Communication

Fundamentals of Fiber Optic

1-2
ONSC (Sem. 6/ Elex./MSBTE) advantages
over the conventional
several
It has
communication techniques.
.1 Introduction: communication
became practical in 1970
channel Fiber optic developed.
In a communication system, a communication low loss fiber
was
when the first
be used to
or communication medium is required to
Fiber
to the other.
convey the information from one place 1.2 History of Optical
This communication medium can be a pair o Communication:

conducting wires or it can be the free space. demonstrated one of

In 1870 John Tyndall in England
wires such as twisted pair cables or
When conducting systems.
medium, the the first guided light
co-axial cables are used as communication which water was used
wired an experiment in
of communication is called as line or He performed
type that the light rays bend.
communication. as a medium, to prove
experimented with
1950s researchers
Whereas if air is used as communication medium, then Then during early
human body from
called the "wireless the flexible glass rods to examine
the communication is as

communication". inside.
the
of Bell laboratory produced
The fiber optic communication is another type By 1958 scientists
source. In 1960 the
the as the light
communication, which uses an optical fiber cable as
theory of using LASER
1962 the first
communication medium. first LASER was actually operated. In
semiconductor LASER was invented.
It is the latest and the most promising type of wired/
1960s and 1970s major advances
guided communication for all types of digital and data During the years of
the quality of optical fibers and
transmission applications. were made in
semiconductor light sources.
Definition of optical communication communication
the major
communication is defined as the type of By 1970s and early 1980s all
An optical efficient optical fiber
the carrier of information.
companies installed new and more

communication that uses light as

systems.
An Optical Fiber:
1.3 Various Communication Media
An optical fiber is like a wire but it is very thin as
compared to a wire and it is made of glass.
Definition
The use of optical fiber is demonstrated in the basic
A transmission / communication media is defined as the
optical fiber system. medium over which information travels from the sender
An Optical Fiber Cable (OFC) to receiver. A communication channel is also called as a

An optical fiber cable consists of a group of optical medium.

fibers packed together. Different media have different properties and used in

It also consists of cladding and other parts for the sake different environments for different purposes.

,of protection of the optical fibers. Communication media are roughly grouped into two
classes
Principle of OFC
1. Wired media 2. Wireless media
An optical fiber can CARRY information from one end
to another, in the form of light rays. Wired (guided) media :

The signal which is to be transmitted is converted into a In this type of media, the signal energy is contained and
light signal. This signal then travels along the optical guided within a solid media.
fiber to reach the other end of the cable where the The examples of wired media are copper pair wires
receiver converts it back to the electrical signal. coaxial cables and fiber optic cables.

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 Fundamentals of Fiber Optic Communication
ONSC (Sem. 6/ Elex./MSBTE) 1-4

Due to the following advantages

offered by optical
The co-axial cable was initially developed for analog
choice for many
fibers, they have become the obvious
telephone networks. A single co-axial cable would be
used to carry more than 10,000 voice channels at a communication applications.

time.
1.3.5 Advantages of Optical Fibers
Characteristics of a Co-Axlal Cable :
S-16, W-16
The important characteristics of a co-axial cable are as
follows
MSBTE Questions
fiber optic
Q. 1 List advantages and disadvantages of
Due to the shield provided, this cable has excellent cable as compare to conventional cable.
noise immunity. (2 points each). (S-16, 4 Marks)
2. It has a large bandwidth and low losses. Q. 2 State any six advantages and two disadvantages

3. Co-axial cables are relatively inexpensive (as compared of fiber optics cable. (W-16, 4 Marks)
to the optical fiber cable) but they are costlier than Some of the advantages of fiber optic communication
twisted pair cables. over the conventional means of communication are as

3.3 Optical Fiber: Follows

1. Small size and lightweight:

An optical fiber is like a wire but it is very thin as
The size (diameter) of the optical fibers is very small
compared to a wire and it is made of glass.
(it is comparable to the diameter of human hair). Therefore a
The use of optical fiber is demonstrated in the basic
large number of optical fibers can fit into a cable of small
9ptical fiber system of Fig. 1.6.2.
diameter.
3 . 4 Optical Fiber Cable(OFC) 2. No electrical or electromagnetic interference
An optical fiber cable consists of a group of optical
Since the transmission takes place in the form of light
fibers packed together.
rays the signal is not affected due to any electrical or
It also consists of cladding and other parts for the sake electromagnetic interference.
of protection of the optical fibers.
5. Large bandwidth and greater information capacity:
Jnformation carrying capacity As the light rays have a very high frequency in the GHz
The information carying capacity of any electronic range, the bandwidth of the optical fiber is extremely
medium is directly proportional to its bandwidth. large.
The biggest advantage of the OFCs is their large This allows transmission of number of channels.
more
bandwidth as compared to the metallic cables. Therefore the information carrying capacity of an
This enables them to carry much more information than optical fiber is much higher than that of a co-axial
that carried by the metalic cables or even by the cable.
wireless systems. No cross-talk inside the
optical fiber cable.
Generally the bandwidth of a communication system is 5. Signals at higher data rates can be sent.
10 percent of its carrier frequency.
6. Low transmission loss :
Hence for an optical fiber system that uses light as a
The signal loss
(attenuation) taking place in the OFCs is
carrier, the carrier frequency is between 10*" Hz and
4 x10 Hz, the bandwidth is between 10,000 GHz and very small as compared to that taking place in the
40,000 GHz. metallic wires.

This is a Hugh bandwidth as compared to that of the Therefore it is not

intermediate
necessary to use the

metallic wire media which can simultaneously handle a amplifiers (repeaters) between a transmitter and a
largenumber of telephone, data and video channels. receiver to compensate for the losses.

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 ONSC (Sem. 6/ Eiex MSETE Funcamentas of Fber Opte Communices
atenuation characterstis t s
Fig 151 shos the
wzveengrh f he optc
graph of Amenuaton verses
ec attenuaton is ow pertcuiar bar
signai The signal
of waveiengths

Definition i
Vsibie The optical/ transmssion winsows are defined as
indigo 380 700n
waveiength regions that ofer ios optkai atenueton

Viole
(10-330mm)
Jvoiet

-2071) Fig 14.1: Eectromagnetic spectrum showing the

infrared visible and utraviolet light
Light frequency spectrum :
The frequency spectrum coresponding to visibie light is
divided into the folowing three bands : 1108
1. Infrared
0-726) Fig 151:The attenuation-wavelength cune and the
The EM signals having frequencies above 300 GHz are
transmission windows of an optical fibe
not referred as radio waves. Their frequency is too high
to be seen by human eyes Table 151 enlists the three optical wndows mos

The signal occupying the range between 700 suitable for the transmission of opticai signais. They ae
nanometers (nm) and 10 nm are called Infrared of 850 nm, 1310 nm and 1550 nm mean wavelengths
Signals. that belongs to the inrared light
OFC systems generaly operate in this frequency band Table 15.1:Optical windows
2 Visible light:
Window Window range Operating wavelength
The visible ight occupies a very small portion of he
First 800 nm-900 nm 850 nm
complete electromagnetic spectrum. t generally covers
he range from 380 nm to 780 nm. Second 1.260 nm 1.360 nm
1,310nm
3. Ultraviolet light:
Third 1.500 nm-1.600 nm
The band of light frequencies that are too iow to be 1.550nm
seen by human eyes with wavelengths in the range of Therefore the most common devices used as the
ight
10 nm and 390 nm are known as the ultraviolet signais.
source in optical transmitters are the Light Emiting
Diode (LED) and the Laser Diode
The optoelectronic devices wil work over a limited (LD
range of the spectrum ie. between the visible and They operate in the infrared region of the

infrared region. Electromagnetic Spectrum so that their light output s

usually invisible to the human eye.
1.5 OpticalWindows:
6 Construction of Optical Fiber:
In a OFC system, the optical signal gets
practical
attenuates (ie. the signai strength decreases) as it Fig. 161 shows the construction of an optical fber
travels over an optical fiber. The attenuation depends cable. It consists of three parts
on the wavelength of the light beam. 1 Glass core
 ONSC (Sem.6/ Elex./MSBTE) 1-7
Fundamentals of Fiber Optic Communication
2. Cladding layer The commonly used materials for the buffer jacket are
3. Jacket layer or protecting layer
plastic, steel, fiberglass etc

