Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ON
R SI
VE
CAA / CAP 1535 / May 2019
Published by the Civil Aviation Authority, First published May 2019, Version 2
2019
Enquiries regarding the content of this
Civil Aviation Authority, publication should be addressed to:
Aviation House, GA@caa.co.uk - please use subject line
Gatwick Airport South, ‘Skyway Code’.
West Sussex,
RH6 0YR. The latest version of this document is available in
electronic format at www.caa.co.uk/skywaycode.
You can copy and use this text but please ensure
you always use the most up to date version and For best results when viewing on a tablet, save
use it in context so as not to be misleading, and the Skyway Code to your device. Then download
credit the CAA. the Adobe Acrobat reader app from the Google
Play or Apple App stores and open the Code up
with the reader app.
CONTENTS
Contents 03 GA risks 114
Introduction 04 Pilot fitness 115
Pilot competence 117
Pre-flight checklist 05
Decision making 119
Pilot 06
Staying in control 122
Aircraft 06
Avoiding the ground 123
Pre-flight planning 07
Avoiding collisions 124
UK FIR – Useful comms info 08
Emergencies 128
Flight Information Service Regions 09
General principles 129
Lower Airspace Radar Services 10
Mayday or Pan call format 129
Frequency monitoring codes 11
Distress and Diversion Cell (D&D) 130
UK VOLMET Frequencies 12
Lost 132
Frequency reference cards 12
Loss of communications 132
Requirements for the PIC 13 Electrical failure 132
Introduction to regulations 14 Engine failure 134
Essential operating and licensing rules 17 Fire 135
Specialised Operations 22 Ditching 135
Pre-flight preparation 25 Incident and accident reporting 136
Pre-flight information 26 Interception procedures 140
Meteorology 28 Tables and codes 145
The route or area of operation 35 Crosswind component 146
Aerodrome planning 40 Distance, weight and volume 147
Aircraft mass, balance and performance 41 Weather abbreviations 147
Fuel 48 Morse code 150
Flight plans 49
International flight 152
Airspace 50 Foreign regulations and requirements 153
Essential Rules of the Air 51 Safety equipment and considerations 154
Visual and instrument flight rules 57 Flight plans 154
Airspace classifications 61 Documents 157
Airspace hazards and restrictions 62 Customs, immigration and police 158
Air Traffic services outside of controlled Non-ICAO compliant aircraft or
airspace 71 pilot licenses 159
Controlled airspace operations 76
Finding out more 160
Transponder use 81
Airspace 161
Altimeter setting procedures 82
Safety 162
Aerodrome operations 84 Regulatory 163
Aerodrome communications 85
Arrival and departure procedures 89
Visual communications and signage 102
Marshalling signals 108
INTRODUCTION
The Skyway Code is intended to provide General Aviation pilots involved in
non-commercial and flight training operations with practical guidance on the
operational, safety and regulatory issues relevant to their flying. Pilots of all
aircraft categories, powered or unpowered, should find it useful.
££ It is oriented towards Visual Flight Rules (VFR) flight. It does not include
comprehensive information on Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) flying.
££ The Code is a living publication that will be reviewed at least annually to ensure
it reflects the latest regulatory requirements and best aviation practice.
Readers should note the Code is guidance only and not a definitive statement of the law. For this readers should see the
underlying regulations, which are referred to in section 11 (Finding out more p.160).
KEEP UP TO DATE
PRE-FLIGHT
CHECKLIST
Including: 06 Pilot >
06 Aircraft >
07 Pre-flight planning >
PRE-FLIGHT CHECKLIST
This is designed to act as a quick reference that supplements the more
detailed information provided later in the publication. It should cover most
basic pre-flight items, although you are encouraged to adapt it to suit your
own needs.
££ Fit to fly the aircraft and in satisfactory physical and mental state.
££ Passengers briefed.
££ Airworthy condition.
££ Insurance valid.
PRE-FLIGHT CHECKLIST
UK FIR – USEFUL
COMMS INFO
Including: 09 Flight Information Service Regions >
10 Lower Airspace Radar Services >
11 Frequency monitoring codes >
12 UK VOLMET Frequencies >
12 Frequency Reference Cards >
SHANWICK
OCEANIC FIR
EGGX
134.850
127.275
119.875
119.875 124.500
127.275 134.775
119.875
124.500 121.325
119.875
123.775
125.475
SHANNON FIR
EIRN
RFI
AA M
EH DA
LONDON 124.600
ER
Information
ST
AM
LONDON FIR
124.750 BRUSSELS FIR
EGTT
EBBU
SHANWICK
OCEANIC FIR PARIS FIR
EGGX LFFF
BREST FIR
LRRR
125.700
134.200
LOSSIEMOUTH*
119.575
LEUCHARS
126.500
NEWCASTLE
124.380
LEEMING*
133.375
LINTON-ON-OUSE*
118.550
WARTON*
129.530 HUMBERSIDE
119.130
WADDINGTON
119.500
VALLEY*
125.225 CONINGSBY*
119.200 NORWICH
SHAWBURY* EAST MIDLANDS 119.355
133.150 134.180
MARHAM*
124.150
BRIZE NORTON
FARNBOROUGH N
124.275
132.800
CARDIFF SOUTHEND
BOSCOMBE FARNBOROUGH W 130.780
119.150 DOWN*
126.700 125.250
FARNBOROUGH E
123.225
YEOVILTON*
EXETER 127.350
128.975 BOURNEMOUTH
NEWQUAY 119.475
133.405 PLYMOUTH
MILITARY EAST*
CULDROSE* PLYMOUTH 124.150
134.050 MILITARY WEST* * - weekdays only
121.250
They allow air traffic units to see who is listening to which frequencies and therefore enable contact to be
made if necessary – for example if you are about to infringe someone’s airspace. Remember to return it
to 7000 or another appropriate code when changing frequency.
Full details of the circumstances in which they should be used are in the AIP – search for ‘frequency
monitoring codes’ within the ENR 1.6 document, or alternatively you look them up along in each specific
aerodrome under AD 2.22.
EDINBURGH
0440
121.205
GLASGOW
2620
119.100
NEWCASTLE
BELFAST 3737
ALDERGROVE 124.380
7045
128.500
LEEDS
BRADFORD
BELFAST
2677
CITY
134.580 DONCASTER
4255
130.850 SHEFFIELD
6170
126.230
WARTON
3660 EAST
129.530 MIDLANDS
4572
134.180
LIVERPOOL
5060 LUTON
119.855 0013
129.550
HAWARDEN
4607 STANSTED
BIRMINGHAM
120.055 7013
0010
120.625
MANCHESTER 123.980
OXFORD
7366 SOUTHEND
4517
118.580 5050
CARDIFF 125.090
130.780
3636
119.150 BRISTOL THAMES
5077 0012
125.650 132.450
BOURNEMOUTH
0011 FARNBOROUGH
119.475
SOUTHAMPTON LARS WEST GATWICK
4572 7012
7011 BRIZE NORTON 126.825
120.230 125.250
3727
124.275
UK VOLMET Frequencies
VOLMET is a continuous radio broadcast of aerodrome METAR reports. This can be useful for in-flight
weather updates.
may be inaccurate.
CROSSING SERVICE by the prefix †) ity of the frequencies to be to assume the Drop Zone is
DANGER AREA d on the chart are advised
areas (identifieare shown below. For availabil Aerodrome Freq.
Areas. The relevant numbers are Pilots
cies to be used Areas whose identificationbyelaws which obtained. 120.380
Contact Frequen AIP ENR 5.1. subject to
NATSU 119.355** A/G 120.330
DROP ZONE Norwich App
services see UK contain airspace
an asterisk (✽)of activity. See UK AIP ENR 1.1. 133.405 A/G
with times Beccles Newqua y App TWR 130.750
40
126.700; Outside
times Brize Radar 124.275 A/G 129.905
Redlands
30
West 4572
D006, D006A, Farnborough LARS 120.055
D001, D003, D004, D008, D008A,
4607
119.855
D007, D007A, D007B, D011A, D011B, Hawarden 5060
Liverpool 133.450
D008B, D009, D009A,D014, ✽D015, 124.750 0012
INFORMATION London City/Tha
mes 126.825
D011C, D012, D013,✽D026, D031............. LONDON
!
SCALE 1:500,000
124.600 7012
INFO 124.750/ 129.550
Key info
Gatwick
D017, D021, D023, ............. LONDON MPTON or JERSEY ATSUs London 0013
.......................... or SOUTHA London Luton 120.625
D036.................. 124.750/ 124.600 7013
118.580
..... LONDON INFO * London Stansted 7366
& D040.................. ATION 120.705* Manchester 125.090
D037, D038, D039 ............. ............. LYDD INFORM128.975* 4517
120.230
............. APP Oxford
✽D044............... ............. EXETER ent 7011
.......................... Southampton/Sol 130.780
✽D061............... , ATION 124.750 5050 135.375
D110, ✽D113A INFORM Southend LONDON MAIN
5
D120, D122A, D122B & ✽D126............. Via ATIS CODE AND ICAOJ
10
D133 & D133A.. , D138B, ✽D138C INFORM ATION 124.600 N November X X-ray
✽D136, D138, ✽D138A E Echo
E
............. LONDON 120.705** F O Oscar
O
.......................... LYDD INFORMATION P Y Yankee Z
Y
D139.................. .......................... ATION 124.750 F Foxtrot
P Papa
............. INFORM
✽D141...............
& D216..................
..... LONDON G Golf
G Q Z Zulu
I R Romeo
R
D201A, D201B, 201H, ✽D201J 122.150
INFORMATION I India
D201F, D201G, ✽D ........... WEST WALES ATION 124.600 s: www.ais.org.uk
D202C & D202D... ... LONDON INFORM 122.750** NOTAM briefing
D202A, D202B, .......................... CH RANGE tion Bulletins (PIB): formation-bulletins
D206, D215 & D305..... .......................... HOLBEA Preflight Informa -flight-in e
EATH ZONE 128.900 do-it-online/pre (Temporary), Airspac
AIS to the
..........................
............. APP 118.580 ncy Restrict number for up
D213.................. .......... MANCHESTER RANGE 122.750** Upgrades, Emerge Pilots are advised to call this
.......................... NOOK
✽D304 & D314.....
..........................
............. DONNA or +44(0)1489 887515. to all flights.
✽D307............... ATION 124.750 s prior (H24)
* LONDON INFORM ATION 124.600 minute briefing
REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE PIC
Including: 14 Introduction to regulations >
17 Essential operating and licensing rules >
22
Specialised Operations >
Introduction to regulations
WHAT APPLIES TO MY FLIGHT? WHAT ARE EASA AND NON-EASA
AIRCRAFT AND LICENCES?
Key info !
