estimate, value.
World Health Organization, has established an ɪˈvæljueɪt

international working party, which includes New reverberation= echo= a loud sound that is
Zealand, to evaluate noise and reverberation control heard again and again as it is sent back
from different surfaces rɪˌvɜːbəˈreɪʃən
for school rooms.

D
While the detrimental effects of noise in classroom
disability= frailty = debility = a physical
situations are not limited to children experiencing
or mental condition that makes it difficult
disability, those with a disability that affects their for someone to use a part of their body
processing of speech and verbal communication could properly, or to learn normally. dɪsəˈbɪləti

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be extremely vulnerable. The auditory function vulnerable= weak= someone who is

vulnerable can be easily harmed or hurt
deficits in question include hearing impairment, ˈvʌlnərəbəl
disorder= a mental or physical illness
autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) and attention
which prevents part of your body from
deficit disorders (ADD/ADHD). working properly. dɪsˈɔːdə
spectrum= range, band, scale ˈspektrəm

E
autism= a mental disorder (=problem) that
Autism is considered a neurological and genetic life- makes people unable to communicate
long disorder that causes discrepancies in the way properly, or to form relationships. ˈɔːtɪzəm
neurological= the scientific study of the
information is processed. This disorder is nervous system and its diseases
characterised by interlinking problems with social njʊərəˈlɒdʒɪkl̩
genetic= relating to genes or genetics
imagination, social communication and social dʒəˈnetɪk
interaction. According to Janzen, this affects the ability discrepancy in/ between= difference,
inconsistency, divergence dɪˈskrepənsi ɪn/
to understand and relate in typical ways to people, bɪˈtwiːn
characterise= describe, portray, illustrate,
understand events and objects in the environment, and
depict. ˈkærəktəraɪz
understand or respond to sensory stimuli. Autism interlink= to connect or be connected with
something else. ɪntəˈlɪŋk
does not allow learning or thinking in the same ways as
respond to= react = to do something as a
in children who are developing normally. reaction to something that has been said
or done rɪˈspɒnd tə
Autistic spectrum disobrders often result in major
extra- (prefix)= outside or beyond ˈekstrə
difficulties in comprehending verbal information and sensory= relating to or using your senses
of sight, hearing, smell, taste, or touch.
speech processing. Those experiencing these
ˈsensəri
disorders often find sounds such as crowd noise and stimulus (plural stimuli) = something that
makes someone or something move or
the noise generated by machinery painful and
react. ˈstɪmjələs
distressing. This is difficult to scientifically quantify as distressing= stressful = upset, painful.
dɪˈstresɪŋ
such extra-sensory stimuli vary greatly from one quantify= measure, calculate, count.
autistic individual to another. But a child who finds any ˈkwɒntɪfaɪ
vary= differ, diverge, contrast ˈveəri
type of noise in their classroom or learning space intrusive= disturbing, unpleasant, upset.
intrusive is likely to be adversely affected in their ɪnˈtruːsɪv
adversely= harmfully, badly, negatively.
ability to process information. ˈædvɜːsli

be indicative of something= to be a clear

F
sign that a particular situation exists or that
The attention deficit disorders are indicative of something is likely to be true. bi ɪnˈdɪkətɪv
əv ˈsʌmθɪŋ

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neurological and genetic disorders and are sustain= maintain, protract, keep up səˈsteɪn
persistence= tenacity, diligence, insistence
characterised by difficulties with sustaining attention, pəˈsɪstəns
inhibition= a feeling of shyness or
effort and persistence, organisation skills and embarrassment that stops you doing or saying
what you really want #disinhibition ɪnhəˈbɪʃən
disinhibition. Children experiencing these disorders screen something out/ screen out
find it difficult to screen out unimportant information, something= filter out= to remove people or
things that are not acceptable or not suitable.
and focus on everything in the environment rather than skriːn ˈsʌmθɪŋ aʊt/ skriːn aʊt ˈsʌmθɪŋ
background= environment, surroundings,
attending to a single activity. Background noise in the setting. ˈbækɡraʊnd
distraction= something that stops you paying
classroom becomes a major distraction, which can attention to what you are doing. dɪˈstrækʃən
concentrate= focus, think, deliberate,
affect their ability to concentrate. contemplate ˈkɒnsəntreɪt

G isolate = separate, divorce, insulate. ˈaɪsəleɪt

Children experiencing an auditory function deficit can set against= to make someone start to fight or
often find speech and communication very difficult to quarrel with another person, especially a
isolate and process when set against high levels of person who they had friendly relations with
before set əˈɡenst
background noise. These levels come from outside
penetrate= go through, enter, invade. ˈpenətreɪt
activities that penetrate the classroom structure, from strategy= plan, scheme, approache. ˈstrætɪdʒi
teaching activities, and other noise generated inside, obtain= get, gain, achieve, acquire. əbˈteɪn
which can be exacerbated by room reverberation. optimum = best, optimal, ideal, prime.
ˈɒptəməm
Strategies are needed to obtain the optimum
in particular= especially, specially, particularly
classroom construction and perhaps a change in ɪn pəˈtɪkjələ
classroom culture and methods of teaching. In in the form of= having the shape, character,
particular, the effects of noisy classrooms and style etc of ɪn ðə ˈfɔːm ɒv
activities on those experiencing disabilities in the thorough= full, detailed, comprehensive ˈθʌrə
probable= likely, possible #unlikely ˈprɒbəbəl
form of auditory function deficit need thorough
diagnose= to find out what illness someone
investigation. It is probable that many undiagnosed has, or what the cause of a fault is, after doing
children exist in the education system with 'invisible' tests, examinations etc. ˈdaɪəɡnəʊz
disabilities. Their needs are less likely to be met than invisible= hidden, concealed, disguised
those of children with known disabilities. #obvious ɪnˈvɪzəbəl

embark on/upon something= to start

H something, especially something new, difficult,
The New Zealand Government has developed a New or exciting. ɪmˈbɑːk ˈɒn əˈpɒn ˈsʌmθɪŋ
wide-ranging= widespread, comprehensive,
Zealand Disability Strategy and has embarked on a thorough. waɪd - ˈreɪndʒɪŋ
wide-ranging consultation process. The strategy consultation= discussion, talk, conference,
meeting. kɒnsəlˈteɪʃən

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recognises that people experiencing disability face= confront, meet, encounter. feɪs
face significant barriers in achieving a full quality of barrier= difficulty, obstacle, hindrance
life in areas such as attitude, education, employment ˈbæriə
and access to services. Objective 3 of the New quality of life= the level of enjoyment,
Zealand Disability Strategy is to 'Provide the Best
comfort and health in someone's life:
Education for Disabled People' by improving education
ˈkwɒlɪti əv laɪf
so that all children, youth learners and adult learners
will have equal opportunities to learn and develop
within their already existing local school. For a
successful education, the learning environment is
vitally significant, so any effort to improve this is likely
vitally= crucially, fundamentally,
to be of great benefit to all children, but especially to
those with auditory function disabilities. essentially. ˈvaɪtli

I
process of= a series of things that happen
A number of countries are already in the process of naturally and result in gradual change ˈprəʊsɪs
ɒv
formulating their own standards for the control and formulate= invent, create, make, plan
ˈfɔːmjəleɪt
reduction of classroom noise. New Zealand will standard= criterion, model, pattern,
probably follow their example. The literature to date requirement. ˈstændəd
literature on something = all the books,
on noise in school rooms appears to focus on the articles etc on a particular subject. ˈlɪtrətʃər ˈɒn
ˈsʌmθɪŋ
effects on school children in general, their teachers to date= up to now. tu deɪt
and the hearing impaired. Only limited attention in general= generally, on the whole, overall, in
most cases. ɪn ˈdʒenr̩əl
appears to have been given to those students the hearing impaired= people who are not
able to hear well ðə ˈhɪərɪŋ ɪmˈpeəd
experiencing the other disabilities involving auditory imperative= urgent, very important, crucial,
vital. ɪmˈperətɪv
function deficit. It is imperative that the needs of these
take into account = allow for, take into
children are taken into account in the setting of consideration, bear/keep in mind #ignore ˈteɪk
ˈɪntə əˈkaʊnt
appropriate international standards to be appropriate= suitable, proper, fitting. əˈprəʊpri-
ət
promulgated in future. promulgate= to spread an idea or belief to as
many people as possible. ˈprɒməlɡeɪt

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READING PASSAGE 2

T he continuous and reckless use of synthetic

pest = bug, insect, vermin = a small animal or
insect that destroys crop or food supplies. pest
reckless = irresponsible, thoughtless, careless,
#cautious ˈrekləs
synthetic = artificial, manmade, manufactured
sɪnˈθetɪk
chemicals for the control of pests which pose a threat counter-productive= achieving the opposite
to agricultural crops and human health is proving to be result to the one that you want. ˈkaʊntə- prəˈdʌktɪv
engender = produce, cause, create, stimulate,
counter-productive. Apart from engendering provoke ɪnˈdʒendə
disorder = illness, disease, infection dɪsˈɔːdə
widespread ecological disorders, pesticides have lethal = deadly, dangerous, harmful,
#life-giving ˈliːθl̩
contributed to the emergence of a new breed of superbug = a type of bacteria that cannot be
kiiled by traditional drugs. ˈsuːpəbʌɡ
chemical-resistant, highly lethal superbugs.

According to a recent study by the Food and resistance = fight, battle, confrontation,
#surrender rɪˈzɪstəns
Agriculture Organisation (FAO), more than 300 species
potent = powerful, strong, effective, influential (pot=
of agricultural pests have developed resistance to a
power .i.e potential, despot) ˈpəʊtnt
wide range of potent chemicals. Not to be left behind immune = resistant, insusceptible, invulnerable,
are the disease-spreading pests, about 100 species of #susceptible ɪˈmjuːn
which have become immune to a variety of insecticide = pesticide, insect repellent, bug
insecticides now in use. juice, fly spray (cid=kill) ɪnˈsektɪsaɪd

One glaring disadvantage of pesticides’ application is wipe out = destroy, eradicate, obliterate, remove,
that, while destroying harmful pests, they also wipe devastate, #protect waɪp ˈaʊt
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out many useful non-targeted organisms, which keep organism = an animal, plant, human or any other
living thing. ˈɔːɡənɪzəm
the growth of the pest population in check. This results agroecologist = a person who is specialized in the
study of ecological processes
in what agroecologists call the ‘treadmill syndrome’.
applied to agricultural production systems
Because of their tremendous breeding potential and ˌaɡrəʊɪˈkɒlədʒɪst
tremendous = huge, massive, enormous trɪˈmendəs
genetic diversity, many pests are known to withstand withstand = resist, endure, survive, tolerate
wɪðˈstænd
synthetic chemicals and bear offspring with a built-in
bear = produce, give birth to, bring into being beə
resistance to pesticides. offspring = descendants, children, progeny ˈɒfsprɪŋ
built-in = natural, innate, intrinsic bɪlt -ˈɪn

The havoc that the ‘treadmill syndrome’ can bring havoc = chaos, mayhem, #order ˈhævək
about is well illustrated by what happened to cotton treadmill = routine, drudgery, grindstone ˈtredmɪl
farmers in Central America. In the early 1940s, syndrome = condition, disease, set of symptoms
ˈsɪndrəʊm
basking in the glory of chemical-based intensive
bask = enjoy, savor, relish, luxuriate bɑːsk
agriculture, the farmers avidly took to pesticides as a glory = admiration, prestige, honour ˈɡlɔːri
sure measure to boost crop yield. The insecticide was avidly = keenly, enthusiastically, eagerly,
applied eight times a year in the mid-1940s, rising to #indifferently ˈævɪdli
28 in a season in the mid-1950s, following the sudden yield = produce, generate, harvest jiːld
proliferation = explosion, abundance,
proliferation of three new varieties of chemical-
overprovision prəˌlɪfəˈreɪʃn̩
resistant pests.