V
Glass core: 4. Strength member
As shown in Fig. 1.6.1, the innermost layer in an optical The buffer jacket is surounded by the strength member
fiber cable is the glass core. The light rays travel which increases the tensile strength of the overall cable
through this innermost glass core. assembly.
Cladding layer S. Outer jacket:
The innermost glass layer is covered by the cladding The entire fiber cable assembly is encapsulated in an
layer. This layer is also made up of glass but the outer polyurethane jacket.
refractive index of this layer is less than that of the core
6.1 Types of Optical Fibers
layer.
The optical fibers are ofthe following three types
The thickness of cladding layer is adjusted to be one or
two times higher than the wavelength of light to be Plastic core and cladding.

guided along the fiber. Glass core with plastic cladding. These are called as PCS
fibers (i.e. plastic clad silica).
Strength Glass core and glass cladding. These are called as SCS
members

fibers (ie. silica-clad silica).

Polyurathane Plastic fibers
9 ) outer jacket
The plastic fibers are more flexible and more rugged
Buffer jacket than the glass fibers. They weigh much less, easy to
Protectve coatng
LFiber core install, less expensive, can better withstand stress as
and cladding
compared to the glass fibers.
(0-719) Fig. 1.6.1: Construction offliber optic cable However the plastic fibers provide higher attenuation to
The cladding layer has to perform the following the optical signals. Therefore they are used for relatively
functions shorter distances.
1. It provides strength the
to optical fiber cable. Slass fibers
2. The cladding layer acts like a mirror. It will reflect the The glass core fibers provide less attenuation as
ight rays and will not allow them to escape outside the compared to the plastic core fibers. The PCS fibers are
fiber.
slightly better than the SCS fibers.
S. When many optical fibers are packed in one cable, the The PCS fibers less affected by the radiation and
are
cladding layer avoids interference between the light rays external interference.
in the
adjacent fibers. The SCS fibers have the best
A Special lacquer, silicone,
propagation characteristics
acrylate coating is
or
of all the types. However, they are the least
generally applied to the outside of the cladding to and rugged
preserve the strength of the fiber and to maintain the
they provide higher attenuation when exposed to
attenuation characteristics of the cable. radiation.
This The selection of fiber depends the
coating also
protects the fiber from the moisture on
requirements of
and reduces the possibility of an the application.
undesirable
phenomenon called stress corrosion or static fatigue. 1.6.2 A Simple Optical Communication
Buffer jacket System:
The protective coating is surrounded by the buffer Fig. 1.6.2 shows the block
diagram of a simple optical
jacket that protects the cable from shocks and abrasion. communication system. The transmitter converts the

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 1-8
Fundamentals of Fiber Optic Communication
ONSC (Sem. 6/ Elex./MSBTE) C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Optical
Fiber
1.6.4
information signal into a train of digital pulses in the
Cables w-17
electrical form.
MSBTE Questions characteristics of optical
A light source such as a LED converts them into optical explain the
Q.1 State and
pulses and launches them into the fiber at one end.
(W-17,4 Marks)
flbers characteristics:
have the following
The signal travels on the optical fiber in the form of Fiber optic cables
can provide extremelyhigh
light. . Fiber optic cabling
from 100 mbps to 2
gigabits
bandwidths in the range
On the receiving end, an optical detector such ass a much higher frequency than
because light has a
photodiode is used to convert the optical signal back to
electrical one. electricity.
which a fiber optic can suppot
Transmitter 2. The number of nodes
but on the hub or hubs
Fiber Photo does not depend on its length
Light
diode Receiver
SOurce that connect cables together.
attenuation and
3. Fiber optic cable has much lower can

distances without using amplifiers

carry signal to longer
G-104) Fig. 1.6.2: A simple optical communication system and repeaters in between.

Fiber optic cable is not affected by EMI effects and can

1.6.3 Fiber Optic Materials be used in areas where high voltages are passing by.
The basic material used for the optical fiber is silica 5. The cost of fiber optic cable is more compared to

because silica is the basic material used for glass and twisted pair and co-axial
the optical fibers are produced from glass 6. The installation of fiber optic cables is difficult and

Glass composed of pure silica is called as silica glass. tecious.

But the majority of optically transparent glasses used 7 Optical Fiber Configurations
for optical fiber production are oxide glasses, i.e.
Light propagates over an optical fiber using either
silicon dioxide SiO is used.
reflection or refraction.
It is necessary to produce two different materials having
How does the light
propagate is dependent on two
slightly different refractive indices so that they can be factors namely: mode of propagation and index profie
used for core and cladding of the fiber. of the fiber.

This can be done practically by adding Flurine or 8 Modes of Propagation:

various other oxides such as B, O or Ge O2 or POs to
Definition
silica.
Mode of propagation is defined as the path followed by
Various combinations of materials used for core and
cladding of an optical fiber are given in Table 1.6.1. light rays inside the fiber.
Fig. 1.8.1 shows different modes of propagation of ar
Table 1.6.1: Materials for optical fiber
optical fiber.
Sr. No. Core Cladding Propagation modes
1. Ge O2-Si0 siO2 Single mode Multimode
fiber
2. P2Os-Sio SiO2 fiber
(O-687) Fig. 1.8.1: Propagation modes in optical fibers
3. SiO2 B,O-SiO2
4. GeO- B,0- SiO2 | B,O- SiO2 There are two types namely single mode a
multimode fibers.
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 Elex./MSBTE) 1-9 Fundamentals of Fiber Optic Communication
ONSC (Sem.6/
beams do not reach
mode light follows a single path through the Hence, at the destination, all the
n single at the
in multimode, the light takes more than simultaneously. This leads to diffusion of signal
core whereas
through the core. peceiver.
one paths
Number of modes (N):
1 Single Mode Fibers w-18 The number of modes (paths) supported by a

multimodefiber is given by the following expression:

MSBTE Questions

0.1 Define the term mutimode fiber, step index fiber,

index fiber and single mode fiber.
N (- (1.8.1)
graded
Where N Number of modes
(W-18,4 4Marks) =

d Core diameter (in meters)

Fig, 1.8.2 shows the single mode operation of an optical
= Wavelength of the light in meters
fiber. The optical signal entering from one end of the
n1 = Refractive index of core
fiber has only one path to follow, that is along the
n2 Refractive index of cladding
center of the fiber.
Equation (1.8.1) shows that the number of possible
Fiber Cladding
Source modes depends on the frequency (wavelength) of the
SX\ Receiver light signal, the core diameter and the refractive indices

LCore of core and cladding.