>> An EASA aircraft is one that is required
You should have a good working knowledge by the EASA Basic Regulation4 to have an
of the following regulations that apply to EASA certificate of airworthiness or permit
your flying: to fly. The aircraft’s certificate or permit
will indicate whether it is issued under
All Aircraft the EASA requirements. Most certificated
factory built aircraft (other than some
>> T
he Standardised European Rules microlights and gyroplanes) have an EASA
of the Air (SERA)1; and certificate of airworthiness or permit to fly.
>> UK Rules of the Air 2015. >> An EASA licence is issued under Part-
FCL of the Aircrew Regulation3 and
Non-EASA aircraft and national is required to fly an EASA aircraft. An
pilot licences EASA licence may also be used to fly a
UK registered non-EASA aircraft of an
>> C
hapter 2 of Part 5 and Schedule 5 equivalent class, although if a non-EASA
of the UK Air Navigation Order 2016 aircraft requires a specific type rating, it
(ANO) for operating regulations; and can only be endorsed on a UK licence.
>> S
chedule 8 of the ANO for privileges >> A non-EASA aircraft is one that falls
and requirements relevant to outside the scope of European regulations.
your licence and ratings. Vintage and ex-military aircraft, amateur
builds, gyroplanes and microlights are
EASA aircraft and pilot licences usually non-EASA aircraft. They are
required to have a national permit to fly
>> A
nnex VII (Part-NCO) of the EASA or certificate of airworthiness issued
Air Operations Regulation2; and under the ANO. Foot launched aircraft,
such as hang gliders, paragliders and
>> P
art-FCL of the Aircrew Regulation3 for paramotors are also non-EASA.
privileges and requirements relevant
to your licence and ratings. >> A UK licence (sometimes known as a
national licence) is issued under the ANO
and can only be used to fly non-EASA
aircraft. There are some exceptions
to this, which are detailed on p.16.
1
Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 923/2012
(as amended)
2
Commission Regulation (EU) No 965/2012 (as amended)
3
Commission Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011 (as amended)
4
Regulation (EC) No 2018/1139 (as amended)
Introduction to regulations
WHAT IS PART-NCO?
Part-NCO is the Annex of the EASA Air Operations Regulation1 applicable to non-commercial
(formally known as ‘private’ under the ANO) or flight training operations with ‘other-than-complex
motor-powered aircraft’; so it covers any EASA aircraft on those operations that is not ‘complex’. It
came into force on 25th August 2016. Non-EASA aircraft comply with similar requirements in the
ANO 2016. Full details of the operational regulations start on p.19.
‘Complex motor-powered aircraft’ comply with more extensive requirements that are outside the
scope of the Code. The EASA Basic Regulation2 defines ‘complex’ as an aircraft with one or more of
the following features:
Aeroplanes Helicopters
Introduction to regulations
CURRENT APPLICABILITY
European operational and licensing rules for EASA gliders and balloons have not yet been fully applied
in the UK. This means that despite being required to hold an EASA certificate of airworthiness, some
gliders and balloons are still able to operate under the ANO for operational and licences purposes.
National licences may therefore be used. If you have already gained an EASA glider or balloon licence it
is also considered a valid licence under the ANO.
There is currently a temporary alleviation in the format of an exemption in place until 7th April 2020 or
unless revoked beforehand that allows a UK aeroplane or helicopter licence to be used to fly on non-
commercial VFR operations, an EASA aircraft with a maximum takeoff mass of not more than 2000 kg
and with no more than three passengers on board.
Non-EASA aeroplanes,
ANO 2016 ANO 2016
helicopters and gyroplanes
Notes: *Under the ANO, non-EASA gliders (and EASA at the time of writing) do not require a statutory pilot’s licence, although
pilots are encouraged to hold a qualification from the relevant association. The British Gliding Association (BGA)
issues glider pilot certificates in the UK. Foot-launched paramotors, despite being powered, comply with the ANO rules
applicable to non-EASA gliders. **Implementation into UK law 9th July 2019.
FINDING REGULATIONS
PILOT QUALIFICATIONS
Key info !
For licensed flying activities, such as >> Ratings endorsed on the licence for a
powered fixed or rotary wing flying, particular aircraft must remain valid in order
you are required to have a valid: to fly. They are either assigned by class,
such as single engine piston (SEP) or for
>> Licence; helicopters or larger aeroplanes, by type,
such as PA46. Ratings are issued with a
>> Rating; and validity period: in order to keep a rating valid
it must be revalidated or renewed. The only
>> Medical certificate or declaration. exception to this is the EASA Light Aircraft
Pilot’s Licence (LAPL) which has a system
For types of flying that do not require a of endorsements and ‘rolling validity’ rather
statutory pilot’s licence, for example most than ratings. There are also ratings that
gliding or hang gliding activities, you should add additional privileges to that of the basic
refer to the guidance on qualifications from the licence, such as a night or instrument rating.
relevant governing body or association such
>> Certificate of Revalidation and Renewal,
as the British Gliding Association or British
the examiner or authorised instructor must
Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association.
sign the Certificate of Revalidation into
the licence. The examiner or authorised
Licences and ratings
instructor must also notify the CAA of
the revalidation or renewal by completing
The following applies to both EASA and and submitting the appropriate form.
UK licences:
>> Revalidation of a rating refers to the action
>> L
icences are now ‘non-expiring’. taken to further extend its validity while
There is no periodic administrative within the existing validity period. Depending
process to gain a new one as there on the rating, this is normally achieved by
was for some licences in the past. an examiner (or in some cases a specially
authorised instructor) either reviewing
>> However changes to details such as name or whether the appropriate flying experience
address do need to be notified to the CAA, has been obtained within the validity period,
so that an updated licence can be issued. or conducting a proficiency check flight.
Key info !
The following is based on: Prior to a flight you must be satisfied that:
>> Y
ou must ensure sufficient fuel, oil, >> You
and other members of the crew must
coolant or ballast (depending on the type use oxygen continuously whenever the cabin
of aircraft) is carried for the intended flight altitude exceeds 10,000 ft for more than
and a safe margin for contingencies. 30 minutes or any time above 13,000 ft.
>> F
or EASA aeroplanes and helicopters >> P
assengers are recommended to use
under Part-NCO, minimum fuel reserves oxygen any time above 13,000 ft.
are also required for VFR flight.
>> N
otwithstanding the above, Part-
>> Aeroplanes: NCO gives the PIC flexibility to
>> By
day, if remaining within sight determine oxygen needs depending
of the aerodrome and returning on how a lack of oxygen may affect
to that aerodrome – 10 mins the crew and/or passengers. This
may allow flight above 10,000 ft
>> By day – 30 mins without oxygen; however such a
determination could also result in
>> At night – 45 mins
oxygen being used below 10,000 ft.
>> Helicopters:
Survival equipment
>> 20 mins
>> Y
ou must determine what survival equipment
Aircraft and equipment
would be necessary to facilitate the survival
of those in the aircraft, should a forced
>> You must ensure the aircraft is airworthy;
landing on either land or water occur; and
>> E
quipment required for the flight
>> W
hether it is necessary for occupants
is fitted and serviceable;
to wear life jackets. If you are flying
outside of gliding distance of land, you are
>> A
ny load is properly secured and
required to carry one for each occupant.
would not prevent an emergency
evacuation of the aircraft; and
>> E
ASA aeroplanes and helicopters
are required to have an Emergency
>> T
he aircraft’s mass and balance will
Locator Transmitter (ELT). In aircraft
remain within the permitted range
up to six seats, a Personal Locator
for the entirety of the flight.
Beacon (PLB) may be carried instead.
>> Y
ou must ensure at all times while in flight, >> Y
ou must ensure passengers are
at least one pilot is at the controls of the briefed on the emergency equipment
aircraft with their seatbelt fastened; and and procedures for the flight; and
>> E
xcept in the case of balloons, all passengers >> If required for the flight, the use
are seated with their seatbelts fastened of oxygen equipment.
during taxi, take-off, landing and any other
time when necessary for their safety.
Guidance ?
Carriage of documents he recommended contents of
T
a passenger briefing are:
>> F
or non-EASA aircraft flying within
the UK, there are no document >> Safety when airside, especially propellers;
carriage requirements other
than charts for navigation. >> Operation of the seatbelts;
Specialised Operations
EASA REGULATIONS >> Conduct a safety briefing with any crew
or task specialists on board the aircraft
On 21st April 2017 rules for EASA covering operational procedures and
aircraft on ‘specialised operations’ emergencies. This may be accomplished by
came into force. These rules are part a suitable briefing at the commencement
of the EASA Air Operations Regulation of the activity’s operating season.
and only apply to EASA aircraft.
Full details of the requirements can be found
in Part-NCO (or Part-SPO for commercial) of
EASA includes operations such as
the EASA Air Operations Regulation1. There is
aerobatic flights, parachuting and glider
also guidance included on the conduct of risk
towing within the definition of ‘specialised
assessments and development of checklists.
operations’. These attract a few additional
requirements over and above normal flights.
Info: Look for the ‘Easy Access’ edition of the Air
i Operations Regulation on the EASA website that
‘NCO.SPEC’ is a subpart of Part-NCO which includes the Acceptable Means of Compliance (AMC)
includes requirements for non-commercial and and Guidance Material (GM) to the regulations.
flight training flights of a specialised nature. www.easa.europa.eu/regulations CAA guidance on
Part-SPO can be found at www.caa.co.uk/spo
Commercial specialised operations and those
with ‘complex motor-powered aircraft’ (see
p.15) must comply with Part-SPO. Pilots and
GLIDER TOWING GUIDANCE
operators should also familiarise themselves with
the factors that determine whether an operation
Guidance on the safe conduct of glider
would be considered commercial or not.
towing can be found on the British Gliding
Association (BGA) website at www.gliding.
The majority of specialised operations are
co.uk/safeaerotowing. Glider towing with
outside the scope of the Code, however
EASA aircraft must also comply with
some common GA activities, such as
the requirements of NCO.SPEC.
aerobatic flights, are included. If conducting
an aerobatic flight, or any operation that
There are no specific items required for
may be considered ‘specialised’ you must
a glider towing checklist under NCO.SPEC,
familiarise yourself with the requirements.
although it must be based on a risk assessment
of the activity and specify the duties of the pilot
In summary, NCO.SPEC requires
in command and any other crew members
you as pilot in command to:
involved in the operation.
>> Conduct and document a risk assessment.