By the mid-1960s, the situation took an alarming turn alarming = frightening, shocking, #calming
əˈlɑːmɪŋ
with the outbreak of four more new pests,
outbreak = eruption, epidemic, outburst ˈaʊtbreɪk
necessitating pesticide spraying to such an extent necessitate = require, demand, need nɪˈsesɪteɪt
that 50% of the financial outlay on cotton production outlay = spending, expenditure, costs, expenses,
was accounted for by pesticides. In the early 1970s, outgoings, outlay, overheads. ˈaʊtleɪ
the spraying frequently reached 70 times a season as invasion = attack, raid, arrival, #withdrawal
ɪnˈveɪʒn̩
the farmers were pushed to the wall by the invasion of
genetically = innately, natively, naturally
genetically stronger insect species. dʒɪˈnetɪkl̩ i

Most of the pesticides in the market today remain

inadequately tested for properties that cause cancer inadequately = poorly, insufficiently, improperly
ɪnˈædɪkwətli
and mutations as well as for other adverse effects on property = material goods, belongings, stuff
health, says a study by United States environmental ˈprɒpəti
agencies. The United States National Resource mutation = a change in the genetic structure of
Defense Council has found that DDT was the most an animal or plant that makes it different from
others of the same kind mjuːˈteɪʃn̩
popular of a long list of dangerous chemicals in use. adverse = not good or favourable= negative and
unpleasant ˈædvɜːs
In the face of the escalating perils from
escalate = rise, soar, rocket, #plummet ˈeskəleɪt
indiscriminate applications of pesticides, a more peril = danger, threat, risk, hazard, #safety ˈperəl
effective and ecologically sound strategy of biological indiscriminate = unselective, random, #selective
control, involving the selective use of natural enemies ɪndɪˈskrɪmɪnət

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of the pest population, is fast gaining popularity - perpetual = lasting, continual, frequently
though, as yet, it is a new field with limited potential. repeated, in a way that is annoying pəˈpetʃʊəl
detrimental = harmful, damaging, negative,
The advantage of biological control in contrast to other
hazardous, pernicious detrɪˈmentl̩
methods is that it provides a relatively low-cost,
side-effect = unexpected result, consequence,
perpetual control system with a minimum of knock-on effect saɪd- ɪˈfekt
detrimental side-effects. When handled by experts, disperse = scatter, disband, diffuse, break up
bio-control is safe, non-polluting and self-dispersing. dɪˈspɜːs

The Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control

(CIBC) in Bangalore, with its global network of
research laboratories and field stations, is one of the laboratory = workroom, test center, workshop
most active, non-commercial research agencies ləˈbɒrətr̩i
engaged in pest control by setting natural predators predator = marauder, killer, hunter ˈpredətə
against parasites. CIBC also serves as a clearing- parasite = a plant or animal that lives on or in
house for the export and import of biological agents for another plant or animal and gets food from its.
pest control world-wide. ˈpærəsaɪt

CIBC successfully used a seed-feeding weevil, native weevil = a small insect that feeds on grain, flour
to Mexico, to control the obnoxious parthenium weed, etc and spoils it. ˈwiːvɪl
known to exert devious influence on agriculture and obnoxious = horrible, unpleasant, loathsome,
#delightful əbˈnɒkʃəs
human health in both India and Australia. Similarly the exert = apply or bring to bear (a force/influence,
Hyderabad-based Regional Research Laboratory or quality) ɪɡˈzɜːt
(RRL), supported by CIBC, is now trying out an devious = deceitful, underhanded, sly ˈdiːvɪəs
Argentinian weevil for the eradication of water eradicate = remove, get rid of, eliminate, eras
ɪˈrædɪkeɪt
hyacinth, another dangerous weed, which has
hyacinth = a garden plant with blue, pink or white
become a nuisance in many parts of the world. bell - shaped flowers and a sweet smell. ˈhaɪəsɪnθ
According to Mrs Kaiser Jamil of RRL, ‘The Argentinian nuisance = annoyance, bother, irritation ˈnjuːsns
weevil does not attack any other plant and a pair of notorious = infamous, disreputable, tarnished,
adult bugs could destroy the weed in 4-5 days.’ CIBC #famous nəʊˈtɔːrɪəs
defoliant = a chemical substance, used
is also perfecting the technique for breeding parasites
especially in war, that makes all the leaves of
that prey on ‘disapene scale’ insects - notorious plants drop off. diːˈfəʊlɪənt
defoliants of fruit trees in the US and India.

flourish = thrive, succeed, prosper, #deteriorate,

How effectively biological control can be pressed into
#decline ˈflʌrɪʃ
service is proved by the following examples. In the late plague = afflict, cause suffering to, trouble. pleɪɡ
1960s, when Sri Lanka’s flourishing hispide = large shrub or small tree of the eastern
coconut groves were plagued by leaf-mining hispides, united states ˈhɪspɪdz
larval = adjective of "larva", which means young
a larval parasite imported from Singapore brought the
insect ˈlɑːvl̩
pest under control. A natural predator indigenous to parasite = a plant or animal that lives on or in
another plant or animal and gets food from it
India, Neodumetia sangawani, was found useful in
ˈpærəsaɪt
controlling the Rhodes grass-scale insect that was indigenous = native, original, aboriginal, local,
#foreign ɪnˈdɪdʒɪnəs
devouring forage grass in many parts of the US. By
devour = demolish, consume, eat greedily,
destroy (de= removing .i.e decline, decrease) dɪˈvaʊə
forage = food, fodder, feed ˈfɒrɪdʒ
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using Neochetina bruci, a beetle native to Brazil, beetle = an insect with a round hard back that is
usually black. ˈbiːtl̩
scientists at Kerala Agricultural University freed a 12- free – freed (past tense) = release = set free,
kilometre-long canal from the clutches of the weed discharge friː
canal = waterway, seaway, inland waterway
Salvinia molesta, popularly called ‘African Payal’ in kəˈnæl
clutch = power, control. domination klʌtʃ
Kerala. About 30,000 hectares of rice fields in Kerala infest = invaded, filled, infected ɪnˈfest
are infested by this weed.

Visual = relating to seeing ˈvɪʒuəl

T hough we might think of film as an essentially

visual experience, we really cannot afford to
Underestimate= underrate, undervalue
# overestimate ʌndərˈestɪmeɪt
Complicated= complex # simple, easy
ˈkɒm.plɪ.keɪ.tɪd
underestimate the importance of film sound. A Essential= necessary or needed ɪˈsenʃəl
meaningful sound track is often as complicated as the Ingredient= element, factor, part
ɪnˈɡriːdiənt
image on the screen, and is ultimately just as much the Balanced = containing an equal amount
responsibility of the director. The entire sound track or number of similar things or people
consists of three essential ingredients: the human ˈbæl.ənst
voice, sound effects and music. These three tracks Emphasis= special attention or
must be mixed and balanced so as to produce the importance ˈemfəsɪs
necessary emphases which in turn create desired Desired = expected, wanted # unwanted
dɪˈzaɪəd
effects.

Topics which essentially refer to the three previously Dialogue= conversation ˈdaɪəlɒɡ
mentioned tracks are discussed below. They include Motivation= enthusiasm for doing
dialogue, synchronous and asynchronous sound something məʊtəˈveɪʃən
effects, and music. Characterization= the way in which the
Let us start with dialogue. As is the case with stage character of a real person or thing is
drama, dialogue serves to tell the story and expresses described kærəktəraɪˈzeɪʃən
feelings and motivations of characters as well. Often Perceive= recognize, become aware of
with film characterization the audience perceives pəˈsiːv

little or no difference between the character and the Personality= traits, character pɜːsəˈnæləti
actor. Thus, for example, the actor Humphrey Bogart is Merge= combine, unite # separate, split
mɜːdʒ
the character Sam Spade; film personality and life
Texture= the quality of something (eg.
personality seem to merge. Perhaps this is because voice) that is rough or smooth or soft or
the very texture of a performer's voice supplies an hard ˈtekstʃə
element of character. Element= a part of sth ˈeləmənt

Physiognomy= the general appearance of a

When voice textures fit the performer's physiognomy person’s face fɪziˈɒnəmi
Gesture= a movement of part of your body,
and gestures, a whole and very realistic personal
especially your hands or head, to show what
emerges. The viewer sees not an actor working at his you mean or how you feel ˈdʒestʃə
Personal = belonging or relating to one
craft, but another human being struggling with life. It particular person ˈpɜːsənəl
Emerge= to appear by coming out of
is interesting to note that how dialogue is used and the something or out from behind something ɪˈmɜːdʒ
very amount of dialogue used varies widely among Craft= skill, ability, technique krɑːft
Struggle= to experience difficulty and make a
films. For example, in the highly successful science- very great effort in order to do something
ˈstrʌɡəl
fiction film 2001, little dialogue was evident, and most Banal=trivial= ordinary and not interesting,
because of a lack of new or different ideas.
of it was banal and of little intrinsic interest. In this bəˈnɑːl
way the film-maker was able to portray what Thomas Intrinsic= natural ɪnˈtrɪnsɪk
Portray= to represent or describe someone or
Sobochack and Vivian Sobochack call, in An something in a painting, film, book, or other
artistic work pɔːˈtreɪ
Introduction to Film, the 'inadequacy of human Inadequacy= insufficiency, lack
# abundance ɪnˈædəkwəsi
responses when compared with the magnificent Magnificent= wonderful, outstanding, brilliant
mæɡˈnɪfəsənt
technology created by man and the visual beauties of
the universe'.

Breakneck= fast, rapid, quick ˈbreɪknek

The comedy Bringing Up Baby, on the other hand, Underscore= emphasize, highlight, underline #
ignore ʌndəˈskɔː
presents practically non-stop dialogue delivered at Dizzy= stupid and forgetful ˈdɪzi
breakneck speed. This use of dialogue underscores Absurdity= illogicality, ridiculousness,
foolishness # logic, reasonableness əbˈsɜːd
not only the dizzy quality of the character played by Reflection=serious and careful thought
Katherine Hepburn, but also the absurdity of the film rɪˈflekʃən
be/get caught up in something= to be or get
itself and thus its humor. The audience is bounced involved in something, especially something
from gag to gag and conversation to conversation; bad bi/ ˈget ˈkɔːt ˈʌp ɪn ˈsʌmθɪŋ
there is no time for audience reflection. The audience Plot= story line plɒt
Escapism = activities or entertainment that
is caught up in a whirlwind of activity in simply help you forget about bad or boring things for a
managing to follow the plot. This film presents pure short time ɪˈskeɪpɪzəm
Frenetic= frantic, fast and not very organized
escapism - largely due to its frenetic dialogue. frəˈnetɪk

Synchronous sound effects are those sounds which

are synchronized or matched with what is viewed. For

example, if the film portrays a character playing the

piano, the sounds of the piano are projected.
Convince= persuade kənˈvɪns
Synchronous sounds contribute to the realism of film
and also help to create a particular atmosphere.
For example, the 'click' of a door being opened may Subconsciously= unintentional
simply serve to convince the audience that the image # consciously sʌbˈkɒn.ʃəs.li
portrayed is real, and the audience may only Ominous=suggesting that something
subconsciously note the expected sound. unpleasant is likely to happen ˈɒmɪnəs
However, if the 'click' of an opening door is part of an Burglary= breaking and entering, theft,
ominous action such as a burglary, the sound mixer robbery ˈbɜːɡləri
Engage somebody in something=
may call attention to the 'click' with an increase in to attract someone’s attention and keep them
volume; this helps to engage the audience in a interested ɪnˈɡeɪdʒ ˈsʌmbədi ɪn ˈsʌmθɪŋ
moment of suspense. Suspense= tension, uncertainty, doubt,
anxiety, nervousness səˈspens

Asynchronous sound effects, on the other hand, are

not matched with a visible source of the sound on Appropriate=suitable or right for a particular
screen. Such sounds are included so as to provide an situation or occasion əˈprəʊpri-ət
appropriate emotional nuance, and they may also Nuance= a very slight, hardly noticeable
add to the realism of the film. For example, a film- difference in manner, colour, meaning ˈnjuːɑːns
maker might opt to include the background sound of Opt= to make a choice, especially of one thing
an ambulance's siren while the foreground sound and or possibility instead of others ɒpt
image portrays an arguing couple. The asynchronous
ambulance siren underscores the psychic injury Injury= physical harm or damage to someone's
incurred in the argument; at the same time the noise of body caused by an accident or an attack
the siren adds to the realism of the film by ˈɪndʒəri

acknowledging the film's city setting. Ubiquitous = popular, common, pervasive,

prevalent # rare juːˈbɪkwɪtəs
We are probably all familiar with background music in
Noticeable= clear, obvious ˈnəʊtəsəbəl
films, which has become so ubiquitous as to be
Absence= nonexistence, lack ˈæbsəns
noticeable in its absence. We are aware that it is
Emotion= feeling ɪˈməʊʃən
used to add emotion and rhythm. Usually not meant
Rhythm= beat ˈrɪðəm
to be noticeable, it often provides a tone or an
Foreshadow= anticipate fɔːˈʃædəʊ
emotional attitude toward the story and /or the
Dissonant = lacking harmony ˈdɪs.ən.ənt
characters depicted. In addition, background music
Indicate=to show, point, or make clear in
often foreshadows a change in mood. For example,
another way ˈɪndɪkeɪt
dissonant music may be used in film to indicate an Menace= threat, danger ˈmenɪs
approaching (but not yet visible) menace or disaster. Aid= help or support eɪd
Background music may aid viewer understanding by Associate with= link with, connect with
linking scenes. For example, a particular musical əˈsəʊsieɪt wɪð
theme associated with an individual character or Salient= important, main, outstanding,
situation may be repeated at various points in a film in noticeable, obvious, remarkable ˈseɪliənt
order to remind the audience of salient motifs or Motif= pattern məʊˈtiːf
ideas.