(G-109) Fig. 1.8.2: Single mode fiber Ex.1.8.1 Calculate the number of modes N fora

A highly focused light beam is produced by the light

multimode optical fiber with a diameter of
60 um, core refractive index n = 1.6 and a
source. This beam travel's almost horizontally as shown
cladding refractive index n2 = 1.584. Assume
in Fig. 1.8.2. The critical angle is close to 90.
the wavelength of light to be 1300 nm.
As the critical angle is close to 90, the propagation of Soln.
different beams is more or less similar, the delays are Given: n = 1.6, nz = 1.584, A = 1300 nm, d 60 um.

negligible and the signal reconstruction is easier To find: N.

JA.2 Multimode Fibers W-18 Number of modes N -( -

MSBTE Questions N TX 60x 10a.6-(1.584
Q.1 Define the term multimade fiber, step index iber, 1300
graded index fiber and single mode fiber. N 1071 Ans.
(W-18, 4 Marks) Thus this fiber will support 1071 modes of
optical
Fig. 1.8.3 shows the multimode operation of an optical Propagation.
iber. Theoptical signal entering from one end of the
nber has more than one
6.3 Comparison of Single Mode and
path to follow. Multimode Fibers:
Source Fiber Table 1.8.1:
Cladding Receiver
Comparison of single mode and multimode
fibers
Sr. Parameter of Single
(G-11) Fig. 1.8.3: Multimode step index fiber No.
comparison mode fibers Multimode fibers
uitiple beams will follow different zigzag paths as Number of Only one More than one.
own in
Fig. 1.8.3. The number of reflections that a modes (paths)
2 Shape of the Straight
amundergoes, depends on the angle of incidence of
that beam. path Zigzag or curved
along the
axis of the
core.
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 Fundamentals of Fiber Optic Communicatio
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ONSC (Sem. 6/ Elex./MSBTE)
Types:
types as
of two follows:
Sr. Parameter of Single Multimode flbers The step index fibers
are

No. mode fibers fibers

comparison Singlemode step index
than More than that
Distortion Less fibers
introduced in single Multimode step index
that
introduced in mode fibers. fibers
Single mode step index
the
multimode
The construction of a single mode step index optircal
fibers core and glass cladding is as shown in
fibers can fiber with a
4. Index profile These fibers These
can
have have either step Fig. 1.9.1(a).
either a step index or graded The refractive index of the core is n and that of the
he
index or index profile.
graded index glass cladding is na, with n> n2
profile Therefore the index profile of glass clad core fiber is a
Source to fiber Small Large
shown in Fig. 1.9.1(c).
aperture
6. Ease of Difficult Easy Glass cladding
coupling light
intothe fiber
L7. Bandwidth High LOW Core
8. Data rate Higher than Lower than single
multimode mode fibers

fibers (a) Construction of a glass clad

9. Applications or For narrow band
wideband short distance Glass cladding
long haul transmission.

transmission.
Core axls
9Index Profiles of the Optical
Fibers: Core

Definition no n2
The index profile of an optical fiber is a graphical (b) Index profile core type fiber (c) Cross sectional view
representation of the magnitude of refractive index on
the X-axis and the radial distance from the core axis on (G-110) Fig. 1.9.1
the Y-axis.
Light propagation:
The index profile tells us about the change in refractive
The propagation of light through the step
index (value wise) and nature of variation in the indexsinge
mode fiber is as shown in Fig. 1.9.1(d).
refractive index with respect to the radial distance.
Types of fibers: Cladding no air
The fibers are of two types namely the step index fibers Cladding 2 claddirg
and graded index fibers. ncore
Cladding
9.1 Step Index Fibers W-18 Core Lndex
. Light profile
MSBTE Questions use
3.
Q.1 Define the term multimode fiber, step index fiber, (0-650)Fig. 1.9.1(d) : Light propagation through a single
graded index fiber and single mode fiber.
mode step index fiber
(W.-18,4 Marks) Multimode step index fibers
Definition
The step index fibers The construction of multimode step index opticalfibe
are the optical
fibers in which
there is an abrupt change in the refractive index at the core is as shown in Fig. 1.9.2(a).
cladding interface. It consists of a glass core and one layers of cladding
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ONSC (Sem.6/ Elex./MSBTE) 1-11 Fundamentals of Fiber Optic Communication
he refractive index of the glass core is n, and that of
he
The refractive index of the fiber core is unchanged ie.
the cladding layer is "n'. However the diameter of the
equal to n
core is much larger as compared to that used for the

single mode step index fiber.

The index profile of the multimode step index fiber is
as shown in Fig. 1.9.2(c).
The relation between the refractive indices of the fiber
coreand the cladding layers is as follows
Secort
Firat olacking
n1 n2 cladding
layr( layet (n)

(a) Constructlon
Radial distanco
Second oladding layer
Core Glass First-
cladding oladding
layer
(a) Construction Core
axls

Glass Doair
cladding n2cladding Core
**"

Core
no na ng n Retractive
Index
Core (b) Cross-sectlonal view (c) Index profle

(6) Cross sectional

(L-588) Fig. 1.9.3: W-profle fiber and its Index profile
(c) Index profile
(0-651) Fig. 1.9.2: A multimode step Index fiber As shown in Fig. 1.9.3(c) the refractive index profile of
the W-profile fiber looks like letter-w.
Light Propagation:
The speciality of this fiber is that if the light escapes the
The propagation of ligl through the step index multi fiber core and enters into the first cladding then it is
mode fiber is as shown in Fig. 1.9.2(d). completely absorbed in the second cladding.
This happens because the refractive index of the second
Cladding
n2cladding cladding layer (n) is higher than that of the first
Cladding
cladding layer (n).
Due to the sudden transition of refractive index
Cladding at the
ore
tight interface of core and cladding these rays get reflected
Index
profile back.

0-65Fig. 1.9.2(d): Light propagation through a multimode Thus they follow a zig-zag path inside the fiber core.
step index fiber
9.2 Graded Index Fibers: -18
3.Alndex Profle of the W-Profile Fiber :
Ihe index profile of the MSBTE Questions
W-profile fiber is as shown in Q.1 Define the term multimode fiber. step index fiber.
ig. 1.9.3(c) and its
construction is shown in Fig. 1.9.3(a). graded index fiber and single mode fiber
nere are two
cladding layers used. The refractive index (W-18, 4 Marks) |
O the first cladding layer is "n" and that of the other
As shown in Fig. 1.9.4, the refractive index of the fiber
layer is "ng. core does not remain constant
throughout its bulk. It is
non-uniform.