This must assess the complexity of
the activity to determine the hazards
and associated risks of the operation
and establish mitigating measures;
1
Commission Regulation (EU) No 965/2012 (as amended)
Specialised Operations
AEROBATIC GUIDANCE >> Be familiar with spin recoveries initiated from
different parts of manoeuvres, the applicable
Aerobatics are an interesting area of flying that escape actions should a manoeuvre not go
offer the opportunity for pilots to learn new to plan and start/recovery heights. Initially
skills and improve their aircraft handling. Well aerobatic instruction should be started
executed aerobatics are also very satisfying around 5000 ft above ground level (AGL),
to fly. However, they do bring additional risks with all manoeuvres complete by 3000 ft.
that need to be considered and mitigated.
>> Proficiency will decay without regular practice,
especially when experience is low. Take
Find a suitable instructor who is familiar
refresher training if you are out of practice.
with your chosen aircraft. They will
likely cover most of what you need to Equipment
know. Some basics to remember:
>> Part-NCO for EASA aircraft allows
Aircraft suitability the fire extinguisher, first aid kit and
personal locator beacon (PLB) to be
>> The aircraft must be cleared for aerobatic left behind for aerobatic flights.
flight. Read all information in the AFM
(or equivalent document) relevant to >> Wearing a flying suit will allow you to carry
aerobatics. Know specifically what pens and small charts without the risk
aerobatic manoeuvres are permitted. of them coming loose in the cockpit.
>> Know the applicable limitations for aerobatic >> Sick bags are a good idea for early
flight. These include ‘g’ limitations, the VA instructional flights and always take
speed range (the maximum speed at which them if carrying passengers.
controls can be fully deflected under normal
circumstances) and the permitted mass >> It is not a legal requirement to carry a
and balance range for aerobatic flight. parachute, although it is recommended.
Be familiar with its use and exit
Training procedures from the aircraft.
Specialised Operations
>> Any limitations; and >> Location – clear of airfields, congested
areas, cloud and controlled airspace; and
>> Responsibilities and duties of the pilot
in command and if applicable, those of >> Look-out – perform clearing turns in
crew members and task specialists. both directions and check above and
below. Repeat look-out checks at regular
It is also strongly recommended to use intervals between manoeuvres.
a check list (airborne items should be
memorised) relevant to the aircraft and Fitness for flight
operation for non-EASA aircraft as well.
>> ‘IM SAFE’ can be used as for
When developing a checklist, the following any flight, adapted as required.
practical items should be covered: See p.115 for more details.
>> Ensure you are strapped in securely and >> You must be in good physical and mental
there are no loose articles in the cockpit. condition for aerobatic flight – rapid
changes in altitude and ‘g’ will make
>> Control checks are very important. the flight even more unpleasant than a
Check you have full rudder authority as normal one if you are feeling unwell.
part of your ‘full and free’ checks.
>> Make sure you are well fed and
>> ‘HASELL’ is a useful mnemonic for hydrated, although do not have a
remembering checks and must be carried large meal shortly before flying.
out prior to commencement of aerobatic
manoeuvres. They should be adapted to the >> G-tolerance will increase with practice –
aircraft you are flying. The following list gives build tolerance over time. 4g or more will
some considerations you should cover: feel quite uncomfortable at first. Tensing
stomach and leg muscles will help resist the
>> Height – commence at the height
forcing of blood to the lower body during
agreed with your instructor;
positive ‘g’. Seek advice from an AME if
>> Airframe – ensure landing gear up, you are unsure of the effect of aerobatics
flaps up, brakes off (sometimes having on any medical conditions you may have.
the brakes on can restrict rudder
travel) and any other configuration >> Under NCO.SPEC you are allowed to
requirements for your aircraft; take passengers on aerobatic flights,
this can be exciting, but ensure they
>> Security – ensure all harnesses, doors are fit enough to withstand such flying.
and canopies secure. No loose articles; Take account of their likely resilience to
manoeuvres with increased ‘g’ and regularly
>> Engine – ensure engine configured
check they are not feeling unwell.
correctly, for example mixture set,
carb heat as required, correct fuel tank
selected and fuel pump on if required;
PRE-FLIGHT
PREPARATION
Including: 26
Pre-flight information >
28
Meteorology >
35 The route or area of operation >
40
Aerodrome planning >
41 Aircraft mass, balance and performance >
48
Fuel >
49
Flight plans >
PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION
The previous chapter focused on the legal requirements that you must
ensure are complied with prior to and during your flying. This chapter will
address some of the practical considerations for meeting these obligations
and managing risks when planning your flight.
Guidance ?
NOTAMs and weather are the first items on You should also give yourself time before
the pre-flight planning element of the checklist. flying to adequately prepare, particularly if
This is because they are two of the main factors you have not flown for a while or are planning
that set the parameters of your flying. It is no a more ambitious flight than normal. Take
good spending hours planning a route only to 40 minutes or so over a cup of tea in the
discover that the destination aerodrome is in clubhouse to review the intended flight and
fact closed for an event that day or that the any speeds or procedures for the aircraft
weather is obviously not going to be suitable. you may need to refresh your memory of.
If using GPS or flight planning software, You should also consider reviewing the sections
you should keep them up to date, since on managing GA risks (p.115) and Emergencies
airspace boundaries and critical flight (p.128) to ensure you are fully prepared.
information can change frequently.
Pre-flight information
You should review a range of >> The UK AIP is available at www.ais.org.uk.
aeronautical information as part of
your flight planning activities. >> M
ost European AIPs can be found in the
European Aeronautical Database (EAD)
database – search for this online.
Key info !
The official source of aeronautical information The AIP is split into:
is the State Aeronautical Information Service
(AIS). You must check AIP & AIP Supplements >> GEN – General operational, legal
as part of your flight planning process. and administrative information;
PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION
Pre-flight information
AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION CIRCULARS >> You should always carefully check
the dates and times (which will be in
AICs are notices relating to safety, navigation, UTC) of the AIP and AIC/NOTAMs to
technical, administrative or legal matters not determine whether they are relevant
included in the permanent information found in to the time at which you are flying.
the AIP. AICs can be obtained from the same
>> It can be helpful to check NOTAMs a
website as the AIP and are organised into
few days in advance of a flight to see if
five categories depending on the subject:
there is any information relevant to your
destination or area of operation that may
>> White – Administrative;
influence your planned route. However,
this must not replace checking them on
>> Y
ellow – Operational, including ATS
the day of the flight as well – sometimes
facilities and requirements;
NOTAMs come out at very short notice or
>> Pink – Safety topics; only appear on the day they are valid for.
PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION
Meteorology
As well as the forecasts and reports there
Guidance ? is a useful guide to weather information
You should have a good working knowledge available for download, known as ‘GetMet’. It
of the conditions associated with is produced in association with the CAA and
common weather features, including: can be found on the Met Office website.
>> Near Europe charts F414 (Winds aloft) Warm front 140
1016
and F415 (Significant weather); Cold front
1020
120 200
>> TAFs and METARs; Stationary front
>> UK SIGMETs.
Iso
+30
Meteorology
Metform 215
Metform 215 (F215) provides a forecast of in-flight weather conditions below 10,000 ft. It covers
the British Isles for a 9-hour period centred on a fixed time. It is designed for use as either an
area or route forecast. F415 is the version for near Europe.
The chart shows the forecast position, direction and speed of surface fronts and pressure
centres at the fixed time shown in the chart’s title box. Abbreviations used can be found in the
Tables and Codes chapter (see p.147).
Zones of distinct weather Validity period = 0800 to 1700 Cloud cover, type and level above mean sea level. In this
are enclosed by continuous UTC on 2nd day of the month case there are two sets of clouds reported, one on each
scalloped lines, each zone (February 2017). Time of front/ line. On the second line 020-030/040 indicates a base
being identified by a letter. zone positions = 1200 UTC. of between 2000 ft and 3000 ft with tops of 4000 ft. XXX
denotes tops above 10,000 ft. Symbols for associated ice
or turbulence are also included.
A
B1 D +
A1
+
25 KT
A 30 KT B +
10 KT
10 KT
B1
B
10 KT
C
A1
20 KT D
E
B1
25 KT
E
MOD / SEV ICE
XXX means above chart upper limit
MOD / SEV TURB
Speed of movement in KT Cloud amount (Oktas) TS / CB implies GR
FEW: 1-2 SCT: 3-4
Hill FG implies VIS <200 M BKN: 5-7 OVC: 8 FZ precipitation implies
Key Time of issue = 2nd day Visibility and weather. 0 degree isotherm; in this case
of month at 0250 UTC 6000 ft - 8000 ft.
Meteorology
Metform 214
This provides forecast upper winds and temperatures. F414 does the same for near Europe.
Meteorology
TAFs and METARs >> 9999 is the visibility – when visibility is
quoted as 10 km or more, it is reported as
You should be able to decode these, although ‘9999’. When lower than 10 km, it will be
increasingly they are available online in plain reported as the actual visibility in metres.
language as well. Full details of abbreviations used
in TAFs and METARs are available in the Tables >> SCT025 is the cloud cover. In this case
and Codes chapter (see p.147). ‘SCT’ means coverage of 3 to 4 ocktas
(eighths) of the sky. Unless the cloud
>> TAFs are forecasts; METARs are is cumulonimbus or towering cumulus,
reports of the actual weather. the type is not normally reported.
>> Larger aerodromes often produce 24 or 30 >> TEMPO means (within the given time
hour TAFs. These will give a good indication period) a condition of a temporary nature.
as to when particular weather will be So in this case the visibility is expected
passing through and when it is expected to to temporarily reduce to 8000 m at some
change. By looking at several over a given point between 2100 UTC and 2300 UTC.
area you will see a pattern of weather.
>> PROB30 means 30% probability of the
>> If there is uncertainty in the forecasts, for following conditions occurring. Only
example if the time of a change in the weather PROB30 and PROB40 are used in the UK.
is not precisely forecast or there are periods So in this case there is a 30% probability
where ‘PROB30’ or ‘PROB40’ are used, delve that between 2100 UTC and 2300 UTC
a bit deeper into the wider weather picture. the visibility might in fact be 3000 m in
mist (BR) and shallow fog (MIFG).
>> Remember TAFs/METARs give the
cloud base in relation to the ground A METAR will be similar, except that there will
level at the reporting aerodrome – take be a time of report at the beginning rather than a
account of that when comparing them validity period. METARs are normally updated
to the planned altitude of your route. every half an hour although weather reports on
ATIS will be updated more often if the weather
>> Looking at TAFs/METARs on a map
is changing frequently.
presentation rather than a list will make
it easier to build a weather picture. The
Met Office website has this feature. SIGMETs and AIRMETS
PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION
Meteorology
AIRFRAME ICING Carb icing frequently forms outside visible
moisture, particularly when the relative humidity
For VFR flight, airframe icing should not be an is high. It is more likely to occur at lower power
issue, although you must always remove any ice settings, although under some conditions it can
or frost on the wings, static ports and pitot tube occur100
at any power
1012setting.
before flight. If you enter visible moisture when 140 120
You should refer to1016
the Aircraft Flight Manual
the outside air temperature is 0ºC or less, ice
(AFM) for your aircraft for specific details of carb 1008
may start to form on the aircraft. Ice has a very 1020
icing and
120 the use of the carb
200 heat function to 1004
detrimental effect on aircraft performance, so 080 040
prevent it. 1000
must be avoided, unless the aircraft is approved
for flight in icing conditions. The worst airframe H
icing will normally occur between 0ºC and –15ºC.