Film sound comprises conventions and innovations. Comprise= include, contain, consist
of kəmˈpraɪz
We have come to expect an acceleration of music Convention= rule, standard, principle
kənˈvenʃən
during car chases and creaky doors in horror films. Innovation= improvement, modernization
Yet, it is important to note as well that sound is often ɪnəˈveɪʃən
Acceleration= speeding up, quickening,
brilliantly conceived. The effects of sound are often increase in speed əkˌseləˈreɪʃən
Conceive= think, see, perceive, grasp,
largely subtle and often are noted by only our appreciate, apprehend kənˈsiːv
Subtle= delicate, indirect # obvious ˈsʌtl
subconscious minds. We need to foster an
Foster= promote, encourage ˈfɒstə
awareness of film sound as well as film space so as to So as to= in order to, in an attempt to ˈsəʊ əz tuː
Subconscious=connected with feelings that
truly appreciate an art form that sprang to life during influence your behaviour even though you are
not aware of them sʌbˈkɒn.ʃəs
the twentieth century - the modern film. Appreciate = acknowledge, recognize,
be aware of əˈpriːʃieɪt

S eldom is the weather more dramatic than when

seldom = rarely, infrequently,
occasionally. ˈseldəm
strike = hit, attack, crash into. straɪk
fury = extreme anger (often uncontrolled anger),
thunderstorms strike. Their electrical fury inflicts rage, violence. ˈfjʊəri
death or serious injury on around 500 people each inflict = impose, cause, perpetrate. ɪnˈflɪkt
leisurely= slow, unhurried, relaxed, #rushed
year in the United States alone. As the clouds roll in, ˈleʒəli
a leisurely round of golf can become a terrifying dice dice with death= to do something extremely
dangerous and silly ˈdaɪs wɪð deθ
with death - out in the open, a lone golfer may be a out in the open = apparent, clear,
lightning bolt’s most inviting target. And there is not hidden or secret aʊt ɪn ði ˈəʊpən
damage to property too. Lightning damage costs a lightning bolt’s = a flash of lightning in the sky
ə ˈlaɪtnɪŋ bəʊlt’s
American power companies more than $100 million a
year.
laboratory = workroom, test center, workshop
But researchers in the United States and Japan are (research laboratory). ləˈbɒrətr̩i
planning to hit back. Already in laboratory trials they neutralize = balance out, counteract, make safe,
reduce the effect. ˈnjuːtrəlaɪz
have tested strategies for neutralising the power of brave the elements/weather etc =go out in bad
thunderstorms, and this winter they will brave real weather breɪv ði ˈelɪmənts/ ˈweðə etˈsetrə

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storms, equipped with an armoury of lasers that they equip = prepare, provide, give. ɪˈkwɪp
armoury= a place where weapons are stored.
will be pointing towards the heavens ˈɑːməri
to discharge thunderclouds before lightning can discharge = release, send out, free. ˈdɪstʃɑːdʒ
thundercloud= a large dark cloud that you see
strike. before or during a storm ˈθʌndəklaʊd

The idea of forcing storm clouds to discharge their

command = order, directive, charge. kəˈmɑːnd
lightning on command is not new. In the early 1960s,
researchers tried firing rockets trailing wires into fire= shoot, trigger, launch, set off. ˈfaɪə

thunderclouds to set up an easy discharge path for wire = cable, line, chain ˈwaɪə
the huge electric charges that these clouds generate. trailing wire = a flexible insulated cable used for
The technique survives to this day at a test site in transmitting power from the main power source to
Florida run by the University of Florida, with support a mobile machine ˈtreɪlɪŋ ˈwaɪə
from the Electrical Power Research Institute (EPRI), generate = make, produce, create. ˈdʒenəreɪt
based in California. EPRI, which is funded by power fund = sponsor, finance, support, fʌnd
companies, is looking at ways to protect the United
States’ power grid from lightning strikes. ‘We can
cause the lightning to strike where we want it to using
rockets,’ says Ralph Bernstein, manager of lightning
projects at EPRI. The rocket site is providing precise voltage = power, energy, electrical energy.
measurements of lightning voltages and allowing ˈvəʊltɪdʒ

engineers to check how electrical equipment bears bear up =cope, survive, manage ˈbeər ˈʌp
up.

Bad behavior
But while rockets are fine for research, they cannot
provide the protection from lightning strikes that frequency = regularity, incidence, occurrence,
everyone is looking for. The rockets cost around rate of recurrence ˈfriːkwənsi
trigger= activate, start, set off. ˈtrɪɡə
$1,200 each, can only be fired at a limited frequency
according to= as said by, as stated by, in
and their failure rate is about 40 per cent. And even accordance with əˈkɔ:dɪŋ tuː
when they do trigger lightning, things still do not well behaved = polite, respectful, well-mannered
always go according to plan. ‘Lightning is not wel bɪˈheɪvd
perfectly well behaved,’ says Bernstein. branch = part, section, division. brɑːntʃ
‘Occasionally, it will take a branch and go someplace be supposed to = should, ought to, be expected
to bi səˈpəʊzd tuː
it wasn’t supposed to go.’

And anyway, who would want to fire streams of

rockets in a populated area? ‘What goes up must
come down,’ points out Jean-Claude Diels of the back = sponsor, support, finance, fund. ˈbæk
University of New Mexico. Diels is leading a project,
requirement = obligation, condition, necessity
which is backed by EPRI, to try to use lasers to
discharge lightning safely- and safety is a basic #option rɪˈkwaɪəmənt
requirement since no one wants to put themselves or at risk = in danger, at stake, endangered,
their expensive equipment at risk. With around vulnerable, #safe ət rɪsk
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$500,000 invested so far, a promising system is just promising = hopeful, likely, capable, favorable,
emerging from the laboratory. #disappointing ˈprɒmɪsɪŋ
emerge= appear, come out, begin. ɪˈmɜːdʒ

The idea began some 20 years ago, when high-

reveal = disclose, expose, uncover, bring to light,
powered lasers were revealing their ability to extract
#cover up rɪˈviːl
electrons out of atoms and create ions. If a laser
extract = remove, pull out, take out. ɪkˈstrækt
could generate a line of ionisation in the air all the
ionise = to form ions or make them form ˈaɪ.ə.naɪz
way up to a storm cloud, this conducting path could
conducting path = a path that electricity can flow
be used to guide lightning to Earth, before the electric
through kənˈdʌktɪŋ pɑːθ
field becomes strong enough to break down the air in
uncontrollable = unmanageable, wild, out of
an uncontrollable surge. To stop the laser itself control, uncontainable ʌnkənˈtrəʊləbl̩
being struck, it would not be pointed straight at the
surge = rise, growth, spread, # decline sɜːdʒ
clouds. Instead it would be directed at a mirror, and
install = put in, connect, set up. ɪnˈstɔːl
from there into the sky. The mirror would be protected
portable = moveable, handy, transportable.
by placing lightning conductors close by. Ideally, the ˈpɔːtəbl̩
cloud-zapper (gun) would be cheap enough to be
beam = to send out a line of light, heat, energy
installed around all key power installations, and etc biːm
portable enough to be taken to international sporting brewing = if a storm is brewing, it will happen
events to beam up at brewing storm clouds. soon. ˈbruːɪŋ

A stumbling block
However, there is still a big stumbling block. The stumbling block = obstacle, problem, difficulty,
laser is no nifty portable: it’s a monster that takes up barrier ˈstʌmblɪŋ blɒk
a whole room. Diels is trying to cut down the size and nifty = useful, convenient, effective, #useless
says that a laser around the size of a small table is in ˈnɪfti
the offing. He plans to test this more manageable offing (be in the offing) = be imminent, be likely,
system on live thunderclouds next summer. Bernstein loom, be on the horizon ˈɒfɪŋ
says that Diels’s system is attracting lots of interest commercial= profitable, marketable, profit-
from the power companies. making. kəˈmɜːʃl̩
But they have not yet come up with the $5 million that
reckon = think, calculate, suppose. ˈrekən
EPRI says will be needed to develop a commercial
system, by making the lasers yet smaller and forthcoming= approaching, upcoming, future.
cheaper. I cannot say I have money yet, but I’m fɔːθˈkʌmɪŋ
working on it,’ says Bernstein. He reckons that the turning point = decisive moment, crossroads.
forthcoming field tests will be the turning point - (the time when an important change starts,
and he’s hoping for good news. Bernstein predicts ‘an especially one that improves the situation). ˈtɜ:nɪŋ
avalanche of interest and support’ if all goes well. He poɪnt
expects to see cloud-zappers eventually costing avalanche = a very large number of things.
$50,000 to $100,000 each. ˈævəlɑːntʃ

Other scientists could also benefit. With a lightning at one’s fingertips = convenient, handy, easy,
‘switch’ at their fingertips, materials scientists could accessible ət wʌnz ˈfɪŋɡətɪps
find out what happens when mighty currents meet mighty= strong, powerful, great. ˈmaɪti
matter. Diels also hopes to see the birth of ‘interactive current= flow, stream, tide. ˈkʌrənt
meteorology’ - not just forecasting the weather but meteorology = climatology, weather miːtɪəˈrɒlədʒi
forecast = predict, estimate. fɔːkɑːst

And perhaps, says Diels, we’ll be able to confront confront = tackle, face, deal with. kənˈfrʌnt
some other meteorological menaces. ‘We think we menace = threat, danger, risk. ˈmenəs
could prevent hail by inducing lightning,’ he says.
hail= frozen raindrops, sleet, frozen rain,
Thunder, the shock wave that comes from a lightning hailstones heɪl
flash, is thought to be the trigger for the torrential rain shake sth out of sth= get rid of, remove. ʃeɪk
that is typical of storms. A laser thunder factory could ˈsʌmθɪŋ aʊt əv ˈsʌmθɪŋ
shake the moisture out of clouds, perhaps formation= creation, development,
preventing the formation of the giant hailstones that establishment. fɔːˈmeɪʃn̩
threaten crops. With luck, as the storm clouds gather strike back= revenge, retaliate, fight back = to
this winter, laser-toting researchers could, for the first attack or criticize someone who attacked or
time, strike back. criticized you first ˈstraɪk ˈbæk

If you go back far enough, everything lived in the

go back= to have existed since a time in the
past ɡəʊ bæk
evolutionary= relating to the way in which
plants and animals develop and change
gradually over a long period of time. iːvəˈluːʃənəri
sea. At various points in evolutionary history,
enterprising= having the ability to think of new
enterprising individuals within many different animal activities or ideas and make them work
ˈentəpraɪzɪŋ
groups moved out onto the land, sometimes even to move out= leave, depart, set off #move in muːv
aʊt
the most parched deserts, taking their own private
parched= dry, arid, waterless. pɑːtʃt
seawater with them in blood and cellular fluids. In cellular= consisting of or relating to the cells of
plants or animals ˈseljələ
addition to the reptiles, birds, mammals and insects reptile= a type of animal, such as a snake or
which we see all around us, other groups that have lizard, whose body temperature changes
according to the temperature around it, and
succeeded out of water include scorpions, snails, that usually lays eggs to have babies. ˈreptaɪl
crustaceans such as woodlice and land crabs, mammal= a type of animal that drinks milk
from its mother’s body when it is young.
millipedes and centipedes, spiders and various worms. humans, dogs, and whales are mammals.
ˈmæməl
And we mustn’t forget the plants, without whose prior prior = previous, past, earlier, preceding. ˈpraɪə

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invasion of the land none of the other migrations invasion= the arrival in a place of a lot of
people or things, often where they are not
could have happened. wanted ɪnˈveɪʒən
migration= when birds or animals travel
regularly from one part of the world to another
maɪˈɡreɪʃən

Moving from water to land involved a major redesign of reproduction=

riːprəˈdʌkʃən
breeding, procreation.