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 Fundamentals of Fiber Optic Communicati-
1-12
ONSC (Sem. 6/Elex./MSBTE) as follows :
the They are
is maximum at
h e refractive index of the
core
index.
gradually towards the 1. Single mode step
center of the core and reduces
Multimode step index. 3. Multimode graded ind=
walls of the core. 2
used here. The index profile of the Index (SMSI) Fiber:
No cladding is being
of the fiber is 1.10.1 Single Mode Step
graded index fiber shows that the.density
gradually but
maximum at the center and
decreases
The mode step index optical fibers are popula
single
uniformly on both the sides. telecommunications and data networki
used in the
profile the material in
In order to get this type of index applications.
the fiber core is modified.
This type of fiber has a very
small core diameter
Core- multimode fibers.
no ai* compared to the
n, (core) SMSI fiber with air cladding
varies
mode step index opti
**w.ww. Fig. 1.10.1(a) shows the single
fiber. For the simplest type of single mode step inc-
(0-653) Fig. 1.9.4: Refractive index profile of a graded index
glass cladding used.
fiber fiber, there is no

The outside cladding is simply air, with a refract

sht propagation index na = 1 and the refractive index of the glass cor
Fig. 1.9.5 shows the propagation of light through a
n1 1.5.
graded index fiber.
Due to the modification in the index pofile, the light Crltical angle :
gets refracted inside the fiber core and does not travel The critical angle ee is defined as
in straight line as shown in Fig. 1.9.5.
e sin (na/n1) = sin (1/1.5)
Refractve
Core XXZ index
profile ec 41.8° 42
(0-713) Fig. 1.9.5: Propagation of light in a graded index This is a small critical angle, at the glass air interface.
fiber
Therefore the external acceptance angle of the sir
Instead the light rays are curved towards the center of mode step index fiber with air
the core.
cladding is much w
as shown in Fig. 1.10.1(a).
These rays have been launched into the core within the
Large n21
acceptance cone. The acceptance cone of a graded Source to fiber. acceptance Air cladding
index core is larger than that of the step index core. angie
Fiber i LIgh
1.10 Optical Fiber Classifications: S-19 Aperture-- i n =1.5
Side view core
MSBTE Questions
NOrmal
Q.1 Give classification of optical fiber. (S-19, 4
Marks) (0-64) Fig. 1.10.1(a) : Single mode step index
We can classify the propagation modes as either single fiber with air cladding
mode or multimode.
The large acceptance angle makes it easy for the
The multimode can be further subdivided into two
types as: source to couple light into the optical fiber.

1 Multimode step index fibers. However the problem with this fiber is that it is
2. Multimode graded index fibers. weak and difficult to splice or terminate.
Although there is a wide variety of combinations of 2. SMSI fiber with glass cladding:
modes and indexes, practically only three types of fiber
configurations are used.
Fig. 1.10.1(b) shows the SMSI fiber with cladding
than air. Such fiber cables are more
o
practical ones.
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 ONSC (Sem. 6/ Elex./MSBTE) 1-15
Fundamentals of Fiber Optic Communication
pisadvantages

of istortion introduced
A.11 Optical Fiber Communication
1 The amount in the received System:
antical pulse is more than that in SMSI cable
but less
than that in MMSI cables. S-09, W-09, S-10, W-10, S-14, W-15, S-16,
W-16
2
MMGI fiber cables offer less bandwidth, than that of W-17, S-19
SMSI cables. MSBTE Questions
Q. 1 Explain with block diagram fiber optic
These cables support lower data rates, than the SMSI
communication system.
cables.
(S-09, W-09, S-10, W-10, S-14)
Note: The MMGI
fiber cable is considered as
an Q. 2 Draw the block diagram of fiber optic
intemediate fiber compared to the SMSI and MMSI communication system and list out the detectors
fbers and light source for it. (W-15, 6 Marks)
1.10.4 Comparison of Step Index and Graded Q. 3 Draw block diagram of Fiber Optic Communication

IndexFibers System and describe the function of each block.

(S-16, 4 Marks)
Table 1.10.1: Comparison of step index and graded index
Q. 4 Draw the
fibers
block diagram of fiber optics
communication system and illustrate the function of
Sr. Parameterof Step index Graded index each block. (W-16, 6 Marks)
No. comparison fibers fibers Q.5 Draw and explain the block of fiber
diagram optic
1. Change in The refractive The communication system. List its advantages and
refractive index
refractive disadvantages.
index changes in index changes (W-17, 6 Marks)
steps or abruptly. gradually from Q. 6 Draw block diagram of fiber optic communication
centre to edges system and list out optical sources and detectors

2. Shape of path Either suitable for fiber optic communication.

straight Curved paths
travelled by line or zigzag (S-19, 6 Marks)
light rays path. Bróck diagram
3 Index profile Refer Fig. A Refer Fig. B Fig. 1.11.l shows a simplified block diagram of an
4. Phenomenon
optical fiber communication system.
Reflection Refraction The four basic building blocks of this system
responsible for| are:

light 1. Transmitter
propagation 2 Optical fiber
5.
Size of Smaller than that Larger than that| 3. Signal regenerator
acceptance of the graded of the step index 4 Receiver. 5. Additional components
Cone index fiber. fiber.
Second ciadding layer
Jnformation source:
The information
source generates the information that
First is to be sent to the destination. This source could be
cladding analog
or digital in nature. The
1ayer Core output of the information source is
an
eleetical signal and it is applied to the transmitter.
Mransmitter
Fig. A A transmitter consists of the following blocks

Second cladding layer 1 Voltage to current converter

(n Core Graded 2. Light source 3. Source to fiber interface
(n)
Pirst cladding layer
It is necessary to transfer an information from source
(n to
n2ha n the destination. The information is in the form
of
(-595) Fig. B electrical signals. But through fiber optic cable
only an
optical signals can travel.

TechKnowledga
PubItati ns
 Fundamentals of Fiber Optic Commun
1-16 unicati
ONSC (Sem.6/Elex./MSBTE) This is done by using the liahs
signal into optical signal.
the electrical source can be an infrar
Iherefore first it is necessary to convert optical signal.
The light
it's output is an
an electrical signal but
nput to the light source is
(IRLED) or an injection LASER diode (LD). ontu
the source gets coupled
ensures that the light produced by o the
device that
The source to fiber interface is a
fiber and does not
optical spread out.
get
interface.
a mechanical
h e source to fiber interface (such as an optical lens) is Connector
Transmitter
Electrical signal * ******************e********************** 22

Source to
V to I Light
Information converter source fiber interface
source

a*na**vwroa****
**o********************wY*
OFC
****a ********
Optical splice
Optical splice
Signal
regenerator
OFC -Electrical signal
******************** ******************* as

I to V
Fiberto detector
intertace
Light
detector converter Destination
Receiver

(E-2072) Fig.1.11.1:Elements ofopticalfiber communication system

The light detector is generally a PIN diode. An At
Signal regenerator or repeater
(avalanche photodiode) or a phototransistor may ak
The signal launched in the OFC undergoes attenuation
and distortion due to various reasons.
be used as a
detector
The current to voltage converter produces an outpu
In order to compensate for the attenuation and reduce
voltage proportional to the detector output curren
the distortion we may have to use a signal regenerator
or a repeater between transmitter and receiver as
Thus we get the original electrical signal back at th
shown in Fig. 1.11.1. destination.
Functionallya signal regenerator is alight amplifier. But The fiber to light detector coupling device is also
actually it does not amplify the optical signal received mechanical coupler. Its function is to couple as mu
at its input but it reconstructs the received signal. This ight as possible from the optical fiber cable to th
not only increases the amplitude of the optical signal detector.
but also reduces the effect of noise.
optical Fiber Cable:
Receiver The cabled OFC is one of the most importa
The optical signal component in an OFC system. The prime goal
travels on the fiber and reaches the using
cable is to protect the OFC, but it
receiver, which consists of: may also con
1. Fiber to detector interface. copper wires to supply power to the repeaters.
2. Light detector. This cable
generally consists cylindrical 9
of several
3. Current to voltage converter. fibers each of which is icatio
an independent communica
channel.
At the receiver end, it is required to
convert optical These cables in
signal into an electrical signal. This is done by using an are installed either aerially, d
undersea or e
optical detector. underground. Depending on the
y
installation the cable
lengths can range from
Several detectors are availabledo this conversion.
to pnfeters to several hundred km.
But particular
a detector is selected depending
upon dditional components:
the factors like wavelength, responsivity of detector etc.
The additional
components used in OFC syste
connectors, splices, and couplers or beam
splitters.
Tech Know
PubiIcativ
ONSC (Sem. 6/ Elex./MSBTE) 1-17 Fundamentals of Fiber Optic Communication
12 Advantages, Dlsadvantages and 2. Electrlcal lsolation :
Applications of Optlcal Flber
Optical fibers are electrical insulators because they are
Communlcatlon: fabricated from glass, or sometimes a plastic polymer