Fuel injected engines
200 do200
not suffer in the same
way, although it is possible to get ice forming
000
L
around air140intakes, potentially
160
restricting air flow
120 000
ENGINE ICING into the engine. Use of the ‘alternate air’ function
080
may be necessary to ensure sufficient air flow to
The most significant icing risk to GA aircraft the engine.
equipped with carburettor engines is ‘carb icing’. Isobars
For more guidance on piston engine icing, read
It is caused by the lowering of the pressure the relevant safety sense leaflet available at
(and therefore temperature) in the aircraft’s www.caa.co.uk/safetysense.
carburettor as the fuel air mixture is sucked in
for combustion. As the temperature lowers, the
water vapour in the fuel air mixture will condense
and freeze, potentially blocking delivery of fuel World Wide
and air to the engine. +30
Approximate
upper limits
of dewpoint
NW Europe
Carb icing risk +20
ity -10
id
m
Hu
tive
la
Re
% % % % %
100 80 60 40 20
-20
-20 -10 0 +10 +20 +30 +40
Air Temperature ºC
PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION
Meteorology
MAKING THE WEATHER CALL
Guidance ?
Even for local flights, you should have a From your review of the weather you should
good understanding of the general weather have established what the likely cloud base
conditions before you go flying, particularly and ceiling will be at different points of
how the weather may evolve during the flight. the flight. When considering your ability to
remain in visual conditions at a given altitude,
This should include both an overall appreciation consider what the cloud cover is reported as
of the weather conditions on the day, and whether it may lower during the flight.
as well as the forecast for your specific
destination and any alternate aerodromes. Guidance ?
This will ultimately inform your decision as
Remember to compare the cloud height figures
to whether it is safe to fly or not. Below are
at aerodromes with nearby terrain. TAFs and
some of the factors you should consider.
METARs give cloud levels in height above
aerodrome elevation. A 1500 ft cloud ceiling
VFR minima could be shrouding the tops of nearby hills.
Meteorology
Guidance ?
VFR flight below 1000 ft AGL is generally Wind
only suitable for circuits or very local
flying in areas you are familiar with. You should consider how current you are in
crosswind landings if such conditions are
Actually going anywhere of distance, even with forecast. Crosswind landings, particularly
reasonable visibility below cloud, is likely to in tailwheel aircraft, are one of the more
involve close encounters with hills, radio masts, perishable piloting skills. The best advice is
wind turbines and other low level hazards. You to find a good instructor to practice them
may also meet military aircraft practicing their with – you may have to go somewhere with
low level flying – for which they (unlike most GA a suitable runway orientation or use the
pilots) are specially trained. You must also ensure crosswind runway if your airfield has one.
you do not breach the low flying rules (see p.52).
High winds aloft are not in of themselves
There are circumstances in which VFR flight out hazardous, but winds above 35 kts or so
of sight of the surface is permitted above 3000 ft are often indicative of bumpy conditions –
AMSL. However, if you do not hold an instrument maintaining accurate height and heading
rating or IMC rating you must not enter the may be challenging. It is also important
clouds and you must be certain of being able to take account of strong headwinds
to descend visually at your destination. when calculating fuel requirements.
Visibility
Guidance ?
In practice, VFR flight when the surface
visibility is being reported as less than 5 km
is not recommended. You are unlikely to
have a clear horizon to control the aircraft
by and navigating visually will be difficult.
PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION
that your flight planning application has done >> Busy aerodromes (without an ATZ) are
5 km 1500 m
for you) headings and leg times for trips that often denoted
1000 ft on the chart with an outer
involve going somewhere much outside the local circle around the aerodrome symbol and
‘bimbling area’. Give them a general sense check a letter ‘T’ – this indicates they are used
to ensure you have not made any obvious errors. intensively
1000 ft
for training flights. A ‘U’ symbol
means unusual activity such as aerobatics
or formation flying takes place. It is best
Online and tablet-based3000 flight planning
ft AMSL
3000 ft
C C above
PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION
32 = 3200 ft
Guidance ?
Note safety altitudes below which
you will not descend due to weather
without turning around or diverting.
L
200 285
65 275
75
200 000
plan to use them. The reason they start at 320 300
360 340
140 FL35/3,500
160
ft
120 and escalate every0001000 ft
080
400 380
Isobars .. ..
.. ..
thereafter is due to IFR 080levels being assigned 285 275
to the whole thousands of feet. This is 320 300
360 340
important when flying in class E airspace in 400 380
Europe because Isobars
it is the means by which ..
180º ..179º
enroute VFR and IFR traffic are separated.
World Wide
MAGNETIC TRACK
Descent planning
+30 180º 179º
Approximate
upper limits
IFR CRUISING
359º LEVELS
000º
of dewpoint
A good rule of thumb is allow 3 NM for every IFR
World Wide
1000 ft of height you need to lose. So a descent
NW Europe MAGNETIC TRACK
+30
+20
from 10,000 ft would Approximate
takelimits
approximately 30 NM. *FL:
359º FL:
000º
upper
20 30
of dewpoint
IFR 40 50
60 70
This assumes+10
+20
ground speed x five = approximate
NW Europe
180º 179º
-20
+30 +40
*If below the transition altitude (see p.83), the levels should be
flown as altitudes, such as 3500 ft, 4500 ft and so on.
PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION
PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION
Aerodrome planning
Key info ! When visiting an unfamiliar aerodrome,
particularly an unlicensed one, you
You can look up the destination and alternate
should consider/enquire about:
aerodromes in a commercially available
flight guide or the AD section of the AIP. >> Is prior permission by telephone
required to operate there?
In general, all of the information needed to operate at
a particular aerodrome can be found in the relevant >> Are there any specific local operating
AIP entry, including details of runway characteristics, procedures that should be followed? For
air traffic services and opening hours. The AIP only example, if the aerodrome is inside the control
includes licensed or certificated aerodromes. zone of a larger one, there will normally
be a specific joining procedure to follow.
A number of unlicensed aerodromes that >> Surface type and condition. If grass,
are available for public use can be found in is it long, wet and/or soft?
commercially available guides. The information
available for unlicensed sites, particularly for >> How much useable length is there
take-off, landing distances and obstacles, will for take-off and landing?
generally be less detailed than for licensed ones. >> Are there any obstacles around the
runway that might require consideration
Due to the requirements associated with being a to ensure they can be cleared? Power
licensed/certificated aerodrome, it can normally cables, winch launching or trees are the
be assumed that it will not have any hazardous most common ones. At some sites take-
obstacles in the approach or departure paths. off and/or landing is only possible in one
However this cannot be assumed for unlicensed direction due to obstacles or terrain.
aerodromes. Particularly for smaller strips, a briefing
from the aerodrome owner or operator is essential. >> What is the prevailing wind like and are there
any buildings or obstructions that might
create unusual turbulence on approach?
LOCAL HAZARDS AND PROCEDURES
>> Are there any noise abatement procedures
There is considerable variation in the local rules or noise sensitive areas to be avoided?
and procedures for different aerodromes. This >> Are there any other hazards that you
is often due to the necessity for aerodromes need to be aware of? For example,
to limit their local environmental impact surfaces near the runway that may be
and/or accommodate a variety of different unsuitable for aircraft movement.
aircraft operations in the same place.
For more information flying into small
Guidance ? airstrips, see the ‘Strip Sense’ safety sense
leaflet at www.caa.co.uk/safetysense.
Common differences include circuit height and
direction, noise abatement procedures and the You should also conduct a similar exercise for
level of air traffic service provided. A mix of traffic, any alternate aerodromes you may need. It
for example helicopters, gliders or parachuting is tempting to only give this cursory thought
will also tend to require specific local procedures on the basis that diversions rarely happen.
for safe operation. Planning and review of local However, doing so could save a lot of aggravation
information is essential to staying safe. and will give you the confidence to divert if
circumstances such as the weather dictate.
PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION
Arm Moment
Item Mass (kg)
(metres aft of datum) (kg metres)
Empty aircraft 700 2.22 1,554
The table above is a typical example >> Add together all of the masses and
for a light aircraft. To complete the add together all of the moments;
calculation use the following process:
>> Divide the total moments by the total mass.
>> Multiply the mass of each loading This generates a centre of gravity position.
point (including the empty mass) in the
‘Mass’ column by its distance from
the datum in the ‘Arm’ column. Place Moment (2386.05)
the result in the ‘Moment’ column; = C of G (2.28)
Mass (1045)
In this case, the mass and centre of gravity is well within the permitted range. However, note that
the mass is not within the utility category area of the graph, so certain manoeuvres may not be
permitted. Check the AFM for more details.
MASS
VS
C.G. ENVELOPE
NORMAL CATEGORY
2.19
1050
2.16
1000
2.13
UTILITY CATEGORY
950
2.10
900
AIRPLANE MASS – KG
850
800
0
2.10
IT 2.4
LIMIT
750
IM
AFT L
FWD
700
650
2.10 2.16 2.22 2.28 2.34 2.40
2.13 2.19 2.25 2.31 2.37
C.G. LOCATION – METRES AFT DATUM
(kg)
g
en
s
200
on
fr
t&
150
el
some aircraft it is possible to go outside
Fu
ers
of limits by burning fuel, for example if
ng
ar
pa
sse you start with a very forward centre of
100 Re
e
gravity. Run calculations for both takeoff
gag
80 Bag and landing. Note any differences between
50 maximum take-off mass and landing mass.
40
>> Permitted manoeuvres – some aircraft are
0 only permitted to carry out certain manoeuvres
50 100 120 140 150 200 (kg.m) when within a narrower range of mass and
Moment centre of gravity positions. For example, an
aircraft might have separate limits for aerobatic
General guidance and normal flight. Be familiar with your AFM.
PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION
y
rwa
Clea
T ODA
A
TOR
LDA
A
ASD Stopway
Runway
PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION
>> Lower pressure; For a given day you should take the relevant
conditions and apply them using the aircraft’s
>> Higher aerodrome elevation;
AFM graphs. The table below gives a rough
indication as to the changes to performance you
>> In the case of landing, the surface
should expect for the different variables. They
is wet and/or slippery; or
can be used to sense check your calculations.
>> Shorter runway and/or different surface These could also be used if very minimal
from the one you are familiar with. performance data was available for the aircraft.