thoroughgoing= complete, thorough,

every aspect of life, including breathing and absolute. θʌrəˈɡəʊɪŋ
turn around= if a business, department etc
that is not successful turns around, or if
reproduction. Nevertheless, a good number of someone turns it around, it starts to be
successful tɜːn əˈraʊnd
thoroughgoing land animals later turned around, abandon= discard, dump, throw away.
əˈbændən
hard-earned= earned or achieved after a lot of
abandoned their hard-earned terrestrial re-tooling, effort ˈhɑːdˈɜːnd
terrestrial= living on or relating to land rather
and returned to the water again. Seals have only gone than water. təˈrestriəl
re-tool= to organize something in a new way
riːˈtuːl
part way back. They show us what the intermediates intermediate= in-between, halfway, middle
ɪntəˈmiːdiət
be on the way to sth= to be close to doing
might have been like, on the way to extreme cases something bi ˈɒn ðə ˈweɪ tu ˈsʌmθɪŋ
extreme case= very unusual and severe or
such as whales and dugongs. Whales (including the serious ɪkˈstriːm keɪs
cease to do smt= to stop doing something or
stop happening ˈsi:s tu du: ˈsʌmθɪŋ
small whales we call dolphins) and dugongs, with their creature= animal, living thing, organism ˈkriːtʃə
revert to somebody/something= go back to=
close cousins the manatees, ceased to be land to change back to a situation that existed in the
past. rɪˈvɜːt tə ˈsʌmbɒdi/ ˈsʌmθɪŋ
remote= distant, isolated, faraway. rɪˈməʊt
creatures altogether and reverted to the full marine ancestor= an animal that lived in the past, that
modern animals have developed from ˈænsəstə
habits of their remote ancestors. They don’t even ashore= on or towards the shore of a lake,
river, sea etc. əˈʃɔː
breed= reproduce, procreate, have a baby briːd
come ashore to breed. They do, however, still breathe equivalent to = having the same value,
purpose, job etc as a person or thing of a
different kind. ɪˈkwɪvələnt tə
air, having never developed anything equivalent to gill= one of the organs on the sides of a fish
through which it breathes ɡɪl
the gills of their earlier marine incarnation. Turtles incarnation= the state of living in the form of a
particular person or animal. according to some
religions, people have several different
went back to the sea a very long time ago and, like all incarnations. ɪnkɑːˈneɪʃən
vertebrate= a living creature that has a
vertebrate returnees to the water, they breathe air. backbone ˈvɜːtəbrət
returnee= a person who returns to their own
country after living in another country rɪˌtɜːˈniː
However, they are, in one respect, less fully given in one respect/in some respects etc=
used to say that something is true in one way,
in some ways etc ɪn wʌn rɪˈspekt ɪn səm rɪˈspekts
etˈsetrə

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back to the water than whales or dugongs, for turtles lay= if a bird, insect etc lays eggs, it
produces them from its body leɪ
still lay their eggs on beaches.
descend from= to have developed from
something that existed in the past dɪˈsend
There is evidence that all modem turtles are frəm
descended from a terrestrial ancestor which lived fossil= an animal or plant that lived many
thousands of years ago and that has been
before most of the dinosaurs. There are two key
preserved, or the shape of one of these
fossils called Proganochelys quenstedti and animals or plants that has been preserved
Palaeochersis talampayensis dating from early in rock ˈfɒsəl
dinosaur times, which appear to be close to the ancestry= the members of your family
who lived a long time ago ˈænsəstri
ancestry of all modem turtles and tortoises. You might fragment= piece, part, portion #whole
wonder how we can tell whether fossil animals lived ˈfræɡmənt
on land or in water, especially if only fragments are contemporary= someone who lived or
was in a particular place at the same time
found. Sometimes it’s obvious. Ichthyosaurs were as someone else. kənˈtempərəri
reptilian contemporaries of the dinosaurs, with fins fin= one of the thin body parts that a fish
and streamlined bodies. The fossils look like uses to swim fɪn
streamlined= designed or arranged in a
dolphins and they surely lived like dolphins, in the
way that makes movement easier through
water. With turtles it is a little less obvious. One way to air or water ˈstriːmlaɪnd
tell is by measuring the bones of their forelimbs. forelimb = one of the two front legs of an
Walter Joyce and Jacques Gauthier, at Yale animal with four legs. ˈfɔːleɡ
obtain= get, gain, attain, acquire. əbˈteɪn
University, obtained three measurements in these species= group, type, class, kind, sort
particular bones of 71 species of living turtles and ˈspiːʃiːz
tortoises. They used a kind of triangular graph paper graph= chart, diagram, table. ɡrɑːf
plot= to draw marks or a line to represent
to plot the three measurements against one another. facts, numbers etc. plɒt
All the land tortoise species formed a tight cluster of cluster of something= bunch, group,
points in the upper part of the triangle; all the water collection ˈklʌstə əv ˈsʌmθɪŋ
cluster= gather, group, assemble, collect
turtles cluster in the lower part of the triangular graph. ˈklʌstə
There was no overlap, except when they added some overlap= the amount by which two things
species that spend time both in water and on land. or activities cover the same area əʊvəˈlæp
amphibious= able to live both on land and
Sure enough, these amphibious species show up on
in water. æmˈfɪbiəs
the triangular graph approximately half way between approximately= about, around, roughly,
the ‘wet cluster’ of sea turtles and the ‘dry cluster’ of almost, nearly. əˈprɒksəmətli
land tortoises. The next step was to determine where determine= decide, find out, verify.
dɪˈtɜːmɪn
the fossils fell. The bones of P quenstedti and JR leave no/little doubt (that)=make people
talampayensis leave us in no doubt. Their points on sure or almost sure about something liːv
nəʊ/ ˈlɪtl daʊt (ðæt)

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the graph are right in the thick of the dry cluster. Both in the thick of= involved in the busiest,
these fossils were dry-land tortoises. They come from most active, most dangerous etc part of a
the era before our turtles returned to the water. situation ɪn ðə θɪk əv
You might think, therefore, that modem land tortoises era= period, age, time. ˈɪərə
have probably stayed on land ever since those early family tree= a drawing that gives the
terrestrial times, as most mammals did after a few of names of all the members of a family over
them went back to the sea. But apparently not. If you a long period of time, and shows how they
draw out the family tree of all modem turtles and
are related to each other ˈfæməli triː
tortoises, nearly all the branches are aquatic. Today’s
aquatic= living or growing in water.
land tortoises constitute a single branch, deeply
əˈkwætɪk
nested among branches consisting of aquatic turtles.
constitute = form, establish, create, set
This suggests that modem land tortoises have not
up ˈkɒnstɪtjuːt
stayed on land continuously since the time of P.
emerge= arise, appear, occur, develop
quenstedti and P talampayensis. Rather, their
ɪˈmɜːdʒ
ancestors were among those who went back to the
relatively= something that is relatively
water, and they then re-emerged back onto the land in
small, easy etc is fairly small, easy etc
(relatively) more recent times.
compared to other things ˈrelətɪvli

represent= signify, denote, stand for

Tortoises therefore represent a remarkable double
reprɪˈzent
return. In common with all mammals, reptiles and remarkable= noteworthy, notable,
birds, their remote ancestors were marine fish and significant. rɪˈmɑːkəbəl
before that various more or less worm-like creatures in common with= in the same way as
stretching back, still in the sea, to the primeval someone or something else ɪn ˈkɒmən wɪð
bacteria. Later ancestors lived on land and stayed primeval= ancient, prehistoric #modern
there for a very large number of generations. Later praɪˈmiːvəl
ancestors still evolved back into the water and generation= all the members of a family
of about the same age dʒenəˈreɪʃən
became sea turtles. And finally they returned yet again
evolve= change, grow, develop, progress
to the land as tortoises, some of which now live in the ɪˈvɒlv
driest of deserts.

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Investigate= examine, study, explore…

Mystery= secrecy.
Autumn leaves
Captivating= charming, attractive,
Canadian writer Jay Ingram investigates the mystery fascinating…
of why leaves turn red in the fall
Magnificent= wonderful, outstanding,
A One of the most captivating natural events of the brilliant…
year in many areas throughout North America is the
turning of the leaves in the fall. The colours are Molecule= tiny part.
magnificent, but the question of exactly why some
trees turn yellow or orange, and others red or purple, is Hemisphere= a half of the Earth,
something which has long puzzled scientists. especially one of the halves above and
below the equator.
B Summer leaves are green because they are full of
chlorophyll, the molecule that captures sunlight Redundant= unneeded, unnecessary…
converts that energy into new building materials for the
tree. As fall approaches in the northern hemisphere, Precious= valuable, important,
the amount of solar energy available declines treasured, cherished…
considerably. For many trees – evergreen conifers
being an exception – the best strategy is to abandon Discard= get rid of, throw away,
photosynthesis* until the spring. So rather than remove…
maintaining the now redundant leaves throughout the
winter, the tree saves its precious resources and Dismantle= take to pieces.
discards them. But before letting its leaves go, the
tree dismantles their chlorophyll molecules and ships Twig= a small very thin stem of wood
their valuable nitrogen back into the twigs. As that grows from a branch on a tree.
chlorophyll is depleted, other colours that have been
dominated by it throughout the summer begin to be
revealed. This unmasking explains the autumn colours
of yellow and orange, but not the brilliant reds and

purples of trees such as the maple or sumac.

Spectrum= the set of bands of coloured
C The source of the red is widely known: it is created light into which a beam of light
by anthocyanins, water-soluble plant pigments separates when it is passed through a
reflecting the red to blue range of the visible prism.
spectrum. They belong to a class of sugar-based
chemical compounds also known as flavonoids. Puzzling= confusing.
What’s puzzling is that anthocyanins are actually
newly minted, made in the leaves at the same time as Manufacture= produce, create, make…
the tree is preparing to drop them. But it is hard to
make sense of the manufacture of anthocyanins – Bother= trouble.
why should a tree bother making new chemicals in its
leaves when it’s already scrambling to withdraw and Scramble= move quickly, rush…
preserve the ones already there?
Preserve= protect, save….
D Some theories about anthocyanins have argued that
they might act as a chemical defence against attacks Fungus= a simple type of plant that has
by insects or fungi, or that they might attract fruit- no leaves or flowers and that grows on
eating birds or increase a leafs tolerance to freezing. plants or other surfaces. Mushrooms
However there are problems with each of these and mould are both fungi.
theories, including the fact that leaves are red for such
a relatively short period that the expense of energy Expense= cost, price.
needed to manufacture the anthocyanins would
outweigh any anti-fungal or anti-herbivore activity Outweigh= more than.
achieved.* photosynthesis: the production of new
material from sunlight, water and carbon dioxide. Propose= recommended, suggested…

E It has also been proposed that trees may produce Infestation= if insects, rats etc infest a
vivid red colours to convince herbivorous insects that place, there are a lot of them and they
they are healthy and robust and would be easily able usually cause damage.
to mount chemical defences against infestation. If
insects paid attention to such advertisements, they Prompted= encouraged.
might be prompted to lay their eggs on a duller, and
presumably less resistant host. The flaw in this theory Proof= evidence.
lies in the lack of proof to support it. No one has as yet
ascertained whether more robust trees sport the Ascertained= determined, established,
brightest leaves, or whether insects make choices discovered…
according to colour intensity.
Plausible= believable, reasonable,
F Perhaps the most plausible suggestion as to why possible…
leaves would go to the trouble of making anthocyanins
when they’re busy packing up for the winter is the Hypothesis= suggestion, assumption…
theory known as the ‘light screen’ hypothesis. It
sounds paradoxical, because the idea behind this
hypothesis is that the red pigment is made in autumn
leaves to protect chlorophyll, the light-absorbing

chemical, from too much light. Why does chlorophyll

need protection when it is the natural world’s supreme Intact= unbroken, undamaged,
light absorber? Why protect chlorophyll at a time when unharmed…
the tree is breaking it down to salvage as much of it as
possible? Vulnerable= at risk, in danger,
defenseless, weak…
G Chlorophyll, although exquisitely evolved to capture
the energy of sunlight, can sometimes be Destructive= damaging, devastating,
overwhelmed by it, especially in situations of drought, harmful, detrimental…
low temperatures, or nutrient deficiency. Moreover, the
problem of oversensitivity to light is even more acute in Suspect= doubt, disbelieve, distrust…
the fall, when the leaf is busy preparing for winter by
dismantling its internal machinery. The energy Clue= evidence, sign…
absorbed by the chlorophyll molecules of the unstable
autumn leaf is not immediately channelled into useful Straightforward= simple,
products and processes, as it would be in an intact uncomplicated…
summer leaf. The weakened fall leaf then becomes
vulnerable to the highly destructive effects of the Excess= extra.
oxygen created by the excited chlorophyll molecules.
Disposal= removal, clearance…
H Even if you had never suspected that this is what
was going on when leaves turn red, there are clues Overexposure= over contact.
out there. One is straightforward: on many trees, the
leaves that are the reddest are those on the side of the Spectacular= stunning, amazing,
tree which gets most sun. Not only that, but the red is impressive, fantastic, brilliant…
brighter on the upper side of the leaf. It has also been
recognised for decades that the best conditions for
intense red colours are dry, sunny days and coo
nights, conditions that nicely match those that make
leaves susceptible to excess light. And finally, trees
such as maples usually get much redder the more
north you travel in the northern hemisphere. It’s colder
there, they’re more stressed, their chlorophyll is more
sensitive and it needs more sunblock.