1Advantages of Optlcal Communication Therefore, unlike their metallic counterparts, they do

not exhibit earth loop and interface problems.
S-09, S-10,W-10, S-11, W-13, S-14, S-15, W-15 This property makes optical fiber transmission ideally
W-17, W-18, S-19 suited for communication in electrically hazardous
MSBTE Questions environments because the fibers do not create any
a.1 llustrate the advantages of fiber optic arcing or spark hazard.
communication system.
The OFCs can also work over wider temperature range
(S-09, S-10, W-10, S-11, W-13, S-14) than the metallic wires.
Q.2 State four advantages of fiber optic No electrical or electromagnetic interference
3.
communicatilons. (S-16, 4 Marks)
o.3 State the advantages and disadvantages of fiber Since the transmission takes place in the form of light
optic communication. (W-15, 4 Marks) rays the signal is not affected by any electrical or
a.4 Draw and explain the block diagram of fiber optic electromagnetic interference (EMI) or radio frequency
communication system. List its advantages and interference (RFI).
disadvantages. (W-17, 6 Marks)
Hence the operation of an optical fiber communication
Q.6 State any four advantages and four disadvantages
system is not affected even if transmission takes place
of fibre optic communication. (W-18, 4 Marks)
through an electrically noisy environment and the fiber
a.6 State and explain advantages of fiber optical
(S-19, 4 Marks) cable does not require any shielding from EMI.
communication.(any 4
The fiber cable is also not susceptible to lightning
Communication using an optical carrier wave guided
strikes. Hence we can use them overhead rather than
along a glass fiber has a number of extremely attractive
features. Furthermorè, due to the advances in the underground.
few additional advantages have been Also, there is no optical interference between fibers and
technology. a

created. hence crosstalk is negligible, even when many fibers are

Hence it is useful to consider the merits and special

cabled together
features offered by optical fiber communications over 4. Large bandwidth and greater information capacity

more conventional electrical communications. As the light rays have a very high frequency in the GHz
Therefore we will start with the originally foreseen range, the bandwidth of the optical fiber is extremely
advantages and then consider additional features large. This allows transmission of more number of
Owing to the development in technology. channels.
1, Small size and light weight: Therefore the information carrying capacity of an
optical fiber is much higher than that of a co-axial
The size (diameter) of the optical fibers is very small
cable.
(tiscomparable to the diameter of human hair).
Therefore a large number of optical fibers can fit into a The information carrying capacity is directly
cable of small diameter. proportional to the bandwidth. With a bandwidth in the
range of 10,000 GHz, the OFC system has a huge
ence, even when such fibers are covered with
information carrying capacity. It is capable of carrying
protective coatings they are far smaller and much
hundreds of TV channels. Thousands of voice channels
ghter than corresponding copper cables. This is a big
advantage as it reduces duct congestion in cities. It also and data channels simultaneously.
llOWs the expansion of signal transmission within Due to large bandwidth it can easily support very high
mobiles such as aircraft, satellites and even ships. data rates.

TechPubiltations
Knowledge
 Fundamentals of Fiber Optic Communicaation
ONSC (Sem. 6/ Elex./MSBTE) 1-18
8. Potentially lower costs:
5. Lowtransmission loss
The cost of optical fibers is approximately me as that
ne signal loss (attenuation) taking place in the OFCS is
of the metallic conductors. This is because glass wh
very small as compared to that taking place in the which
is generally used for the optical fiber transmice.
metallic wires.
medium is made from sand-not a scarce resource
This is due to the development of optical fibers over the
last few years. The loss incurred by the optical fiber So, in comparison with copper conductors, opticai
cables is very low in comparison with the best copper
fibers offer the potential for low-cost line
conductors. communication.

Therefore we need to use fewer_intermediate amplifiers Although the costs of the optical fiber are low
ne
repeaters) that are required to be connected between other components associated with optical fiber
a transmitter and a receiver to compensate for the
communications are not very cheap: For example, he
losses. This also reduces the system complexity and
costs of high-performance semiconductor lasers and
costs.
detector photodiodes are still relatively high.
6. Reliability and ease of maintenance:
Similarly the costs of some of thee other components
Higher reliability and ease of maintenance are the
concerned with the connection technology
advantages due to low-loss property of optical fiber
(demountable connectors, couplers, etc.) also are high.
cables because it reduces the requirement for
intermediate repeaters. Overall system costs when the optical fiber
communication is used for long-haul links, are
Hence with fewer optical repeaters or amplifiers, system
reliability is improved in comparison with conventional substantially less than those for equivalent electrical line
electrical conductor systems. systems because of the low-loss and wideband

Furthemore, the reliability of the optical components is properties of the optical transmission medium.
high because of their predicted lifetimes of 20 to As indicated in point (5), the requirement for
30 years. Both these factors also tend to reduce intermediate repeaters and the associated electronics is
maintenance time and costs. reduced, to reduce the costs further.
The OFC systems are safer and easier to install and Although there is a cost benefit for a long distance
maintain. They can be used around the volatile liquids
optical links, it is not always the case in short-haul
and gases with safety. They are small in size and light
applications due to the additiónal cost incurred, for the
weight as well.
electrica-optical conversion (and vice versa), may be a
7. Security
deciding factor.
The OFCs are more secure than the metallic cables
However, there are other possible cost reductions
because it is impossible to tap them for data theft
related to shipping, and handling charges, installtion
without the user's knowledge and maintenance.
The light from optical fibers does not radiate much
outside the fiber and therefore. they provide a high .12.2 Disadvantages of Optical Fiber:
degree of signal security. Therefore a transmitted
optical signal cannot be obtained from a fiber in a S-11, W-15, W-17,W-13
noninvasive manner (ie. without drawing optical power MSBTE Questions
from the fiber). Q.1 State two disadvantages of optical fiber
Therefore, any attempt to acquire a signal transmitted communication. (S-11)
optically will not go unnoticed. This feature is very
.2 State the advantages and disadvantages of fipel
attractive for military, banking and general data
transmission (i.e. computer network) applications. optic communication. (W-15,4 Marks)
7TechKnowledge
PuDIIC ation>
 ONSC (Sem. 6/Elex./MSBTE) 1-19 Fundamentals of Fiber Optic Communication
Draw and explain the block So different methods are used to increase the
diagram of fiber optic
a.3 information carrying capacity of an optical fiber.
communication system. List its advantages and
disadvantages (W-17, 6 Marks) For this purpose the different multiplexing techniques
AState any four advantages and four disadvantages are used.

offibre optic communication. (W-18,4 Marks) They are time division multiplexing (TDM), wavelength
of division multiplexing etc; similar to the conventional
Some of the disadvantages optical cables are:

Sophisticated tools and equipments are required for

muitiplexing techniques.