Performance changes
REF LINE
D
IN
3000
W
IL
ft
DE
TA
U
TIT
AL
ISA
RE
SU 2500
ES HE
TE
PR AD
TAKE-OFF DISTANCE ft
MP
WIN
D
2000
00
80 2 6
0
600 3 4
0 5 1500
400
0
200
SL
REF LINE 4750 lb
1 1000
500
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 4500 4000 3500 3000 0 5 10 15 20
OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE ºC MASS lb WIND COMPONENT kt
Safety factors
*Note: You should apply this after the application of the other applicable factors.
CLIMB PERFORMANCE
Even if an aircraft is within its mass and It can sometimes be helpful to know your
balance limits and the runway is long enough climb gradient as well as your rate of climb.
to become airborne, if climb performance This can be calculated approximately by:
is very limited it may not be safe to fly.
Rate of climb (ft/m)
Generally it is not recommended to = Climb gradient (%)
fly if under the conditions of the day Ground speed (kts)
the aircraft will climb at less than:
PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION
Fuel
Guidance ?
You should have a good working >> It is a common misconception that leaning
knowledge of your aircraft’s fuel burn at should only be done at high altitude.
different power settings. Leaning is also Most conventional piston engines can
an important element of engine and fuel be leaned for the cruise at any attitude.
management. You should be familiar with Read the AFM relevant to your aircraft.
the procedure for your aircraft’s engine.
>> Fuel gauges in most GA aircraft are not
>> Fuel burn and range figures can very accurate and should not be considered
be found in the AFM. a reliable indicator of fuel level. You
should physically check fuel levels on
>> The amount of fuel reserve carried should be the ground by dipping the fuel tanks.
proportionate to the nature of the intended
flight. For example, if not leaving the circuit it >> A fuel totaliser, if fitted, is a good
is acceptable to land with less fuel than when indicator of fuel burn. However for the
flying to another aerodrome further away. purpose of counting fuel remaining it is
completely dependent on the initial fuel
>> EASA aircraft are required to have certain level being correct. It only measures
fuel reserves (see p.20). There are none fuel consumed by the engine rather
specified for non-EASA aircraft other than the content of the fuel tanks.
than ‘sufficient’, although you are not
recommended to land with less than
30 minutes fuel for a VFR flight.
PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION
Flight plans
Key info !
A flight plan is essentially the transmission Unlike a full flight plan it will not be
of information to air traffic service transmitted to any other ATSU other
units regarding the intended route of a than the one you are in contact with.
particular flight or portion of a flight.
Requirement for a flight plan
Flight plans are generally either:
You are required to file a flight plan
>> Full flight plans, which are filed in the following circumstances:
through the Aeronautical Fixed
Telecommunication Network (AFTN); or >> Any flight across international borders, unless
otherwise prescribed by the relevant states;
>> Abbreviated flight plans, which may
be passed by radio or telephone. >> Any flight that is subject to an air traffic
control service – for example entering
Full flight plan controlled airspace or departing from
a controlled aerodrome; and
Details of how to file a full VFR flight plan
using the AFPEx system are contained in the >> When leaving the vicinity of
‘International Flying’ chapter (see p.154). A an aerodrome at night.
full flight plan may be filed for any flight, but
it is a requirement for flying internationally. The practice commonly known as ‘booking
It is also recommended to file one if: out’1 would fulfil the requirement to submit
an abbreviated flight plan for the purposes
>> Flying over water, more than 10 of leaving the vicinity of the aerodrome
NM from the UK coastline; at night. If there is no ATSU to give your
details to, you should file a full flight plan.
>> When flying to the Scottish Highlands
and Islands aerodromes; and For the purposes of transiting controlled
airspace an abbreviated flight plan is
>> Over other sparsely populated areas where normally acceptable, however international
search and rescue might be difficult. flight normally requires a full flight plan.
AIRSPACE
AIRSPACE
Key info !
As pilot in command you are responsible for State-specific variations can normally be found
ensuring your aircraft remains in compliance in the ENR section of the relevant AIP – for
with The Rules of the Air. If compelled to example ENR 1.2 covers the VFR, ENR 1.7
deviate from them by immediate danger, altimeter setting procedures and ENR 1.8
you may do so without fear of retribution. Regional Supplementary Procedures.
They are set out in ICAO Annex 2 and legally For ease of understanding, we have drawn
applied in the UK through a combination of: the relevant regulations and permissions
together and presented them in a consolidated
>> The Standardised European
format that covers the basics relevant to VFR
Rules of the Air1 (SERA);
flight. While the source regulation is always
>> The UK Rules of the Air 2015; and definitive, compliance with the guidance on
the following pages should ensure both the
>> General permissions issued by the letter and spirit of the law are observed.
UK where SERA permits national
discretion over certain requirements.
i FINDING REGULATIONS
The UK Rules of the Air 2015 can be found SERA and other European regulations can be
either at www.legislation.gov.uk or in the CAA’s found at www.easa.europa.eu/regulations.
consolidation, CAP 393 – www.caa.co.uk/cap393. Look for the most recent consolidations.
UK specific general permissions or exemptions The European AIS Database (EAD)
relevant to SERA can be found in ORS4 – is the best place to look up
www.caa.co.uk/ors4. European AIPs.
For more information about the UK’s
implementation of SERA see www.caa.co.uk/sera.
AIRSPACE
Adherence to these rules is primarily to protect people or property on the ground from
aircraft operations.
500 ft
AIRSPACE
Proximity of aircraft
600 m
Rights of way in the air
Guidance ?
There used to be a rule in the UK Rules of
the Air that stated aircraft following a line 4
feature such as a road, railway or coastline, Aircraft
must fly to the right of that feature. towing
70º
An overtaking situation exists when an
aircraft is approaching from behind another
aircraft, and is within an angle of 70º from
either side of its extended centre line.
AIRSPACE
B
1000 ft
8 km 1500 m
C
FL100/10,000 ft AMSL (depending on the transition altitude)
D* 5 km 1500 m
1000 ft
*Class D exemption: There is an exemption in the UK to SERA which allows aircraft to fly ‘clear of cloud’ in1000 classft D airspace rather
than complying with the specified cloud separation distances. This only applies if flying by day at or below 3000 ft AMSL, in sight
of the surface and at 140 kts IAS or less. 5 km visibility is still required, except for helicopters for which 1500 m is required. For full
details see www.caa.co.uk/sera.
3000The legal exemption can be found in the ORS4 section within the CAA website www.caa.co.uk/ors4.
ft AMSL
1000
1000 ft
ft
8
8 km
km 1500
1500 m
m
FL100/10,000
FL100/10,000 ft
ft AMSL
AMSL (depending
(depending on
on the
the transition
transition altitude)
altitude)
5 km
km 1500 m
m
F 5 1500
1000
1000 ft
ft
1000 ft
1000 ft
G 3000 ft
3000 ft AMSL
AMSL
Clear
Clear of
of cloud
cloud
5
5 km
*
km*
in sight
in sight of
of
surface
surface
*
* If
If flying
flying at
at 140
140 kts
kts IAS
IAS or
or less
less
E
E EE
*5 km: Where permitted by a Member State, this may be reduced to 1500 m if flying by day, in sight of the surface and at 140 kts
IAS orFless. In the UK,
W2DthisFF is permitted in class G airspace. FL55-FL235
FL55-FL235
F W2D G
G
FL55-FL235
FL55-FL235 Standard
Standard
G D exemption: There is an exemption in the UK to SERA which allows aircraft to fly ‘clear of cloud’ in class D airspace
**Class
G
rather
dimensions
dimensions
than complying with the specified cloud separation distances. This only applies if flying by day at or below 3000 ft AMSL, in sightof an
an ATZ
ATZ
of
of the surface and at 140 kts IAS or less. 5 km visibility is still required, except for helicopters for which 1500 m is required. For full
details see www.caa.co.uk/sera. The legal exemption can be found in the ORS4 section within the CAA website www.caa.co.uk/ors4.
Guidance ?
180º 179º Enroute obstacles that are 150 m (490 ft) above
ground level or higher must be lit at night. This is
*If below the transition altitude, the levels should be flown as normally by a steady red light on the highest point.
altitudes, such as 3500 ft, 4500 ft and so on.
2000 ft
7000
4 nm
5 nm radius
2 or 2.5 NM
MATZ
LARS
126.5
Transponder operation
ALT
5 nm
AIRSPACE
ALT
2000 ft
IDENT
VFR
ON
Airspace classifications SBY
OFF
MATZ and LARS
5 nm radius
1000 ft
Standard MATZ with
2 or 2.5 NM
2000 ft
dimensions
two STUBS
of an ATZ
LARS
126.5
4 nm
frequency
Standard
7000
Airspace is organised into different classifications A-G. The characteristics of these, including the
applicable VMC minima, are set by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) and applied in
3000 ft
above
airfield
level
operation
Europe under SERA. In the UK, classifications A, C, D, E and G are used. The vast majority of the UK
ALT
ft two STUBS and LARS
1000 ft
2000 ft
is class G, with the other controlled airspace classifications used for terminal and enroute airspace.
Transponder
IDENT
StandardVFR
dimensions
ALT
of an ATZ
LARS frequency
5 nm radius
CONTROLLED AIRSPACE
ON
2 or 2.5 NM
SBY
OFF
MATZ
126.5
CTR D 2500’-3500’
CTA C 4500’-FL245
2000’-6000’
FL55-FL235
G
C Transponder operation
FL55-FL235dimensions
ALT
of an ATZ
Standard
C 4500’-FL245
TMA E 2000’-6000’
VFR Flight Generally not permitted above FL195. Specific arrangements for glider operations in TRAs apply.
IDENT
L10 5 AnmFL45+
VFR
W2D 2F or 2.5 NM
If flying at 140 kts IAS or less
CTR D 2500’-3500’
4500’-FL245
2000’-6000’
C
L10 A FL45+
G
C
G
C
E
F
*
Where Most aerodrome CTRs and CTAs. Some TMAs and lower levels of selected airways.
dimensions
of an ATZ
Standard
2500’-3500’
CTAL10 C A 4500’-FL245
2000’-6000’
E 2500’-3500’
CTR CD 4500’-FL245
E 2000’-6000’
2000 ft
FL45+
TMA FL55-FL235
FL55-FL235
W2D F
TMA
CTA
CD
G
AC
E
D
G
E
E 2000’-6000’
FL45+
CTR D 2500’-3500’
TMA E 2000’-6000’
FL55-FL235
Clearance ATC clearance not required for VFR flight, pilots encouraged to contact ATC.