I What is still not fully understood, however, is why

some trees resort to producing red pigments while
others don’t bother, and simply reveal their orange or
yellow hues. Do these trees have other means at their
disposal to prevent overexposure to light in autumn?
Their story, though not as spectacular to the eye, will
surely turn out to be as subtle and as complex.

J une 2004 saw the first passage, known as a passage= movement, motion, travel,
crossing ˈpæsɪdʒ
transit= the process of moving goods
‘transit’, of the planet Venus across the face of the
or people from one place to another
Sun in 122 years. Transits have helped shape our ˈtrænsɪt
view of the whole Universe, as Heather Cooper and view= opinion, belief, notion vjuː
Nigel Henbest explain explain= describe, clarify, give details,
make clear. ɪkˈspleɪn

On 8 June 2004, more than half the population of the treat sb to sth= entertain sb with sth
special triːt ˈsʌmbədi tu ˈsʌmθɪŋ
world were treated to a rare astronomical event. For astronomical= relating to the scientific
study of the stars. æstrəˈnɒmɪkəl
over six hours, the planet Venus steadily inched its steadily= gradually, little by little, inch
by inch. ˈstedəli
inch= to move very slowly in a
way over the surface of the Sun. This ‘transit’ of
particular direction, or to make
something do this ɪntʃ
Venus was the first since 6 December 1882. On that occasion= event, time, circumstance
əˈkeɪʒən
occasion, the American astronomer Professor Simon astronomer= a scientist who studies
the stars and planets əˈstrɒnəmə

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Newcomb led a party to South Africa to observe the party= group, team, organization ˈpɑːti
observe= watch, scrutinize, monitor. əbˈzɜːv
base= to have your main place of work,
event. They were based at a girls’ school, where - it is business etc in a particular place beɪs
it is alleged(that)= to say that something is
alleged - the combined forces of three true or that someone has done something
wrong, although it has not been proved. ˈɪt
ɪz əˈledʒd (ðæt)
schoolmistresses outperformed the professionals force= a group of people who have been
trained and organized to do a particular job
with the accuracy of their observations. fɔːs
schoolmistress= a female teacher,
especially in a private school (=one that
parents pay to send their children to).
ˈskuːlˌmɪstrɪs
outperform= surpass, outdo, do better
than. aʊtpəˈfɔːm
professional= showing that someone has
been well trained and is good at their work
prəˈfeʃənəl
accuracy=exactness, precision, exactness.
ˈækjərəsi
B
draw somebody to something= attract,
For centuries, transits of Venus have drawn explorers appeal, lure, entice. drɔː ˈsʌmbədi tu ˈsʌmθɪŋ
and astronomers alike to the four corners of the the four corners of the
earth/world/globe= places or countries
globe. And you can put it all down to the that are very far away from each other. ðə
fɔ:r ˈkɔːnəz əv ði ˈɜ:θ/ˈwɜ:ld/ ɡləʊb
extraordinary polymath Edmond Halley. In put down to= to think that something is
caused by something else ˈpʊt daʊn tuː
November 1677, Halley observed a transit of the extraordinary=amazing, special,
remarkable. ɪkˈstrɔːdənəri
innermost planet, Mercury, from the desolate island polymath= someone who has a lot of
of St Helena in the South Pacific. He realised that, knowledge about many different subjects.
ˈpɒlɪmæθ
from different latitudes, the passage of the planet innermost= furthest inside or nearest to
the centre. ˈɪnəməʊst
across the Sun’s disc would appear to differ. By timing desolate= isolated, uninhabited, wild.
ˈdesələt
the transit from two widely-separated locations, teams latitude= the distance north or south of the
equator (=the imaginary line around the
of astronomers could calculate the parallax angle - middle of the world), measured in degrees.
ˈlætɪtjuːd
the apparent difference in position of an astronomical
disc= a round flat shape or object dɪsk
body due to a difference in the observer’s position. parallax= the effect by which the position
or direction of an object appears to change
Calculating this angle would allow astronomers to when the object is seen from different
positions ˈpærəlæks
measure what was then the ultimate goal: the apparent= obvious, clear, noiceable.
əˈpærənt
distance of the Earth from the Sun. This distance is due to= because of, owing to, as a result to
djuː tuː
known as the astronomical unit’ or AU.
ultimate= eventual, last, final. ˈʌltəmət

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C
fundamental = basic, major,
Halley was aware that the AU was one of the most
elementary. fʌndəˈmentl
fundamental of all astronomical measurements. govern= control, rule, regulate ˈɡʌvən
Johannes Kepler, in the early 17 th century, had orbit= the curved path travelled by an
shown that the distances of the planets from the Sun object which is moving around another
much larger object such as the earth,
governed their orbital speeds, which were easily
the sun etc -> orbital (adj) ˈɔːbɪt
measurable. But no-one had found a way to calculate accurate = precise, correct, exact
accurate distances to the planets from the Earth. The ˈækjərət
goal= objective, aim, purpose, target.
goal was to measure the AU; then, knowing the
ɡəʊl
orbital speeds of all the other planets round the Sun, scale= size, range, extent skeɪl
the scale of the Solar System would fall into place. fall into place= make sense, become
clear, take shape. fɔːl ˈɪntə ˈpleɪs
However, Halley realised that Mercury was so far away
determine= find out, establish, form.
that its parallax angle would be very difficult to dɪˈtɜːmɪn
determine. As Venus was closer to the Earth, its work out= to calculate an answer,
parallax angle would be larger, and Halley worked amount, price etc ˈwɜ:k aʊt
occur= happen, take place. əˈkɜː
out that by using Venus it would be possible to
in pairs= in groups of two ɪn peəz
measure the Suns distance to 1 part in 500. But there roughly= approximately, about,
was a problem: transits of Venus, unlike those of around, nearly. ˈrʌfli
nevertheless= but, however,
Mercury, are rare, occurring in pairs roughly eight
nonetheless, though. nevəðəˈles
years apart every hundred or so years. Nevertheless,
predict= forecast, foresee, guess.
he accurately predicted that Venus would cross the prɪˈdɪkt

face of the Sun in both 1761 and 1769 - though he survive= live, stay alive, last səˈvaɪv

didn’t survive to see either.

D inspire= motivate, encourage, stimulate.

ɪnˈspaɪə
Inspired by Halley’s suggestion of a way to pin down pin sb/sth down= to understand
something clearly or be able to describe it
the scale of the Solar System, teams of British and exactly. pɪn ˈsʌmbədi/ˈsʌmθɪŋ daʊn
set out on a journey/drive/voyage etc =
French astronomers set out on expeditions to places to start a journey, especially a long journey
set aʊt ˈɒn ə ˈdʒɜːni/ ˈdraɪv /ˈvɔɪɪdʒ etˈsetrə
as diverse as India and Siberia. But things weren’t expedition= journey, trip, tour, voyage.
ekspəˈdɪʃən
helped by Britain and France being at war. The person diverse= different, varied, assorted. daɪˈvɜːs

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who deserves most sympathy is the French deserve= be worthy of, ought to have.
dɪˈzɜːv
astronomer Guillaume Le Gentil. sympathy= the feeling of being sorry for
someone who is in a bad situation ˈsɪmpəθi
He was thwarted by the fact that the British were thwart= pevent, impede, ruin, frustrate
θwɔːt
besiege= to surround a city or castle with
besieging his observation site at Pondicherry in India. military force until the people inside let you
take control. bɪˈsiːdʒ
Fleeing on a French warship crossing the Indian flee= run away, escape, run off. fliː
pitch and roll= an up and down movement
Ocean, Le Gentil saw a wonderful transit - but the of a ship or an aircraft ˈpɪtʃ ənd rəʊl
rule smt/sb out= preclude, prohibit,
ship’s pitching and rolling ruled out any attempt at prevent. ruːl ˈsʌmθɪŋ/ ˈsʌmbədi ˈaʊt
attempt= effort, try, endeavor. əˈtempt
making accurate observations. Undaunted, he undaunted= undeterred= not afraid of
continuing to try to do something in spite of
remained south of the equator, keeping himself busy difficulties or danger. ʌnˈdɔːntɪd
the equator= an imaginary line drawn
by studying the islands of Mauritius and Madagascar around the middle of the earth that is
exactly the same distance from the north
before setting off to observe the next transit in the pole and the south pole ði ɪˈkweɪtə
set off= to start to go somewhere set ɒf
Philippines. Ironically after travelling nearly 50,000 ironically= used when talking about a
situation in which the opposite of what you
kilometres, his view was clouded out at the last expected happens or is true aɪˈrɒnɪkli
cloud= to make sth less pleasant or
moment, a very dispiriting experience. enjoyable klaʊd
dispiriting= disappointing, upsetting,
hopeless dɪˈspɪrɪtɪŋ

E precise= exact, accurate, specific. prɪˈsaɪs

While the early transit timings were as precise as instrument= tool, gadget, device ˈɪnstrəmənt
dog= trouble, bother, hassle dɒɡ
instruments would allow, the measurements were black drop effect= an optical phenomenon
visible during a transit of venus and, to a
dogged by the ‘black drop’ effect. When Venus
lesser extent, a transit of mercury. blæk drɒp
begins to cross the Sun’s disc, it looks smeared not ɪˈfekt
smeared= dirty, muddy, messy smɪəd
circular - which makes it difficult to establish timings. establish= set up, create, launch. ɪˈstæblɪʃ
This is due to diffraction of light. The second problem diffract= deflection, spreading, diversion ->
diffraction (n) dɪˈfrækt
is that Venus exhibits a halo of light when it is seen exhibit= show, display, present ɪɡˈzɪbɪt
just outside the Sun’s disc. While this showed halo of= a circle of light or something
bright. ˈheɪləʊ ɒv
astronomers that Venus was surrounded by a thick refract= if glass or water refracts light, the
light changes direction when it passes
layer of gases refracting sunlight around it, both
through the glass or water. rɪˈfrækt
effects made it impossible to obtain accurate timings. obtain = get, gain, attain, acquire. əbˈteɪn

F labour= to work hard. ˈleɪbə

analyse= investigate, study, examine,
But astronomers laboured hard to analyse the
scrutinize. ˈænəlaɪz

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results of these expeditions to observe Venus expedition= journey, trip, tour, voyage.
ekspəˈdɪʃən
transits. Johann Franz Encke, Director of the Berlin observe= watch, scrutinize, monitor.
əbˈzɜːv
Observatory, finally determined a value for the AU transit= the process of moving goods
based on all these parallax measurements: or people from one place to another
ˈtrænsɪt
153,340,000 km. Reasonably accurate for the time, determine= find out, establish, form.
dɪˈtɜːmɪn
that is quite close to today’s value of 149,597,870 km, parallax= the effect by which the
determined by radar, which has now superseded position or direction of an object
appears to change when the object is
transits and all other methods in accuracy. The AU is seen from different positions ˈpærəlæks
accurate = precise, correct, exact
a cosmic measuring rod, and the basis of how we ˈækjərət
supersede= replace= if a new idea,
scale the Universe today. The parallax principle can
product, or method supersedes another
be extended to measure the distances to the stars. If one, it becomes used instead because
it is more modern or effective. suːpəˈsiːd
we look at a star in January - when Earth is at one cosmic= vast, huge, immense. #tiny
ˈkɒzmɪk
point in its orbit - it will seem to be in a different scale= to make writing or a picture the
position from where it appears six months later. right size for a particular purpose skeɪl
extend= make bigger, expand, enlarge.
Knowing the width of Earth’s orbit, the parallax shift ɪkˈstend
shift = move, change, modification ʃɪft
lets astronomers calculate the distance.

spectacle= a very impressive show or

G scene. ˈspektəkəl
pave the way for= to make a later event or
June 2004’s transit of Venus was thus more of an
development possible by producing the
astronomical spectacle than a scientifically important right conditions. peɪv ðə ˈweɪ fɔː
vital= very important, crucial, central,
event. But such transits have paved the way for what
necessary. ˈvaɪtl
might prove to be one of the most vital breakthrough= advance, innovation,
invention. ˈbreɪkθruː
breakthroughs in the cosmos - detecting Earth-sized cosmos= the whole universe, especially
planets orbiting other stars. when you think of it as a system ˈkɒzmɒs