splicing and repairing the OFCs. M14 Light Sources

cost incurred is high.
2 Theinitial A human eye can detect only those light waves that
3. High interfacing costs: In order to make the OFCs
have wavelengths approximately between 380 nm

usable they need to be connected to standard

(Blue) and 780 nm (Red).
electronic facilities which requires expensive interfaces.
The with wavelengths outside this band are
light waves
4. More susceptible to losses: Due to bending of OoFCs invisible to the human eye.
the EM signals travelling over them get attenuated to a For the optical fiber communication, generally the
large extent. The signal losses also take place due to the infrared signals with wavelengths in the range 700 nm
manufacturing defects. to 10 nm are preferred as they exhibit good
5. Strength:The OFCs by themselves have much lower transmission characteristics.

strength as compared to the coaxial cable. In the infrared range also, three frequencies 850 nm,
1310 nm and 1550 nm are practicaly used as the
13 Applications of Optical Fiber attenuation at these wavelengths is the lowest as
Communication
compared to the remaining wavelengths.
Optical fiber communication is used in transmission of Light sources used in the fiber optics applications act as

thefollowing signals light transmitter. They must satisfy the following

1 Telephone signals requirements:

2 Telex signals X14.1 Requirements of Light Sources:

3. Very high speed Internet connection
The emitted light must be monochromatic (single
They are also used for interconnecting computers in the
local area networks (LANs). frequency).
2. The frequency or wavelength of the transmitted light
They are used in the defense communication and
should be such that it can efficiently propagate down
medical applications.
the optical fiber cable.

143 Fiber Optic Components They should produce a sufficient power to ensure a low
distortion in the transmitted light signal
Ihe fiber optic system can be divided into three
4. They should produce a high intensity light output. This
Subgroups is necessary to transmit sufficient energy so as to
The source
2 overcome the losses in transmission.
The link and
5. They should be capable of being easily modulated.
Detectors. Usualy a binary on-off modulation using PCM is used
n i s case, a signal fiber optic cable is placed between
for better noise immunity.
Source and detector. Here the data transmission is
6 The light emitting devices should be small, compact and
unidirectional. The majorlimitation of this system is the
efficiently coupled to the optical fibers. This is to avoid
cost factor.
the excessive coupling loss.

TechPublic
Knowledgë
ations
 Fundamentals of Flber Optlc Communie.
1-20 nicalion
ONSC (Sem. 6/ Elex./MSBTE) where no free ist. Due to
charges exist.
This is a region h
7. They should be inexpensive.
recombined holes and
electrons, à barrier potential.
tlal wil
semiconductor
he light emitting diode (LED) and the across the depletion region.
exist
laser are the extensively used light sources. LEDS are always operated In the forward biased state
with respect to cathoda
p e s of light sources with its anode positive
R Is connected in series with
he two sources used for optical fiber
communication current limiting resistor wvith tkthe
LED.
systems are:
1. LEDs or light emitting diodes. LIghtoutput
Recombinatlons
2. LDs or injected laser diodes.
Both the devices are semiconductor devices and
have

their own advantages and disadvantages.

For example, the spectral width of LED is 30 nm to

50 nm whereas the ILDs have a spectral width of only Depletlon

reglon
1 nmto 3 nm.
R
Voc
Selection of a light source:
(a) Formation of depletlon reglon
The selection of a light source device depends on the

following parameters Conduotion band

1 System economic parameters. Electron
Forbldden
2. System performance requirements.
energy gaP
M Light output
LEDs are preferred for the low cost systems while ILDs
are preferred for the high performance systems. Valenoe band
Recombination
The LEDs are more reliable of the two. of hole & electron

(b) Principle of light emission In

1 5 Light Emitting Diode (LED): LED
(c) Symbol of LED

Principle of operation: (E-1892) Fig. 1.15.1

This is
semiconductor junction diode which emits light
a When the LED is forward biased to overcome th
when current is passed through it in the forward barrier potential, the depletion region will disappe
direction. and the holes and electrons will from on
move freely
It works side to the other.
on the
of spontaneous emission i.e.
principle
light is emitted as a result of the recombination of Due to this free movement, recombination of electro
electrons and holes. and holes will take
place.
LED is p-n junction diode with two terminals Anode
a When an electron and hole meet and recombine, th
and Cathode. emit "one photon" of light.
The anode of the LED is P-type semiconductor material The intensity of
light (ie. the number of photons)th
which contains a large number of holes. depends on the number of recombination which in
The cathode is N-type semiconductor material
which
depends on the forward current of the LED
consists of a large number of free electrons. The frequency of the emitted light depends on
When no voltage is apPplied across the LED, energy band gap of the materials used to
make

m
a
depletion
region separates the two sides. junction.

TechKnowle
PuDI
 ONSC (Sem.6/ Elex./MSBTE) 1-21 Fundamentals of Fiber Optic Communication
Materlals
used forLED
The LEDs used for the optical fibers are manufactured
Width 0.02 um (200A)
by using the gallium arsenide (GaAs) as the
semiconductor base.

Various doping materials such as Phosphorus (P)

Indium (In) and Aluminium (A) are used to form the p
and n regions. 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.7

Thus the LEDS are made of various combinations as L-829) Fig. 1.15.2 : Frequency spectrum of LED

given in Table 1.15.1.

Advantages of LED
Note that the wavelength of the light produced 1. LEDs are of small size and light weight.
the combination of materials used. 2. They can produce light at different wavelengths.
depends on

3. They have a longer life as compared to the lamps.

In order to produce light wavelengths in the range of
As the light emitted by LED is proportional to the
800 nm, the materials from group I such as gallium, amount of current flowing through it, we can control
and aluminium and those from group V ike arsenide or the light output by controlling the current.

group V like phosphate are chosen to construct the They can operate at high frequencies.
LEDs.
Disadvantages of LED:
Table 1.15.1: Material for LED and theirwavelengths 1. Output power is affected by changes in temperature.
Over current and reverse voltage damage it easily.
Sr. No Materlal Wavelength (nm) 2.
3. Large power is required for their operation.
1. Al-Ga-In-P 630 to 680
4 Light produced by LED is not coherent and
2. Ga-In-P 670 monochromatic.

3 Ga-Al-As 620 to 895 1.16.1 Types of LEDs

4. Ga-As 904 Different types of LEDS used in optical fiber
In-Ga-As 980 communication are as follows
5.
L. Homojunction LEDs.
In-Ga-As-P 1100 to1650
2. Heterojunction LEDs.
7. In-Ga-As-Sb 1700 to 4400
3. Burrus etched well surface emitting LEDs.

The Gallium-Arsenide base and the dopants like Al, In, P 4. Edge emitting LEDS.

etc have been chosen because their recombination 1.15.2 Homojunction LEDs
process is radiative i.e. the one that produces photons. Definition
The semiconductor materials such as Silicon or The p-n junction LEDS made from two different
Germanium are not used for the LEDs because these mixtures of same types of atoms is called as

are not radiative materials. homojunction LEDs.

The homojunction and epitaxialy grown LED structures

Spectrum of a typical LED are the simplest ones and are as shown in Fig. 1.15.3(a).
The frequency spectrum of LED is as shown in
The other type of LED structure s single diffused
Fig. 1.15.2. It is centered about a wavelength of 0.65 um structure as shown in Fig. 1.15.3(b).
and has a spectral width of about 0.02 um. These are
The material used for epitaxially grown homojunction
the results with GaAsP diodes. LEDS is silicon doped gallium arsenide.

TechublltKnowledge
ations
 Fundamentala of Fiber Optic
Commur
1-24
municatiotn
1.15.8 also show
ONSC (Sem.6/Elex/MSBTE) The
characteristics
of Fig.
increase in the
Advantages:
surtace
output power
decreases
with
operating
on

the standard temperature.