TMA
E D
G
C
E
F
2000’-6000’
FL55-FL235
W2D F
G
C
E
F
G
E
0 ft
AIRSPACE
Standard
dimensions
of an ATZ
Transponde
IDENT
2000 ft VFR
2 or 2.5 NM
2 NM ATZ shown with
aerodrome symbol
AIRSPACE
A MATZ is not controlled airspace but an Aircraft operating near military aerodromes are
area established around a military aerodrome not confined to the MATZ. This could include
1000 ft
designed to protect traffic flying in the vicinity. aircraft approaching to land or operating in
It is not actually a requirement to be “cleared” what is known as the ‘radar training circuit’
into a MATZ as such; but it is good airmanship (RTC). The RTC is a relatively standard pattern
to contact the relevant ATSU if intending to flown by aircraft around the aerodrome for
enter. A MATZ will contain an ATZ within it, the purpose of practising radar approaches.
for which the normal rules for an ATZ apply.
The standard RTC sequence is:
1000 ft
4NM
cloud STANDARD MATZ WITH This could take place either as a left or right
TWO STUBS AND LARS hand pattern. It is primarily the downwind
and base leg elements of which protrude
beyond the extremities of the MATZ, so it
is a good idea to contact the relevant MATZ
frequency if transiting these areas, even if
you are not penetrating the MATZ itself.
5 nm
MATZ
LARS 4 nm
126.5
3000 ft
above 2000 ft
airfield
level 1000 ft
5 nm radius
RWY 25
5-7 NM
RWY 07
M
20 N
Crossing altitude and QFE must be read back, “MATZ penetration approved at
however requests to report at certain places 1800 ft on Boscombe QFE 997
can simply be acknowledged with ‘wilco’. hectopascals, wilco, G-ME.”
AIRSPACE
>> A danger area is a published area within >> A prohibited area is an area within
which activity hazardous to aviation may which flight is entirely prohibited.
be encountered. Flight within danger >> A restricted area is an area within which
areas may be prohibited by local bylaws. some flying is restricted – for example,
sometimes they only apply to certain
>> Danger areas normally have periods within
categories of aircraft. These conditions
which they are active – details of activity
can be found in the notes of the VFR
periods can normally be found in ENR 5.1
chart and in ENR 5.1 of the AIP.
of the AIP. There is often a frequency and/
or telephone number in the notes of the >> The altitude to which they extend is
VFR chart from which the status of the stated in thousands of feet AMSL.
danger area may be obtained. The status ‘2.2’ is therefore 2200 ft.
can sometimes also be obtained from
either a local ATC unit or London/Scottish
Information, as applicable to the region.
1841
519 1726 (381)
(394) (328)
AIRSPACE
AIRSPACE
Some aerodromes outside controlled airspace VFR traffic operating near aerodromes
have instrument approach procedures (IAPs). outside controlled airspace should be aware
These are defined sequences of waypoints that there may be instrument traffic using
that guide aircraft to the final approach track. IAPs and should avoid crossing them at
Details of IAPs can be found in entries for similar altitudes to that of the procedure,
individual aerodromes in AD of the AIP. unless talking to the relevant ATSU.
They are often used in VMC, especially IAPs outside controlled airspace are indicated
NITED KINGDOM AIP AD 2-EGTE-8
by commercial air transport aircraft and by ‘feathered arrows’. Note they only align
21 Aug 201
those conducting instrument training. with the main instrument runway. There may
INSTRUMENT APPROACH CHART - ICAO also be approaches to other runways as well. EXETER
Larger commercial
APP air transport traffic will have
128.975 EXETER APPROACH AD ELEVATION 102
ILS/DME/NDB(L)
180°
26 RWY 08
31 reduced capability
TWR to ‘see and avoid’ due toEXETER
119.800 the TOWER THR ELEVATION 100 (ACFT CAT A,B,C,D)
270°
090° limitationsRAD of visibility
128.975,from the cockpit. Aircraft
123.575 also
EXETER RADAR OBSTACLE ELEVATION
34 tend26 1522 AMSL
to descend
ATIS further away from the aerodrome
119.325 EXETER INFORMATION
360°
700
0 DUNKESWELL
the direction from which the aircraft is coming, but 929
could start from downwind of the landing runway. 5050N
5050N 857
762
830 857
IAF 1527
597 EX 337 884 (1427)
538 76°
ex
MAX 210KIAS for procedure. 504508N 0031742W 24
M
QD
LHA 2100 ,D 52°
3 TC M2
I-ET 109.90D 358 289°1 MIN CA QD
(Ch 36X) (258) T A,B 733
iet 636 CA
504413N 0032349W (536)
540 88' 109° 1035
(440) 227 860 (935)
70
495
078°
(127) (760)
0
SFC
5040N T aircraft will normally start 5040N
CA
D8.5
6° the procedure from a
24 beacon on or close to the
1184
(1084)
D9.5
830 aerodrome known as the
(730)
1440
‘initial approach fix’ (IAF).
430
A ‘base turn’ is then flown N
1737 830 to position
D012 the aircraft
Annual Rate
1 18000
such 25000)
(OCNL
of Change 0.15°E
that they can turn
ontoSFCthe final approach.
1552
A typical Instrument Landing System (ILS) approach established outside controlled airspace. In this case Exeter airport.
0
100
811
0
400
70
D013
60000
003 30W The Skyway Code / Airspace SFC 69 00300W
RAD 128.975, 123.575 EXETER RADAR OBSTACLE ELEVATION EGNOS CH 59259 E08A
987 2325 AMSL
ATIS
ATICAA
S /1119.325
1 9.321535
CAP 5 / May 2019 EXETER
E XETER IINFORMATION
NFORMATION (2225) (ABOVE THR) MIN TEMP -15°C
879
RP BEARINGS ARE MAGNETIC TRANSITION ALTITUDE 3000
003 30W
S 25NM
FR
OM 700
04025.56N 0034742.94W 10NM
AIRSPACE > INSTRUMENT APPROACHES
S 845
04600.11N 0034503.81W 644
IS
RI
03618.88N 0034113.66W TAA 827
700
400
04222.36N 0033530.88W 629 0
640
(SISRI) 40
04355.45N 0032540.83W
(TE08I) 929
591
1: GNSS approaches typically follow 857
830
a slightly different layout, with 857
597 884
approaches 589starting from a ‘Y’ or
672 ‘T’ shaped set of tracks which turn 538
168°
LHA 2100
the aircraft onto the approach. MAX 210KIAS for 1 MIN
Procedure and Hold. 834
728 289° 1035
(628)
ate 1 358 636 860 (935)
540 109° (760)
15°E 3400 495 (258) (536)
SISRI (440) (395)
227
078°
IAF 832
3 622 (127)
808 (732)
BH 39/D2
512
D(
ex
504508N 0031742W
5.0
TE08F (299)
.05
459 572
1804 2200 FAF 6.4 MIDDLEMOOR
)
(359) (472)
TE08I 648 693
IF 5.0 797 (548)
EBOBA 1156 (697) 688 D061
IAF 3.0 2300 (588) 1500
SFC
078°
3400 1169 1035
1280
1936 1099
5.0
(836) 829
830 400
BH 328/
(730)
R
D D2
MISSED
MISSED APPROACH
APPROACH PROCEDURE
PROCEDURE
(11 0.2
3
3400 430
5)
OB
A
1737 0 830
LUSTLEIGH 70
EB
0
40
OM
OTBOT 1
FR
1503
IAF
25NM
TAA 1489
(EBOBA)
3400
348°
453
0
100
1552 D012
BH 32/D
811
0
400
18000
70
R3
D
(OTBOT)
OT
1082
554
OTB
(982)
1575 TAA
OM
2600
FR
M
N
521 591 25 D013 5030N
1690 60000
601 003 30W SFC
MILITARY LOW FLYING
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM
PROFILE VNAV - Vertical path Angle 3° (LNAV 5.24%), 318FT/NM
8 6 5 4 3 2 (SDF) 1
Military low flying takes
2060(1960)
place across most
1740(1640)
of
1420(1320)
The ministry
1100(1000)
of Defense 790(690)
(MOD) publishes 470(370)
the UK, often as low as 50 ft AGL for helicopters a monthly low flying tactical training area
and 250 ft AGL for fixed wingMAPt RW08
traffic. (THR RWY 08) timetable which can be found on-line.
There
Continuous climb to 2500. Passing 1000 revert to conventional NDB(L) EX
is an increased likelihood of encountering www.gov.uk/guidance/military-low-flying.
navigation. Initially straight ahead to NDB(L) EX to hold at
military aircraft in areas of intense aerial activity
2500. Aircraft unable to achieve 2500 by NDB(L) EX turn right
TE08F ontolow
track 258° and continue climb to 2500 then turn right to
) or aerial tactics areas, although
2200(2100) flying
NDB(L) EX or as directed.
aircraft are not confined to these areas.
RW08
078
°
The highest concentrations tend to be SDF LNAV
ONLY °
below 1000 ft AGL, so GA pilots are 078
°
790(690)above
strongly recommended to remain 078
this height during enroute flight.
6.4NM
6.4NM 2NM
2NM THR
tegory A B C D Rate of G/S KT 160 140 120 100 80
LPV 350(250) 350(250) 350(250) 356(256) descent FT/MIN 850 740 640 530 420
NAV/VNAV 480(380) 480(380) 480(380) 480(380) The Skyway Code / Airspace 70
CAA / CAP 1535 / May 2019
AIRSPACE
>> Area Control Centre FIS – London or Scottish Information (Basic Service only).
Scottish and London Information do not have radar; the squawk code they give you is so
that other radar units who may observe you know that you are talking to London or Scottish
Information. They can therefore contact you via either London or Scottish – if for example you
are about to infringe controlled airspace.
Collectively the air traffic services available outside controlled airspace are known as the UK
Flight Information Services (FIS). Within the UK FIS there are three distinct levels of service
available to aircraft.
Basic Service
A Basic Service is intended to offer the pilot maximum autonomy and is available to IFR flights in
Class G airspace, or VFR flights in Class E and Class G airspace. If the ATCO or FISO are aware
of airspace activity that may affect your flight they will tell you; however, this is subject to their
workload and the avoidance of other traffic is solely the pilot’s responsibility. Maintain a good
lookout.
Traffic Service
Under a Traffic Service, an ATCO will use radar to provide you with detailed traffic information on
specific conflicting aircraft; they will not provide you with deconfliction advice, regardless of your
meteorological conditions. A Traffic Service is available to IFR flights in Class G airspace, or VFR
flights in Class E and Class G airspace.
Deconfliction Service
Only available to IFR flights in Class G airspace. An ATCO will use radar to provide you with
detailed traffic information on specific conflicting aircraft and advice on how to avoid that aircraft.
However, the pilot retains responsibility for collision avoidance; you can opt not to follow the
ATCO’s advice.