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READING PASSAGE 2

A
somebody’s sense of self = someone’s idea that
they are a separate person, different from other

A sense of self develops in young children

people ˈsəmˌbɑːdi sens əv self
degree= level, scale, extent. dɪˈɡriː
in terms of= if you explain or describe something
in terms of a particular fact or event, you are
explaining or describing it only in relation to that
fact or event ɪn tɜːmz ɒv
gradual= slow, steady #rapid ˈɡrædʒuəl
by degrees. The process can usefully be thought emergence= appearance, occurrence, arrival.
ɪˈmɜːdʒəns
of in terms of the gradual emergence of two somewhat = rather, slightly, to some extent
ˈsʌmwɒt
somewhat separate features: the self as a separate= different, distinct, discrete. ˈsepərət
feature= a part of something that you notice
because it seems important, interesting, or typical
subject, and the self as an object. William James ˈfiːtʃə
distinction=difference, separation, discrepancy
introduced the distinction in 1892, and #similarity dɪˈstɪŋkʃən
contemporary= someone who lived or was in a
contemporaries of his, such as Charles Cooley, particular place at the same time as someone
else. kənˈtempərəri

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added to the developing debate. Ever since developing= growing or changing dɪˈveləpɪŋ
debate= argument, discussion, dispute. dɪˈbeɪt
then psychologists have continued building on ever since=all the time since ˈevə sɪns
psychologist= someone who is trained in
psychology (the study of the mind and how it
the theory.
influences people's behaviour) saɪˈkɒlədʒɪst
build on sth=to use your achievements as a base
for further development ˈbɪld ˈɒn ˈsʌmθɪŋ
theory= concept, idea, principle ˈθɪəri
B
understanding= grasp, knowledge, perception
According to James, a child's first step on the
ʌndəˈstændɪŋ
road to self-understanding can be seen as the recognition= the act of realizing and accepting
that something is true or important rekəɡˈnɪʃən
recognition that he or she exists. This is an aspect= feature, part, trait. ˈæspekt
aspect of the self that he labelled 'self-as- label= mark, consider, describe. ˈleɪbəl
various = many, a range of, numerous. ˈveəriəs
subject', and he gave it various elements. These element= part, component, factor. ˈeləmənt
included an awareness of one's own agency (i.e. awareness of= the ability to notice something
using your senses əˈweənəs ɒv
One's power to act), and an awareness of one's
distinctiveness= something that is distinctive is
distinctiveness from other people. These easy to recognize because it is different from
other things dɪˈstɪŋktɪvnɪs
features gradually emerge as infants explore
emerge = arise, develop, appear. ɪˈmɜːdʒ
their world and interact with caregivers. Cooley infant = a baby or very young child. ˈɪnfənt
interact= if people interact with each other, they
(1902) suggested that a sense of the self-as-
talk to each other, work together etc ɪntərˈækt
subject was primarily concerned with being caregiver = someone who takes care of a child or
sick person. ˈkeəˌɡɪvə
able to exercise power. He proposed that the
primarily= mainly, chiefly, mostly. ˈpraɪmərəli
earliest examples of this are an infant's concerned with= involved in something or
affected by it kənˈsɜːnd wɪð
attempts to control physical objects, such as
propose = suggest, offer, recommend. prəˈpəʊz
toys or his or her own limbs. This is followed by attempt = try, effort, endeavor. əˈtempt
physical= relating to real objects that you can
attempts to affect the behaviour of other people.
touch, see, or feel ˈfɪzɪkəl
For example, infants learn that when they cry or limb= an arm or leg lɪm
respond to= react, counter, take action rɪˈspɒnd tuː
smile someone responds to them.

C
Another powerful source of information for
infants about the effects they can have on the
mimic= imitate, copy, mirror, simulate. ˈmɪmɪk
world around them is provided when others
particularly= especially, specifically,
mimic them. Many parents spend a lot of time,
exceptionally. pəˈtɪkjʊləli
particularly in the early months, copying their

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infant's vocalizations and expressions. In vocalization= a word or sound that is

produced by the voice vəʊkəlaɪˈzeɪʃən
addition, young children enjoy looking in mirrors,
expression= a look on someone's face that
where the movements they can see are shows what they are thinking or feeling
ɪkˈspreʃən
dependent upon their own movements.
be dependent on/upon sth= to be directly
This is not to say that infants recognize the affected or decided by something else bi
dɪˈpendənt ˈɒn/ əˈpɒn ˈsʌmθɪŋ
reflection as their own image (a later
this is not to say= used to make sure the
development). However, Lewis and Brooks-Gunn person you are talking to does not think
(1979) suggest that infants' developing something that is not true ðɪs ɪz nɒt tu ˈseɪ
recognize= know, spot, identify. ˈrekəɡnaɪz
understanding that the movements they see in reflection= an image that you can see in a
the mirror are contingent on their own, leads to mirror, glass, or water. rɪˈflekʃən
a growing awareness that they are distinct from contingent on/upon something= depending
on something that may happen in the future.
other people. This is because they, and only
kənˈtɪndʒənt ˈɒn/ əˈpɒn ˈsʌmθɪŋ
they, can change the reflection in the mirror. distinct= different, dissimilar, discrete.
dɪˈstɪŋkt

D
This understanding that children gain of
gain= get, achieve, acquire, obtain ɡeɪn
themselves as active agents continues to agent= someone or something that affects or
changes a situation ˈeɪdʒənt
develop in their attempts to co-operate with co-operate= to work with someone else to
achieve something that you both want kəʊˈɒpəreɪt
others in play. Dunn (1988) points out that it is in point out= to tell someone something that they
did not already know or had not thought about
such day-to-day relationships and interactions poɪnt ˈaʊt
day-to-day= day-to-day jobs or activities are ones
that the child's understanding of his- or herself that you do every day as a normal part of your life,
emerges. Empirical investigations of the self-as- your job etc ˈdeɪ-təˈdeɪ
interaction= communication, contact, interface
subject in young children are, however, rather ɪntərˈækʃən
empirical= based on scientific testing or practical
scarce because of difficulties of communication: experience, not on ideas= experimental,
observed, practical #theoretical ɪmˈpɪrɪkəl
even if young infants can reflect on their scarce= rare, uncommon, unusual skeəs
reflect on= to think carefully about something, or
experience, they certainly cannot express this to say something that you have been thinking
about rɪˈflekt ɒn
aspect of the self directly. express= say, state, utter, convey ɪkˈspres

E
acquire= obtain, get, attain. əˈkwaɪə
Once children have acquired a certain level of self-awareness= knowledge and
self-awareness, they begin to place themselves understanding of yourself self.əˈweə.nəs
in a whole series of categories, which together series= chain, string, sequence ˈsɪəriːz
define= describe, express, state dɪˈfaɪn
play such an important part in defining them
unique= distinctive, only one of it’s kind, sole,
uniquely as 'themselves'. This second step in
single, exclusive. juːˈniːk

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the development of a full sense of self is what influence= affect, motivate, inspire. ˈɪnfluəns
James called the 'self-as-object'. This has been be made up of= to combine together to form
seen by many to be the aspect of the self which something bi ˈmeɪd ˈʌp ɒv
is most influenced by social elements, since it is characteristic= trait, feature, quality.
kærəktəˈrɪstɪk
made up of social roles (such as student,
derive something from something= to get
brother, colleague) and characteristics which
something, especially an advantage or a
derive their meaning from comparison or pleasant feeling, from something. dɪˈraɪv
interaction with other people (such as ˈsʌmθɪŋ frəm ˈsʌmθɪŋ
trustworthiness, shyness, sporting ability). trustworthiness= the quality or fact of being
trustworthy (= able to be trusted) ˈtrʌstwɜːðɪnəs

F
Cooley and other researchers suggested a close
connection= link, relationship, association
connection between a person's own kəˈnekʃən
understanding of their identity and other identity= the qualities and attitudes that a
people's understanding of it. Cooley believed person or group of people have, that make
them different from other people. aɪˈdentəti
that people build up their sense of identity from
build up= develop, increase, accumulate.
the reactions of others to them, and from the view ˈbɪld ˈʌp
they believe others have of them. He called the inextricably= if two or more things are
self-as-object the 'looking-glass self', since inextricably linked etc, they are very closely
related and affect each other ɪnɪkˈstrɪkəbli
people come to see themselves as they are bind somebody/something together=unite=
reflected in others. Mead (1934) went even to form a strong emotional or economic
further, and saw the self and the social world as connection between two people, countries
inextricably bound together: 'The self is etc. baɪnd ˈsʌmbədi/ ˈsʌmθɪŋ təˈɡeðə
arise= happen, occur, take place, start. əˈraɪz
essentially a social structure, and it arises in
conceive of (doing) something = to imagine
social experience. It is impossible to conceive of a particular situation or to think about
a self arising outside of social experience.' something in a particular way. kənˈsiːv əv
(ˈduːɪŋ) ˈsʌmθɪŋ

G
Lewis and Brooks-Gunn argued that an argue= say, reason, debate, dispute ˈɑːɡjuː
milestone= a very important event in the
important developmental milestone is reached development of something. = landmark,
when children become able to recognize breakthough ˈmaɪlstəʊn
visually= in a way that involves the eyes ˈvɪʒuəli
themselves visually without the support of
contingent= dependent= depending on
seeing contingent movement. This recognition something that may happen in the future.
kənˈtɪndʒənt
occurs around their second birthday. In one occur= happen, arise, ensue əˈkɜː
experiment, Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1979) experiment= test, research, trial. ɪkˈsperəmənt

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dabbed some red powder on the noses of dab sth on/onto etc sth= to put a substance onto
something with quick light movements of your
children who were playing in front of a mirror, and hand dæb ˈsʌmθɪŋ ˈɒn ˈɒntu etˈsetrə ˈsʌmθɪŋ
then observed how often they touched their observe= watch, view, monitor, examine əbˈzɜːv
reason (that)= to form a particular judgment
noses. The psychologists reasoned that if the
about a situation after carefully considering
children knew what they usually looked like, they the facts ˈriːzən (ðæt)
would be surprised by the unusual red mark and
would start touching it. On the other hand, they
found that children of 15 to 18 months are
generally not able to recognize themselves
unless other cues such as movement are cue= signal, sign, hint, clue, key kjuː
present.
H
graphic= visual, pictorial, illustrative ˈɡræfɪk
Finally, perhaps the most graphic expressions in general= usually, in most cases, overall. ɪn
ˈdʒenr̩əl
of self-awareness in general can be seen in the
display= show, exhibit, presentation. dɪˈspleɪ
displays of rage which are most common from rage= anger, fury, wrath reɪdʒ
longitudinal study/survey/research etc=
18 months to 3 years of age. In a longitudinal relating to the development of something over a
period of time. lɒnɡɪˈtjuːdɪnl̩ ˈstʌdi/ səˈveɪ/ rɪˈsɜːtʃ
study of groups of three or four children, etˈsetrə
Bronson (1975) found that the intensity of the intensity= the quality of being serious and having
very strong feelings or opinions ɪnˈtensəti
frustration and anger in their disagreements frustration= the feeling of being annoyed, upset,
or impatient, because you cannot control or
increased sharply between the ages of 1 and 2 change a situation, or achieve something.
frʌˈstreɪʃən
years. Often, the children's disagreements sharply= suddenly and by a large amount ˈʃɑːpli
involved a struggle over a toy that none of them struggle= fight, battle, scrap ˈstrʌɡəl
tug-of-war = a situation in which two people or
had played with before or after the tug-of-war: groups try very hard to get or keep the same thing
tʌɡ əv ˈwɔːr
the children seemed to be disputing ownership dispute= to try to get control of something or win
rather than wanting to play with it. Although it something dɪˈspjuːt
ownership= possession, right, title ˈəʊnəʃɪp
may be less marked in other societies, the link marked= clear, obvious, noticeable. mɑːkt
notable= important, significant, prominent,
between the sense of 'self' and of 'ownership' is outstanding. ˈnəʊtəbəl
a notable feature of childhood in Western childhood= the period of time when you are a
child ˈtʃaɪldhʊd
societies.