These LEDs are more efficient than

emitting LEDs Output

nber. power (nW)
2 more power into an optical
They can couple with 20°C
P, increa sos
. They emit more light. Pdecreases with
A0
0'C
Disadvantages tomperature
20"C.
30
They are expensive. 40C

difficult to manufacture 20
2. They are

3. Higher coupling losses. 10

4. They have narrow bandwidths

30 40 50 6 0 0 80
10 20 Forward current (mA)
1.15.6 Edge Emitting LEDs S-19
(0-676) Flg. 1.15.8

MSBTE Questions
Q1 Draw constructional diagram of edge light
ar
emitter
1.15.7 Comparison of Edge Emitter and
diodeand explain its working. (S-19,4 Marka) Surface Emitter LEDs W17
of the edge emitting
Fig. 1.15.7 shows the construction
LED that was developed by RCA MSBTE Questions
between edge emitter and surface
Alea Q.1 Compare
SiO emitter LEDs (W-17, 4Marks)
ype GaAs (oontuct)
dpe AIGSAs (confnemant) Parameter of Edge emitter Surface
Sr.
ype AIGaAs(acthve)
Gomparison LED emltter LED 3
P y e AKNAs No.
n ype aAs substhate
Type of Heterojunction Homojunction
junction
Through a very In all directios
Light
Emd ight
emitted small area from through t4
(o-675) Fig. 1.15.7: Construction of edge emitting LED the edges surface
The edge emitting LED emit a more directional light of Less More
3. Amount
than the surface emitting LEDS emitted light

The construction is similar to that of the Burrus diode More directional Less directions
Directivity
with one change Coupling Less More
losses
5
Here the emitting area is a stripe and not a circular area
as shown in Fig. 1.15.7. 6. Ease of Easy Not so easy

The light is emitted from an active stripe in the form of

coupling light
to fiber
an elliptical beam.

In practice the surface emitting LEDs are preferred over

7 Bandwidth High Low

the edge emitting LEDS as they emit more light M6 Injection LASER Diode(ILD):
But the coupling losses of edge emitting LEDs are less LASER stands for light amplification by stimulat
and they have a wider bandwidth emission of radiation.
The light output power of edge emitting LEDs is a linear Lasers can be produced by using materials like nuby
function of forward curment through it as shown in gases like carbon dioxide (CO).

Fig. 115.7. In fiber optic communication, semiconductorlasers

used as alightsource.
Tech Knewle
U D I t i
 ONSC (Sem. 6/ Elex./MSBTE) 1-25 Fundamentais of Fber Optic Communication
Semiconductor laser is a special type of laser. The laser
action takes place within a semiconductor diode
junction which is of the same type used for LEDs. Cathode
In fact the ILD is very similar to an LED. The ILD behaves
Laser
in a similar manner as the LED, if the forward curent beam

through it is less than a certain threshold value.

The LASER action begins when the forward current Partialy or wholy Partialy or wholy Anode
retecing surface reflectng utaoe
Cathode
becomes higher than this threshold value.
-783) Fig. 1.16.1: Construction and symbol of an LD
The steps in generation of semiconductor laser are as
Oútput power
follows
Fig. 1.16.2 shows the relation between radiant output
seneration ofsemiconductor LASER
power against the driving (fonward) current through an
1. When current is passed through a diode junction. light
LD
is emitted due to "spontaneous emission"(LED action)
Output
at a frequency decided by the material used as power (mW)
discussed in the preceding section.
25C
2. When the threshold current level is exceeded, the T=30*C
Lasing 35°C
population of minority caries on either sides of the
junction increases. This will increase the number of
pocurs
re-combinations of electrons and holes and hence the Threshoid
cUe
number of photons emitted will also increase. 40 120 180 260
Drive curent (mA)
3. Thus the density of photons increases to such a level
(0-677) Fig. 1.16.2: Output power versus driving current for
that they start colliding with the already excited an LD
minority carriers. This is called stimulation of the excited Fig. 116.2 shows that the output power of LD is very
minority carriers. small for driving curent values below the threshoid
curTent.
4 This gives ise to the phenomenon called stimulated
But once the forward curent reaches the threshod
emission in which two photons are released instead of
value, the lasing occurs and the output power increases
one. Out of them one photon is stimulated by the other
dramaticaly.
one. Both have the same frequency and energy level.
Also the optical output power dereases with increase
Thus there is a gain in number of photons.
in temperature and the dependence of output power
5. The laser action of the semiconductor diode can be on temperature is more pronounced in ILDs that LEDs
enhanced by placing a reflecting surface on each side of Light radlation pattern
the junction as shown in Fig. 1.16.1. The light radiation pattens of LED and LD are as
shown in Fig. 1.16.3 which shows that the lLDs produce
Construction:
a more narow and concentrated beam and therefore
The construction of ILD is as shown in Fig. 1.16.1. It is
has a more direct radiation patten.
Similar to that of an LED except that the ends are highly Radaten
polished. pattem
Ine polished end act as mirrors and heip in the LASING

action.
ig. 1.16.1 also shows the circuit symbol of the ILD. The
light is emitted from the sides. (a) LED b) LD

(0-678) Fig. 1.16.3: Radiation pattem

TecPe Keomd
tisns
 Fundamentels of Fiber Optic
ONSC (Sem. 6/Elex./MSBTE)
1-26 mmunicat
Table 1.16.1: Comparlson of LED and LD
LIght emlaalon spectraa:
as shown Sr. Paremeter of
a laser diode is LED
The light emission spectra of No. comparlson LD
in Fig. 1.164
1. Principle Sponteneous Stimulated
It shows that the width of this spectra
is much less a5 emisslon
operation emission
the lightis
compared to that of LED. That
means
Non coherent
monochromatic. 2. Type of Coherent
coherent and close to being produced light

3. Radiation Less directional More

directons
pattern
Width 0 48 A of Not easy Easy
4. Ease
coupling into an
optical fiber

Coupling losses More Less

(um) 6.
Radiant output Low High
power
(L-830) Fig. 1.16.4: Light emisslon spectra
Advantages of ILD over LED: 7. Data rates Low High
-

direct Wavelength High Low

1 ILDs produce a coherent light and have a more 8.

radiation pattern.
distortion
ILDs into an Cost Cheap Very expensve
2. It is easier to couple light produced by 9.

optical fiber cable. 10. | 1Life span Long Short

source, we can sue smaller fibers. More

3. With ILD as an optical 11. Dependence on Less

4. LDs reduce the coupling losses. temperature

The radiant output power of ILDs is much higher thann Low cost, short High precisi
5 12. Preferred for
that of LEDDs distance long distana
applications applications
6. ILDs can be used for the optical systems operating over

longer distances.

7. ILDs can support higher data rates than LEDs. 17 Optical Detectors:
electric current into light and
a
8. The chromatic or wavelength distortion is much less Light sources convert
d
monochromatic light. therefore used at the transmitter in an optical
because ILDs produce a
communication system.
Pisadvantages
revese
1. ILDS are extremely expensive. On the receiving side, this process should be
to electro
2. They have shorter life span due to their high output That means light should be converted back

power. signal. This is done by using the optical detectors.