AIRSPACE
>> It is common practice for GA pilots to When operating under VFR you will
request a Basic Service if operating generally be calling enroute radio stations
in good VMC and a traffic service if in unannounced. This is known as a ‘freecall’.
reduced visibility or entering IMC. There is a standard template for a freecall
that can be varied for almost all requests
>> In fact, there can sometimes be a greater that you will likely wish to make:
collision risk on good weather days since
there is more traffic around. If you do not >> Who you are and what you want –
have any traffic awareness equipment on callsign, aircraft type and request;
board the aircraft, you should consider
requesting a traffic information service, >> What you are doing – point of
as see-and-avoid alone is known to be an departure and destination, route or
imperfect means of detecting other aircraft. area of operation and/or intentions;
1
Simple requests such as ‘Basic Service’ should be placed in
the initial call, although you may need to give more information
after the controller has asked you to ‘pass your message’.
When passing
When passing traffic
traffic information
information the
the controller willcontroller will terms
use the following use the following
to describe terms
the relevant to describe the relevant movement:
movement:
Traffic Crossing ahead Traffic Crossing behind Converging Traffic Similar Direction Traffic Opposite Direction Traffic
AIRSPACE
AIRSPACE
4 Airways
AIRSPACE
Unless they have any further instructions, “G-ME roger, report leaving the
ATC will likely just acknowledge. zone at Bishop’s Waltham.”
AIRSPACE
Transponder use
MODES AND CODES MODE S REQUIREMENTS
Key info ! Generally, all aircraft in the following
circumstances must be equipped with Mode
In general, transponder-equipped
S ‘Elementary Surveillance’ capabilities:
aircraft in the UK should:
>> Within class A or C airspace;
h >> Squawk 7000 as a general conspicuity code;
RS
>> Above FL100; or
>> Select mode ‘C’ at all times so that
your 5 nm
altitude is displayed; and
MATZ >> Within transponder mandatory zones (TMZ).
LARS 4 nm
>> If ‘listening
126.5 in’ on a frequency, use a relevant Aircraft without Mode S may enter a TMZ with
frequency monitoring code (see p.11). the approval of the relevant ATSU. Additional
2000 ft
Mode S requirements also apply for aircraft
ft It may be tempting to switch off mode ‘C’
above 5700 kgs MTOM or flying under IFR.
if you fear5 you have infringed controlled
nm radius
airspace, however this is dangerous,
There are some areas in which gliders may fly
illegal and very poor airmanship.
above FL100 without Mode S – details of these
can be found in ENR 1.1 and 5.2 of the AIP.
If you infringe and turn off your transponder,
the penalty for the infringement will be higher.
Full details of Mode S carriage requirements
can be found in GEN 1.5 of the AIP.
In addition to squawk codes you may be given
by ATSUs, the following general codes apply: Transponder operation
ON
>> 7700 – General emergency code. Should
7000
IDENT SBY ALT
ALT
be selected as soon 2000as
ft practical if the VFR OFF
aircraft is suffering an emergency.
2 or 2.5 NM
AIRSPACE
There are four types of altimeter >> Regional pressure settings (RPS) –
settings used in the UK. They are all this is the lowest forecast pressure in a
measured in hectopascals (hPa): particular altimeter setting region. The
regions are given names such as ‘Portland’
>> QNH – this will read altitude above mean or ‘Cotswold’. Using the RPS will tend to
sea level (AMSL). When on the ground indicate a lower altitude than you actually
at an aerodrome, it should indicate the are, since unless you are at the specific
known elevation above mean sea level. point of lowest pressure, the actual pressure
at your position is likely to be higher.
Full details of the UK’s altimeter setting
regions can be found in ENR 6 of the AIP.
QFE QFE
976 hPa 976 hPa
AIRSPACE
The transition altitude is the altitude above which >> You should generally use the most
the vertical position of an aircraft is expressed current and relevant QNH to your
in terms of flight level (FL) rather than altitude. flight. Only use the RPS if there is
It is not mandatory in the UK for VFR flights no other accurate QNH available.
(it is for IFR) to change to FLs above the
transition altitude, however it is in some states. >> When transiting immediately below
or in the vicinity of controlled airspace
>> Outside controlled airspace, the transition boundaries that are expressed in terms of
altitude in the UK is generally 3000 ft. altitudes, you should use the QNH setting
from the nearest relevant aerodrome.
>> Within and below areas of controlled
airspace, it varies between 4000 ft and 6000 >> When transiting immediately below
ft. The AIP contains details of transition or in the vicinity of controlled airspace
altitudes for particular aerodromes. expressed in terms of flight levels,
you should use 1013 hPa.
Once at the transition alititude, to convert
to FLs for the cruise, set 1013 hPa. You >> Larger aerodromes generally use
must then climb to at least the lowest QNH for both take-off and landing.
available FL that is appropriate to your
>> GA aerodromes and the military
magnetic track (see p.59). You always climb
often use QFE for landing.
to lowest available FL, never descend.
Key info !
Under SERA, the lowest FL available to VFR traffic
is normally FL35, although depending on the local Full details of UK altimeter setting procedures
QNH and transition altitude, this may be higher. The can be found in ENR 1.7 of the UK AIP.
lowest available FL is known as the ‘transition level’.
1 hPa = aprox. 27 ft
On this day the QNH is 993 hPa. When the aircraft reaches the transition altitude (3000 ft AMSL in this example) and 1013
hPa is set, the altimeter will read 3540 ft. Assuming the aircraft is traveling westbound, the lowest available VFR FL is 45.
AERODROME
OPERATIONS
Including: 85
Aerodrome communications >
89 Arrival and departure procedures >
102 Visual communications and signage >
108
Marshalling signals >
AERODROME OPERATIONS
Correct understanding and use of procedures is important for safe
aerodrome operations. Most GA aerodromes are ‘uncontrolled’, meaning
pilots must operate safely amongst other airspace users, without direction
from air traffic control.
Aerodrome communications
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
There are different levels of service provision for radio communications at aerodromes, ranging
from SafetyCom, which relies on self-announcement and separation by pilots, to an aerodrome
control service provided by an air traffic controller. It is important that pilots understand
the different levels of provision and the associated procedures and responsibilities.
SafetyCom is a common traffic advisory frequency for use at aerodromes that do not have an
assigned frequency. It is currently 135.480 MHz and may be used within 10 NM and/or up to 1000
ft above the traffic circuit at an aerodrome. Aircraft should announce their position and intentions
at the normal points using the callsign “traffic” after stating the name of the aerodrome they are
operating at. Additionally, repeating the name of the aerodrome at the end of the transmission
further mitigates the risk of confusion when aerodromes are in close proximity to each other.
Air/Ground (A/G) radio is the most basic form of radio ground station you will encounter at an
aerodrome. Depending on the individual station, the operator of an air/ground radio may provide
traffic and weather information to pilots operating on and in the vicinity of the aerodrome. Such
traffic information is based primarily on reports made by other pilots. While information provided
by the radio operator may be used to assist a pilot in making a decision, the safe conduct of the
flight remains the pilot’s responsibility.
The radio operator has no power to issue clearances or instruct aircraft either in the air or on the
ground. In the A/G radio environment you should not request a “clearance” to do anything, nor
should you expect to receive one.
The normal callsign is “Radio” after the station name. When operating in the A/G environment, the
basic principle is that aircraft announce their position and separate themselves from other aircraft
in accordance with the Rules of the Air and any published aerodrome procedures. Only carry out a
manoeuvre (such as taxiing, take-off or landing) if you are satisfied if it is safe to do so and will not
conflict with other traffic.
Aerodrome communications
Aerodrome flight information service – callsign ‘Information’
The Aerodrome Flight Information Service (AFIS) is essentially a Flight Information Service
provided at an aerodrome. It is a higher level of service than A/G radio; however it remains
fundamentally a source of information rather than control. In the UK, AFIS do issue mandatory
instructions to aircraft and vehicles on the ground, up until aircraft pass a runway holding point.
AFIS units do not issue instructions to aircraft in the air, however they may request position
reports that are consistent with the aerodrome’s published traffic procedures. Generally, they
will pass more comprehensive information on traffic than an A/G station would.
The normal callsign is “Information” after the station name, for example “Duxford Information”. It
is still your responsibility to be satisfied that every action is safe and to announce your position and
intentions while operating at the aerodrome.
Some aerodromes have an Aerodrome Control Service within the ATZ, provided by an air traffic
control tower. Within the ATZ, compliance with their instructions both on the ground and in the
air is mandatory. The normal callsign is “Tower” after the station name, for example “Wycombe
Tower”. When arriving at such an aerodrome you should call 5-10 minutes prior to the ATZ and
request joining instructions – this will give the controller time to plan your arrival.
Larger aerodromes also often have a ground control frequency – callsign “Ground”.
Approach Control Service may be provided at an aerodrome either inside or outside controlled
airspace. If the aerodrome has approach control, you should make contact at least 10 minutes prior
to your intended arrival. If outside controlled airspace instructions are discretionary until you enter
the ATZ, however you should follow them to ensure your arrival is as safe and efficient as possible.
While aerodrome approach control will endeavour to make you aware of any relevant traffic in the
process of your arrival, if you are outside controlled airspace (especially if they do not have radar)
there may be unknown traffic in the vicinity of the aerodrome that poses a collision risk.
As you get closer to the aerodrome the approach controller will normally pass you to the
aerodrome control (callsign ‘Tower’) for landing.
The normal callsign is ‘Approach’ or ‘Radar’ (if a radar approach unit) after the station name.
For example ‘Shoreham Approach’ or ‘Bournemouth Radar’.
If operating outside controlled airspace near an aerodrome with approach control, you are strongly
recommended to contact them for a service, even if you are not planning to land there, and let
them know you are remaining clear of their approach. This will assist the approach controller in
keeping you clear of any arriving traffic.
Aerodrome communications
ATIS
Aerodrome communications
AERODROME LIGHT SIGNALS
The suite of light signals date from a time when aircraft would be controlled by light
signals during normal operations. Today it would be very unusual for an aircraft to
operate non-radio at a controlled aerodrome, unless a radio failure had occurred.
If you experience radio failure, look out for light signals that may be used to communicate
between the ground (for example from the control tower) and aircraft.
AERODROME OPERATIONS
AERODROME OPERATIONS
The ‘circuit’ consists of the flight path pattern that aircraft make around the aerodrome when taking
off or landing. This guidance focuses on the uncontrolled aerodrome environment.
DEADSIDE
Final
LIVESIDE
Downwind leg
The following principles are most >> Even if you do not believe there to be
relevant when operating in the circuit any other traffic around, continue to
at uncontrolled aerodromes: announce your position and intentions
as ‘blind calls’ – you never know when
>> As a general rule, joining traffic must another aircraft might appear.
always give way to traffic already
established in the circuit. >> If you believe the circuit is clear but are
not sure, there is no harm in asking over
>> Keep a good look out, knowing the the radio whether there is any other
conflict areas for the particular join you traffic – it is not unknown for pilots to stop
are conducting. Be flexible in responding making position calls if they believe there
to changes in the traffic situation. is no one else around to hear them.