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M ark Rowe reports on the increasingly ambitious

geo-engineering projects being explored by scientists
Geo-engineering= the study of finding ways to
change the earth’s atmosphere in order to reduce
global warming dʒiːəʊendʒeˈniərɪŋ
Ambitious= determined to be successful, rich,
powerful, etc. æmˈbɪʃəs

A Dependence on= the situation in which you need

something all the time to continue existing
Such is our dependence on fossil fuels, and such is dɪˈpendəns ɒn
the volume of carbon dioxide already released into the Fossil fuel= a fuel such as coal or oil that is
produced by the very gradual decaying of
atmosphere, that many experts agree that significant animals or plants over millions of years ˈfɒslˈfjuːəl
global warming is now inevitable. They believe that Volume=capacity, size, extent ˈvɒljuːm
Atmosphere= air in environment ˈætməsfɪə
the best we can do is keep it at a reasonable level,
Inevitable= unavoidable, certain ɪˈnevətəbəl
and at present the only serious option for doing this is Reasonable = acceptable, appropriate ˈriːzənəbəl
cutting back on our carbon emissions. But while a few Emission= release, discharge ɪˈmɪʃən
Stride= advance, progress, development straɪd
countries are making major strides in this regard, the Stem= stop stem
majority are having great difficulty even stemming the Reverse= to change something, such as a
decision, judgment, or process so that it is the
rate of increase, let alone reversing it. Consequently, opposite of what it was before (re=again, back.i.e
an increasing number of scientists are beginning to react, recede) rɪˈvɜːs

explore the alternative of geo-engineering — a term Alternative= an alternative idea, plan etc is
different from the one you have and can be used
which generally refers to the intentional large-scale instead ɔːlˈtɜːnətɪv
manipulation of the environment. According to its Intentional= planed, intended ɪnˈtenʃənəl
Manipulation= the action of influencing or
proponents, geo-engineering is the equivalent of a
controlling something mənɪpjəˈleɪʃən
backup generator: if Plan A - reducing our Proponent= advocate, supporter prəˈpəʊnənt
dependency on fossil fuels - fails, we require a Plan B, Equivalent= parallel, similar (equ=equal.i.e
equate, equilibirum) ɪˈkwɪvələnt
employing grand schemes to slow down or reverse Backup= smt that you can use to replace
the process of global warming. something that does not work or is lost ˈbækʌp
Grand scheme= important and large plan ˈgrænd
skiːm
B
Geo-engineering; has been shown to work, at least on Localize= to limit smt to a particular area
a small localised scale. For decades, MayDay ˈləʊkəlaɪz
parades in Moscow have taken place under clear blue Parade= a public celebration when musical
skies, aircraft having deposited dry ice, silver iodide bands, brightly decorated vehicles etc move
and cement powder to disperse clouds. Many of the down the street pəˈreɪd
schemes now suggested look to do the opposite, and Aircraft= a plane or other vehicle that can fly
ˈeəkrɑːft
reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the planet. The
Deposit= place, drop, put down dɪˈpɒzɪt
most eye-catching idea of all is suggested by
Disperse= melt away, get rid of dɪˈspɜːs
Professor Roger Angel of the University of Arizona. His Eye-catching= attractive, noticeable ˈaɪ kætʃɪŋ
scheme would employ up to 16 trillion minute Employ= use ɪmˈplɔɪ
spacecraft, each weighing about one gram, to form a Minute= tiny, little, small ˈmɪnət
transparent, sunlight-refracting sunshade in an orbit Transparent= see-through, clear trænˈspærənt
1.5 million km above the Earth. This could, argues Orbit= a curved path followed by a planet or
Angel, reduce the amount of light reaching the Earth an object as it moves around another planet,
by two per cent. star, moon, etc.ˈɔːbɪt

C Deposit= put, place, lay dɪˈpɒzɪt

The majority of geo-engineering projects so far carried Stimulate= quicken, speed up, promote
out — which include planting forests in deserts and ˈstɪmjəleɪt
depositing iron in the ocean to stimulate the growth Reverse= to change something, such as the
of algae - have focused on achieving a general cooling direction, order, or process, so that it is the
of the Earth. But some look specifically at reversing opposite of what it was before rɪˈvɜːs
the melting at the poles, particularly the Arctic. The Replenish= refill (plen=full .i.e plenty)
reasoning is that if you replenish the ice sheets and rɪˈplenɪʃ
frozen waters of the high latitudes, more light will be Reflect= to show the image of smb/smt on
reflected back into space, so reducing the warming of the surface of smt (fle=bend.i.e reflex,
the oceans and atmosphere. flexible) rɪˈflekt

D Aerosol= a metal container in which liquids

are kept under pressure and forced out in
The concept of releasing aerosol sprays into the a spray ˈeərəsɒl
stratosphere above the Arctic has been proposed by Spray= liquid which is forced out of a special
several scientists. This would involve using sulphur or container in a stream of very small drops spreɪ
Stratosphere= a very high position ˈstrætəsfɪə
hydrogen sulphide aerosols so that sulphur dioxide Propose= suggest, recommend prəˈpəʊz

would form clouds, which would, in turn, lead to a Dim= make less bright, make less intense
global dimming. The idea is modelled on historic dɪm
Explosion= bang ɪkˈspləʊʒən
volcanic explosions, such as that of Mount Pinatubo
Scrutinise= examine, study, analyze
in the Philippines in 1991, which led to a short-term ˈskruːtənaɪz
cooling of global temperatures by 0.5 °C. Scientists Preserve= protect (serv=protect .i.e
have also scrutinised whether it's possible to conserve, reserve) prɪˈzɜːv
preserve the ice sheets of Greenland with reinforced Reinforce= strengthen, support riːənˈfɔːs
high-tension cables, preventing icebergs from moving High-tension= strong, tight haɪ ˈtenʃn
into the sea. Meanwhile in the Russian Arctic, geo- Evergreen= an evergreen tree or bush
does not lose its leaves in winter ˈevəɡriːn
engineering plans include the planting of millions of
Absorb= take in or soak up (energy, liquid
birch trees. Whereas the regions native evergreen or other substance…) əbˈsɔːb
pines shade the snow an absorb radiation, birches Radiation= powerful and very
would shed their leaves in winter, thus enabling dangerous rays come especially
radiation to be reflected by the snow. Re-routing from nuclear reactions reɪdiˈeɪʃən
Russian rivers to increase cold water flow to ice- Shed=lose, get rid of, drop ʃed
forming areas could also be used to slow down Enable= make it possible for someone /
warming, say some climate scientists. something ɪˈneɪbəl
Re-routing= change the direction riːˈruːtɪŋ
E
But will such schemes ever be implemented?
Implement= put into practice, apply
Generally speaking, those who are most cautious ˈɪmpləment
about geo-engineering are the scientists involved in Cautious= careful ˈkɔːʃəs
the research. Angel says that his plan is ‘no substitute Substitute= alternate, replacement
for developing renewable energy: the only permanent ˈsʌbstɪtjuːt
solution'. And Dr Phil Rasch of the US-based Pacific Renewable energy= type of energy
Northwest National Laboratory is equally guarded replaces itself naturally or is easily replaced
about the role of geo-engineering: 'I think all of us because there is a large supply of it rɪˈnjuːəbl
agree that if we were to end geo-engineering on a ˈenədʒi
given day, then the planet would return to its pre- Permanent= everlasting, eternal, enduring
engineered condition very rapidly, and probably within ˈpɜːmənənt
ten to twenty years. That’s certainly something to Guard= protect, defend ɡɑːd
worry about.’
F
The US National Center for Atmospheric Research has
already suggested that the proposal to inject sulphur Inject= insert, add, bring in ɪnˈdʒekt
into the atmosphere might affect rainfall patterns
The tropics= the hottest part of the world,
across the tropics and the Southern Ocean. ‘Geo- which is around the equator ðə ˈtrɒpɪks
engineering plans to inject stratospheric aerosols or to
seed clouds would act to cool the planet, and act to Distribution= spreading, allocation
increase the extent of sea ice,’ says Rasch. ‘But all the dɪstrəˈbjuːʃən
models suggest some impact on the distribution of Precipitation= rainfall prɪsɪpɪˈteɪʃən
precipitation.’

G
A further risk with geo-engineering projects is that you

can “overshoot Y says Dr Dan Hunt, from the Overshoot= exceed, surpass əʊvəˈʃuːt
University of Bristol’s School of Geophysical Sciences,
who has studied the likely impacts of the sunshade Impact = influence, effect ˈɪmpækt
and aerosol schemes on the climate. ‘You may bring Pole= the most northern or most southern
global temperatures back to pre-industrial levels, but point on a planet, especially the Earth pəʊl
the risk is that the poles will still be warmer than they
should be and the tropics will be cooler than before Industrialisation= the process of
industrialisation. “To avoid such a scenario,” Hunt developing industries in a country or
says, “Angel’s project would have to operate at half an area ɪndʌstriəlaɪˈzeɪʃən
strength; all of which reinforces his view that the best Scenario= the description of possible
option is to avoid the need for geo-engineering actions or events in the future səˈnɑːriəʊ
altogether.”

H
The main reason why geo-engineering is supported by
Faith= belief feɪθ
many in the scientific community is that most
researchers have little faith in the ability of politicians Conservation= Preservation, protection
to agree - and then bring in - the necessary carbon kɒnsəˈveɪʃən
cuts. Even leading conservation organisations see Potential= likely to develop into a particular
the value of investigating the potential of geo-
type of person or thing in the future pəˈtenʃəl
engineering. According to Dr Martin Sommerkorn,
climate change advisor for the World Wildlife Fund’s Human-induced= caused by human
International Arctic Programme, ‘Human-induced ˈhjuːmən - ɪnˈdjuːst
climate change has brought humanity to a position Exclude= omit, miss out, eliminate, not
where we shouldn’t exclude thinking thoroughly about
this topic and its possibilities.’ include ɪkˈskluːd

Biomedical= relating to how biology affects

T o biomedical researchers all over the world,

medicine baɪəʊˈmedɪkl
Twin= one of two children born at the same
time to the same mother twɪn
Precious= valuable, cherished, treasured
ˈpreʃəs
twins offer a precious opportunity to untangle the Untangle= understand or explain something
that is mysterious or complicated ʌnˈtæŋɡəl
influence of genes and the environment - of nature and Nurture= the education and care that you are
given as a child, and the way it affects your
nurture. Because identical twins come from a single later development and attitudes ˈnɜːtʃə
fertilized egg that splits into two, they share virtually Identical twin= one of a pair of brothers or
sisters born at the same time, who develop
the same genetic code. Any differences between them from the same egg and look almost exactly
alike aɪˈdentɪkəl twɪn
-one twin having younger looking skin, for example - Fertilize = to cause an egg or seed to start to
develop into a new young animal or plant by
must be due to environmental factors such as less time joining it with a male cell ˈfɜːtəlaɪz
spent in the sun. Split= divide, break # merge splɪt
Virtually= almost, nearly ˈvɜːtʃuəli

Alternatively, by comparing the experiences of identical

twins with those of fraternal twins, who come from Fraternal=connected with the relationship that
exists between brothers frəˈtɜːnl
separate eggs and share on average half their DNA, Quantify= count, calculate, measure ˈkwɒntɪfaɪ
Extent= degree, level ɪkˈstent
researchers can quantify the extent to which our Ailment= illness, disease ˈeɪlmənt
Vulnerability= the state of being easily affected
genes affect our lives. If identical twins are more by something vʌl.nər.əˈbɪl.ə.ti
similar to each other with respect to an ailment than Be rooted in something = to be based on
something or caused by something bi ˈruːtɪd ɪn
fraternal twins are, then vulnerability to the disease ˈsʌmθɪŋ
Heredity= the process by which mental and
must be rooted at least in part in heredity. physical qualities are passed from a parent to a
child before the child is born.
(here=cling,stick .i.e adhere, coherence)
həˈredəti
These two lines of research - studying the differences
between identical twins to pinpoint the influence of Pinpoint= identify ˈpɪnpɔɪnt
Inheritance= money or objects that someone
environment, and comparing identical twins with gives you when they die ɪnˈherətəns
fraternal ones to measure the role of inheritance - Crucial= extremely important or necessary
have been crucial to understanding the interplay of ˈkruːʃəl
nature and nurture in determining our personalities, Interplay= relationship, interaction
behavior, and vulnerability to disease. (inter- = among, between, i.e: intersection,
international) ˈɪntəpleɪ

The idea of using twins to measure the influence of

heredity dates back to 1875, when the English scientist Coin the phrase= invent a term kɔɪn ðə
Francis Galton first suggested the approach (and freɪz
coined the phrase 'nature and nurture'). But twin
studies took a surprising twist in the 1980s, with the Twist = change twɪst
arrival of studies into identical twins who had been
separated at birth and reunited as adults. Over two Reunite= bring back together, come
decades 137 sets of twins eventually visited Thomas together riːjuːˈnaɪt
Bouchard's lab in what became known as the
Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart. Numerous
tests were carried out on the twins, and they were Carry out= do, implement ˈkæri ˈaʊt
each asked more than 15,000 questions.