3 Output power of ILDs is more temperature dependent
Optical Detector:
than that of LEDs. 17.1 Requireme of an

1.16.1 Comparison of LED and ILD: s-18,W-18 detector are

The important requirements of a photo
Small size.
MSBTE Questions
a.1 Differentiate between LED and LASCR (any elght 2. Very high sensitivity.
points). (S-18, 4 Marks)
3. Fast response.
Q. 2 Compare LED with LASER on the basic of principle High conversion efficiency or high responsivity
4
of operation, spectral width, data rate, compatible
. Small dark current.
fibers. (W-18,4Marks) TechKnewl
PuDIICatio
 1-27 Fundamentals of Fiber Optic Communication
ONSC (Sem. 6/ Elex./MSBTE)
time.
The intrinsic layer is made thicker so that almost all the
6. Shorttransit
photons which pass through the junction are absorbed
7. Adequate spectral response.
within this layer.
Detectors
1.2 TyPpes of Optical Operation
The light which is to be converted into electric signal is
Different types of detectors such
as a silicon photo-
have been made to fall through a very small window on the
diode, phototransistor and photoresistors
intrinsic material of the photodiode. The photodiode is
tried.
reverse biased.
But they do not satisfy all the requirements listed
and encounter with
The two devices which satisfy all these Photons enter the depletion region
above.
requirements are the atoms within the depletion region. They generate
electron-hole pairs inside the depletion region.
. PIN photodiode and
Due to the reverse voltage applied across a
2. Avalanche diode.
photodiode, these pairs are drawn across the junction
Photodiode: S-18, S-19 leakage current proportional to light intensity starts
3 The PIN and

flowing. Thus light is converted into electric current.

MSBTE Questions
Due to wider "i" layer, a more complete absorption of
Q.1 Sketch the construction of PIN diode and write its photons results in a larger photocurrent generation.
operation. (S-18,6 Marks) The sensitivity of PIN photodiodes is therefore higher
Q. 2 With neat sketch describe the operation of PIN than that of a p-n junction diode.

diode (s-19,4 Marke) Due to the addition of "i" layer, the electron-hole pairs
Q.3 Draw the constructional diagram of PIN photodiode generated due to photons have to travel a longer

and explain its working (S-19,4Marks) distance

Hence PIN diodes are slightly slower than the p-n
Cohstruction:
junction diodes.
The construction of a PIN diode is as shown in

Fig. 1.17.1. A nearly pure (lightly doped) "n" type ofPHotoelectric effect:
semiconductor layer is inserted between the heavily The light (photons) incident througha small window of
doped p and n layers. a PIN diode is absorbed by the intrinsic material.
Light Depletion region The absorbed photons import their energy to some of
rays
the valence band electrons and cause them to shift
from valence band to conduction band.
Swept minority carrier Thus electron-hole pairs are created inside the intrinsic
region. These are optically generated carriers that
w
Extermal bias
constitute the photocurrent.

To cause the photocurrent to flow in a PIN diode, the

(L-83) Fig. 1.17.1: Construction of p-l-n photodiode
light of sufficient energy must be absorbed to impart
This layer is called as the intrinsic" (pure) layer i.e. ""
sufficient energy to the valence electrons to jump
layer and the device is called as the PIN photodiode.
across the energy gap as shown in Fig. 1.17.2(b).

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atlons
 1-28 Fundamentals of Fiber Optic mmunical
ONSC (Sem. 6/ Elex./MSBTE)
Absorption
Conduction band
n
9 Energy gap
Valence band
Photons

(b) Generatlon of electron hole pairs

(a) PIN photodiode constructlon

(O-691) Fig. 1.17.2

A17.4 The Avalanche Photodiode (APD):
Wavelength 2 of light

n-type silicon, then the

W-17.S
If the intrinsic material is an
MSBTEQuestions
energy gap is 1.12 eV. Draw the construction of avalanche photodiode
1
But 1 eV = 1.6x 10-9 J. State if's working principle. (W-17,4 Ma
Energy gap Eg 1.12x 1.6x 10 Q. 2 Describe working and principle of avalanche
1.792x 10-J photodiode with neat sketch. (S-18, 4Mar
.(1.17.1)eónstructlon
Butenergy E =hxf
The construction of an avalanche photodiode is
Where h Plank's constant 6.6256 x 10*J /Hz
shown in Fig. 1.17.3. It has a p-i-p-n structure. i
enters through a thin "n" layer which is heavily doped
f Frequency (Hz).
The external bias is applied to reverse bias the APD_
f=fL792 x 10-19 2.705 x 104 Hz
Frequency 6.6256 x 103 a resistance is connected in series to control
Current.
Hence the wavelength is given by, Light
rays Dr
C3x1o m/s
F 2.705 x10 Hz 1.

a 1109 nm/cycle .(1.17.2) Sweptcariers

Advantages of PIN photodlodes

Extenal bias
. They have a shorter transit time. So these diodes are d2.
(L-832) Fig. 1.17.3: Construction of avalanche photodio
faster than APDs.
Operation:
2. They produce less output noise. As negative voltage applied to the diode is inl
creas

3. A low reverse voltage is required to be applied across field incis

the intensity of the internal

the PIN diode for its operation. proportionally.

old
It can support higher data rates than APD. The internal field intensity then reaches a thresne
4 t h r o v

that the electrons which are being accelerated

Pisadvantages of PIN Dlodes e/ectr

the junction region will generate secondary e

PIN photodiode is less sensitive than APD.
hole pairs due to collision.
PIN diodes need higher additional amplification.

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 ONSC (Sem. 6/ Elex./MSBTE) 1-29 Fundamentalsof Fiber Optic Communication
will Silicon p-i-n and avalanche diodes typically have a
The number of carriers generated in this manner

to collisions. This is spectral response that extends from a wavelength of

generate many more electrons due
about 0.6 um to about 1.1 um as shown in Fig. 1.17.4.
called as "avalanche effect"

In avalanche photodiodes, the electrons generated due Responsivity

to the light are accelerated and made to pass through

the junction region. 0.8+

They give rise to avalanche effect and a large current

starts flowing through the device.

0.4
Due to the avalanche effect a sort of "current

inside the device to

0,2
amplification" takes place yield a
0 0.6 0.7 08 0.9 1.0 1.1
much higher current.
Wavelength (um)
Thus the sensitivity of this device is much higher than
(0-679) Fig. 1.17.4: Spectral response of PIN diode and APD
that of a p-i-n diode.
Note that the spectral response peaks at a wavelength
The p-i-p-n structure helps to concentrate the internal
of 0.85 m or 850 nm.
field near the junction in a better way.
1.17.5 Comparison of PIN Diode and APD:
Advantages of APD:
W-18
Some of the advantages of APD are as follows
MSBTE Questions
APD is more sensitive than PIN photodiode. Compare PIN photo diode with avalanche photo
Q.1
APD need less additional amplification. diode.(any fourfactors) (W-18, 4Marks)
Drawbacks of avalanche photodiodes: Sr. Parameter PIN diode Avalanche diode

No. characteristics (APD)

1. The carriers take a longer transit time before being
swept out of the wide depletion area. This will reduce 1. Construction
(L-835)
the speed of operation. So these diodes are slower than
the PIN diodes. Biasing Reverse Reverse biased

biased
2. An additional "noise" signal is added to the output
signal. This is due to the random fluctuations of the 3 Sensitivity Higher than Very high due to

avalanche multiplication factor. p-n photo avalanche effect.

diode but
3 A high reverse voltage of the order of 100 to 400 V is
lower than
required to be applied across the avalanche diode for its
APD.
operation.
4. Transit time Longer than
Spoctral reaponse: p-n photo
Longer than PIN

diode.
Spectral response of an optical detector is a graph of its
diode but
output or responsivity versus wavelength of incident
shorter than
light.
APD
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