Bouchard and his colleagues used this mountain of

data to identify how far twins were affected by their Genetic makeup= genetic combination
genetic makeup. The key to their approach was a dʒɪˈnetɪk ˈmeɪkʌp
statistical concept called heritability. In broad terms, Statistical= numerical stəˈtɪstɪkəl
the heritability of a trait measures the extent to which Trait= a particular quality in your
differences among members of a population can be
personality treɪt
explained by differences in their genetics. And
wherever Bouchard and other scientists looked, it
seemed, they found the invisible hand of genetic Invisible = impossible to see ɪnˈvɪzəbəl
influence helping to shape our lives.

Lately, however, twin studies have helped lead Radical= fundamental, basic, essential
scientists to a radical new conclusion: that nature and ˈrædɪkəl

nurture are not the only elemental forces at work. Elemental= basic, fundamental eləˈmentl
According to a recent field called epigenetics, there is Epigenetics= the scientific study of
a third factor also in play, one that in some cases changes in the behaviour of genes that
serves as a bridge between the environment and our are caused by things that a living
genes, and in others operates on its own to shape who thing experiences epədʒəˈnetɪks
we are.
Epigenetic processes are chemical reactions tied to Tied= linked, joined, related taɪd
neither nature nor nurture but representing what Represent= stand for, symbolize
researchers have called a 'third component'. These reprɪˈzent
reactions influence how our genetic code is expressed: Component= part, factor, element
how each gene is strengthened or weakened, even kəmˈpəʊnənt
turned on or off, to build our bones, brains and all the
other parts of our bodies.
Immense=extremely large, enormous
If you think of our DNA as an immense piano
ɪˈmens
keyboard and our genes as the keys - each key
Segment= section, part, piece, sector
symbolizing a segment of DNA responsible for a
ˈseɡmənt
particular note, or trait, and all the keys combining to
Trait= characteristic, feature treɪt
make us who we are - then epigenetic processes
Determine= decide dɪˈtɜːmɪn
determine when and how each key can be struck,
Tune= melody tjuːn
changing the tune being played.
Revolutionize= develop, transform
One way the study of epigenetics is revolutionizing revəˈluːʃənaɪz
our understanding of biology is by revealing a Reveal= show, display, exhibit # conceal
mechanism by which the environment directly impacts rɪˈviːl
on genes. Studies of animals, for example, have Mechanism = process, system, operation
shown that when a rat experiences stress during ˈmekənɪzəm
pregnancy, it can cause epigenetic changes in a fetus Pregnancy= when a woman has a baby
that lead to behavioral problems as the rodent grows growing inside her body ˈpreɡnənsi
up. Other epigenetic processes appear to occur Fetus= a baby or young animal before it is
randomly, while others are normal, such as those that born ˈfiːtəs
guide embryonic cells as they become heart, brain, or Occur = happen əˈkɜː
liver cells, for example. Randomly = unexpectedly = in an unplanned
way ˈrændəmli
Geneticist Danielle Reed has worked with many twins
over the years and thought deeply about what twin
studies have taught us. 'It's very clear when you look at Hardwired= if an attitude, way of
twins that much of what they share is hardwired,' she behaving etc is hard-wired, it is a natural
says. 'Many things about them are absolutely the same part of a person’s character that they are
and unalterable. But it's also clear, when you get to born with and cannot change hɑːdˈwaɪəd
know them, that other things about them are different. Unalterable= unchangeable, fixed
Epigenetics is the origin of a lot of those differences, in ʌnˈɔːltərəbəl
my view.'

Reed credits Thomas Bouchard's work for today's Surge = sudden and great increase sɜːdʒ
surge in twin studies. 'He was the trailblazer,' she Trailblazer= pioneer ˈtreɪlˌbleɪzə

says. 'We forget that 50 years ago things like heart Mothering= the process of caring for
disease were thought to be caused entirely by lifestyle. children in the way that a mother does.
Schizophrenia was thought to be due to poor ˈmʌðərɪŋ
Reflective= thinking carefully and quietly
mothering. Twin studies have allowed us to be more
rɪˈflektɪv
reflective about what people are actually born with
and what's caused by experience.'

Having said that, Reed adds, the latest work in

Take our understanding even further =
epigenetics promises to take our understanding even
increase our knowledge ˈteɪk ˈaʊər
further. 'What I like to say is that nature writes some
ʌndəˈstændɪŋ i:vn ˈfɜːðə
things in pencil and some things in pen,' she says.
'Things written in pen you can't change. That's DNA.
But things written in pencil you can. That's epigenetics.
Now that we're actually able to look at the DNA and
see where the pencil writings are, it's sort of a whole
new world.'

A ncient voyagers who settled the far-flung

collecting ants can be as simple as picking up stray
ancient = prehistoric, very old, earliest, #modern
ˈeɪnʃənt
voyager = traveler, explorer, adventurer ˈvɔɪɪdʒə
far-flung = far, distant, remote fɑː- ˈflʌŋ
ones and placing them in a jar, or as complicated jar = pot, container, vessel dʒɑː
as completing an exhaustive survey of all species complicated = complex, intricate, convoluted
present in an area and estimating their relative ˈkɒmplɪkeɪtɪd
abundances. The exact method used will depend exhaustive = thorough, comprehensive,
on the final purpose of the collections. For in-depth ɪɡˈzɔːstɪv
abundance= plenty, wealth, profusion əˈbʌndəns
taxonomy, or classification, long series, from a
single nest, which contain all castes (workers, taxonomy, classification = taxonomic system,
including majors and minors, and, if present, queens nomenclature, categorization tækˈsɒnəmi,
klæsɪfɪˈkeɪʃn̩
and males) are desirable, to allow the determination
nest = a place made or chosen by
of variation within species. For ecological studies, a bird to lay its eggs in and to live in nest
the most important factor is collecting identifiable caste = class, type, social order kɑːst
samples of as many of the different species present desirable = attractive, wanted, pleasing dɪˈzaɪərəbl̩
as possible. identifiable = recognizable, distinguishable,
classifiable aɪˌdentɪˈfaɪəbl̩

Unfortunately, these methods are not always compatible = well-matched, well-suited, similar,
compatible. The taxonomist sometimes #different, #incompatible (com=together .i.e combine)
kəmˈpætəbl̩
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118
overlooks whole species in favour of those groups overlook = ignore, miss, neglect, skip əʊvəˈlʊk
currently under study, while the ecologist often in favour of = if you are in favour of
collects only a limited number of specimens of each somebody/something, you support and agree with
species, thus reducing their value for taxonomic them/it ɪn ˈfeɪvər ɒv
investigations. thus = therefore, hence, as a result, accordingly
ðʌs

To collect as wide a range of species as possible,

several methods must be used. These include hand bait = food used to attract fish, animals, or birds
collecting, using baits to attract the ants, ground so that you can catch them. beɪt
litter = rubbish, trash, garbage ˈlɪtə
litter sampling, and the use of pitfall traps. Hand consist of = comprise, involve, be composed of
collecting consists of searching for ants kənˈsɪst ɒv
everywhere they are likely to occur. This includes occur = happen, take place, strike əˈkɜː
rotten = (of food, wood, etc.) that has decayed
on the ground, under rocks, logs or other objects on
and cannot be eaten or used ˈrɒtn̩
the ground, in rotten wood on the ground or on trunk = the thick central woody stem of a tree
trees, in vegetation, on tree trunks and under bark. trʌŋk
When possible, collections should be made from bark = the outer covering of a tree bɑːk
foraging = hunting, searching, seeking ˈfɒrɪdʒɪŋ
nests or foraging columns and at least 20 to 25 foraging column = a group of ants that finds food
individuals collected. This will ensure that all together ˈfɒrɪdʒɪŋˈkɒləm
individuals are of the same species, and so increase nocturnal = nighttime, nightly, #diurnal nɒkˈtɜːnl̩
their value for detailed studies. Since some species confined = restricted, limited, narrowed kənˈfaɪnd
aspirator = an instrument or apparatus for
are largely nocturnal, collecting should not be aspirating fluid from a vessel or cavity ˈæspɪreɪtə
confined to daytime. Specimens are collected using pooter = a bottle for collecting small insects and
an aspirator (often called a pooter), forceps, a other invertebrates, having one tube through
which they are sucked into the bottle and another,
fine, moistened paint brush, or fingers, if the ants
protected by muslin or gauze, which is sucked.
are known not to sting. Individual insects are placed ˈpuːtə
in plastic or glass tubes (1.5-3-0 ml capacity for forceps = a medical instrument used for picking
small ants, 5-8 ml for larger ants) containing 75% to up and holding things. ˈfɔːseps
moisten= wet, dampen, moisturize, humidify
95% ethanol. Plastic tubes with secure tops are ˈmɔɪsn̩
better than glass because they are lighter, and do sting = bite, tingle, bite mark, puncture stɪŋ
not break as easily if mishandled. mishandle = mismanage, misuse, mess up
mɪsˈhændl̩

Baits can be used to attract and concentrate forager = the type of the ants that find food
foragers. This often increases the number of ˈfɒrɪdʒə
individuals collected and attracts species that are otherwise = if not, or else, then ˈʌðəwaɪz
otherwise elusive. Sugars and meats or oils will elusive = mysterious, intangible, vague,
#obvious ɪˈluːsɪv
attract different species and a range should be utilise = use, make use of something, employ
utilised. These baits can be placed either on the ˈjuːtəlaɪz
ground or on the trunks of trees or large shrubs. shrub = plant, herb, weed, bulb ʃrʌb
When placed on the ground, baits should be situated = placed, located, positioned ˈsɪtʃʊeɪtɪd
situated on small paper cards or other flat, light- test–tube = a small glass container that is shaped
like a tube and is used in chemistry test - tjuːb
coloured surfaces, or in test-tubes or vials. This vial = a very small bottle used for medicine,
makes it easier to spot ants and to capture them perfume etc ˈvaɪəl
before they can escape into the surrounding leaf spot = identify, notice, recognize spɒt
litter. capture = catch, seize, trap ˈkæptʃə

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119
Many ants are small and forage primarily in the layer
of leaves and other debris on the ground. Collecting debris = remains, fragments, wreckage ˈdeɪbriː
these species by hand can be difficult. One of the
most successful ways to collect them is to gather gather = collect, group, get together, join
the leaf litter in which they are foraging and extract together, #disperse ˈɡæðə
the ants from it. This is most commonly done by funnel = a thin tube with a wide top that you use
placing leaf litter on a screen over a large funnel, for pouring liquid into a container with a narrow
often under some heat. As the leaf litter dries from opening, such as a bottle. ˈfʌnl̩
above, ants (and other animals) move downward
and eventually fall out the bottom and are collected
in alcohol placed below the funnel. This method marshy = muddy, wet, boggy, #dry (mar=water,sea
works especially well in rain forests and marshy .i.e marine,submarine) ˈmɑːʃi
areas. A method of improving the catch when using
a funnel is to sift the leaf litter through a coarse
sift = sieve, filter, separate sɪft
screen before placing it above the funnel. This will
concentrate the litter and remove larger leaves and coarse = rough, uneven, bumpy, rugged kɔːs
twigs. It will also allow more litter to be sampled twig = a small very thin stem of wood that grows
when using a limited number of funnels. from a branch on a tree. twɪɡ

The pitfall trap is another commonly used tool for

pitfall = a problem or difficulty that is likely to
collecting ants. A pitfall trap can be any small happen in a particular job, course of action, or
container placed in the ground with the top level with activity. ˈpɪtfɔːl
the surrounding surface and filled with a preservative = protective, conserving,
preservative. Ants are collected when they fall into #destructive (serv= protect .i.e preserve, conserve)
the trap while foraging. prɪˈzɜːvətɪv

The diameter of the traps can vary from about 18 diameter = width, length, breadth daɪˈæmɪtə
mm to 10 cm and the number used can vary from a vary = differ, diverge, fluctuate ˈveəri
few to several hundred. The size of the traps used is preference = favorite, first choice,
influenced largely by personal preference (although
#indifference ˈprefrəns
larger sizes are generally better), while the number
will be determined by the study being undertaken. undertake = carry out, conduct, take on ʌndəˈteɪk
The preservative used is usually ethylene glycol or evaporate = if a liquid evaporates, or if heat
propylene glycol, as alcohol will evaporate quickly evaporates it, it changes into a gas. ɪˈvæpəreɪt
and the traps will dry out.

One advantage of pitfall traps is that they can be maintenance = preservation, continuation,
used to collect over a period of time with minimal protection, #destruction ˈmeɪntənəns
maintenance and intervention. One disadvantage intervention = interference, intrusion,
is that some species are not collected as they either involvement ɪntəˈvenʃn̩
avoid the traps or do ot commonly encounter them encounter = meet, come across, stumble upon
while foraging. ɪnˈkaʊntə

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