>> Conform to the standard pattern, which >> If, despite your best efforts in planning and
will be aided by understanding the visual briefing, you are in doubt about the local
picture of how the runway should look procedures when approaching an aerodrome,
relative to the structure of your aircraft. do not be afraid to ask over the radio.
Key info !
At an aerodrome with a ground radio station you >> Although you will not request a taxi clearance
should call for airfield information prior to taxiing at an uncontrolled aerodrome, you must have
to the runway. At its most basic this will be the: the permission of the person in charge of the
aerodrome to taxi. This is normally implicit
>> Runway in use; if operating within the terms and conditions
of the aerodrome detailed in their AIP entry.
>> Circuit direction; and
>> At an aerodrome with a FISO unit you must
>> QNH or QFE. request taxi instructions before taxiing.
FISO only give instructions to aircraft
At larger aerodromes, there may be an
on the ground and the pilot must still
ATIS frequency, on which information for
ensure it is safe to comply with them.
operating at the aerodrome will be included.
The letter reference of the ATIS information >> At a controlled aerodrome you must
should be given on first contact with ATC. request taxi instructions before taxiing.
Larger controlled aerodromes may have a
>> At aerodromes with an A/G only, it dedicated ground frequency – for example
is entirely the pilot’s responsibility to ‘Bournemouth Ground’. Otherwise the
determine whether they can taxi safely initial call should be made to the tower.
on the aerodrome. Having reviewed the
aerodrome chart you should announce >> At larger aerodromes the taxiways are
your intentions to taxi, giving details of the often confusing, so taxi slowly, carry an
route and holding points as necessary. up to date chart and do not be afraid to
stop and ask for clarification if necessary.
behind you. This may require you to angle Rwy 22 Thr Elev 86
y
515342.81N 0020938.69W
E
points135
may be confusing
6°
21
and therefore
(34) pilots
may be more prone to
unintentionally entering
265°M the runway environment
27
without clearance.
APAPI (3.5°) HS1
MEHT 23 A1 Rwy 22 Thr Elev 89
A2 515335.17N 0020942.96W
(GUND Elevation 161)
HEL
Stand 2
Hold X
Fuel Hot Spot
1 Pumps Stand 1 HS1
M
Car
3 Fire Building Park
K Station A5 The Skyway Code / Aerodrome Operations 92
Tower
CAA / CAP 1535 / May 2019
Information such as runway in use, circuit “Runway in use 07, left hand
direction and QNH requires read-back. circuit, QNH 1024, G-DOME.”
“G-ME roger.”
- “G-ME roger.”
Explanation Exchange
Once you have determined it is safe to do so,
simply announce that you are taking off.
“Taking-off runway
The term ‘take-off’ should ONLY ever be used
24L, G-ME.”
to announce that you are about to take-off (in an
A/G or AFISO environment) or reading back of a
take-off clearance from an aerodrome controller.
AERODROME OPERATIONS
In general, contact should be made around >> Confirm you have correct QNH/QFE set; and
10 minutes prior to the intended arrival.
Unless the aerodrome has an ATIS which >> S
witched on landing lights,
you have already copied, expect to be even during daylight.
passed at least the following information:
If operating outside the normal hours of the
>> Runway in use; radio communication service at the aerodrome,
announce your position and intentions so that
>> Circuit direction; and
any other aircraft on frequency can hear what
you are doing. You must always do this, even
>> QNH or QFE.
if you are fairly certain the airfield is otherwise
deserted. In the absence of an assigned
At controlled aerodromes you will likely be
frequency at the aerodrome, use Safetycom.
instructed to join in a particular manner, such
as ‘join overhead’ or ‘join downwind’.
Guidance ?
The most common and recommended type of Overhead joins are sometimes precluded or
join is the ‘overhead’, the advantage of which varied by airspace or traffic constraints. You must
is that it allows you to observe the traffic circuit check the local procedures for the aerodrome
below without being in conflict with it. When you are visiting.
turning downwind, watch for any traffic
already on the downwind leg.
Exte
cen nded 1000ft
treli
ne
1000ft
LEG
IND
SSW 2
CRO
hold
res
d th
win Dead side
Up
2000ft
Live side
ay FINAL
DO
WN nw
ru
WI d
ND in d
LE w
- o l
to
G In resh
th Exte
cen nded
treli
ne
G
LE
SE
1000ft
Joining phases
Joining
Circuit letdown
Circuit
If arriving from the other side of Departure
the aerodrome to that depicted,
circle overhead so as to start
from a similar position.
Joining circuit
at crosswind
DEADSIDE
2
4
Final
Joining for
straight in
LIVESIDE
approach
Downwind leg
3
Joining circuit on Joining circuit
a downwind leg on a base leg
1 Downwind join involves directly joining the 2 Crosswind (midfield) join involves joining
circuit parallel to the runway in the downwind at circuit height from the dead side, at 90º
direction. It is important to observe the to the runway, then turning downwind to
direction of the crosswind leg, since that is join the circuit direction. It is essentially the
where potentially conflicting circuit traffic ‘second half’ of an overhead join but lacks
will come from. If in doubt about cutting in the opportunity to observe the traffic pattern
front of another aircraft, slow down and/or from above. Watch out for traffic already
manoeuvre to fit in behind. established on the downwind leg and fast
climbing traffic from below.
There may also be aircraft already on the
downwind leg that are directly ahead of you Base leg join involves joining directly to the
3
and therefore difficult to see. The danger is base leg of the circuit. Watch the downwind
that you join closer in to the runway and then leg carefully and ensure that you have not
turn base inside them or that you simply start joined on the inside of any traffic that is
to catch up without realising they are there. already on the base leg.
Explanation Exchange
“Wilco, G-ME.”
- “Roger, G-ME.”
AERODROME OPERATIONS
RUNWAY MARKINGS
20
20
Edge
20
20
Marking
20
20
Pre-threshold area of runway fit for movement Pre-threshold area of runway fit for use as a
of aircraft and available as starter extension for stopway by aircraft landing in the opposite direction
take-off but not available for landing but not fit for normal movement of aircraft
20
20
20
Pre-threshold area of runway Pre-threshold area of runway
unfit for the movement of aircraft fit for movement of aircraft and
and unsuitable as stopway available as starter extension
for take-off but not available
for landing
C C
C
ON CORRECT APPROACH
ON CORRECT PATHPATH
APPROACH
ON CORRECT APPROACH PATH
D D E E
D E
SLIGHTLY LOW
SLIGHTLY TOO LOWLOW
SLIGHTLY LOWLOW TOO TOO
LOW
(i) (ii)
(b) Runway Location Sign (c)Runway (iii) Sign
Direction (d)Direction
Runway De
(i) (ii) (iii) (b) Location Sign (c) Si
Designation Specific
Taxiway Location
Ending Taxiway
Runway Ending
Location Sign
Designation Specific
(a) TaxiwayLocation
Location Signs Taxiway Ending
(a) Taxiway Location Signs
09
Note the use of a hyphen to seperate
Note reciprocal
the use ofdesignators
09
a hyphen to seperate reciproc
and the use of a dot to seperate other designators
and the use of a dot to seperate other designa
(b) Runway Location Sign Direction
(c) Sign
Direction Sign Runway
(d) Runway Destination
Destination Sign Sign
(b) Runway Location Sign (c) Direction Sign (d) Runway Destination Sign
(f) Inbound D
The Skyway Code / Aerodrome Operations 104
here the ILS - Taxi-Holding Positions are co-incident are (i)
CAA / CAP 1535 / May 2019
t. A Visual or CAT I Taxi-Holding Position Sign may be
d or closer to the runway where it is necessary to expedite
.
AERODROME OPERATIONS >TAXIWAY SIGNS AND MARKINGS
Accompanying (i)theare
sign will also be
ng The signs atSign
Position - used
denotes
ground markings which indicate the
where ILSthe taxiway
CAT(ii)II
normally serves only one
runway direction. The signs at (ii) are used where
(i) the taxiway normally serves bot
27
sual/CAT I Taxi-Holding
holding point. These will two Position
solid yellowmay be
directions.
unway lines followed by two dashed
where it is necessary to expeditelines on
the runway side of the markings.
Where a runway Taxi-Holding Position serves more than one runway, the sign lay
ition Sign
Figure 3.5- isdenotes
used. ILS CAT II
AT I Taxi-Holding Position may be (i) (ii) II
27 27
where it is necessary to expedite
a)
(a)
ng Position Sign - marks the ILS CAT (ii)II
sual/CAT
LargerI aerodromes
Taxi-Holdingmay alsoPosition
have ‘guardmay be (i)
lights’ – normally these are placed in
27
unwaypairs
where it is necessary to expedite
either side of a runway holding
point and alternately flash yellow.
ition Sign - marks the ILS CAT II
AT I Taxi-Holding Position may be (i)
(ii)
where it is necessary to expedite A 27 CAT II 27 CAT II A
edite Sign
ition traffic- flow.
marks the ILS CAT III
The Skyway Code / Aerodrome Operations 105
Holding Position and a Visual/CAT (i)
CAA / CAP 1535 / May 2019
Boundary markers
Aerodrome boundary
Less relevant perhaps today than they once were, ground to air visual symbols date from the time
of many aircraft not having radios. Ground signals therefore had to be read from the air to ascertain
things like the direction of the landing runway.
The ‘signal square’ is still found at many GA aerodromes. It will normally be visible on the ground
close to the control tower. If you are flying non-radio, look out for this when commencing an
overhead join. Some signals may also be found on other parts of the aerodrome, such as near to
the runway or on the control tower.
12
A horizontal white or orange The landing direction/runway in
landing T in the signal square use may also be displayed in a
indicates the direction to be prominent place on the control
used by aircraft for landing and tower using black digits on a
taking off, which shall be in a yellow background.
direction parallel to the shaft of
the T towards the cross arm.
c
A cross on the surface of a A letter C displayed vertically
runway (white) or taxiway in black against a yellow
(yellow) indicates an area unfit background indicates the
for the movement of aircraft. location of the air traffic
services reporting office.
In the case of smaller
GA aerodromes, this is
also were the landing
fees are usually paid.
AERODROME OPERATIONS
Description:
(3) Point both arms
upward, move and extend Description:
(6a) Fully extend
Point both arms upward,
arms outward to sides of arms
Fullyand wandsarms
extend at a and
move
body andand
pointextend armsto
with wands Proceed to next signalman
90-degree angle to sides and
outward
direction to sides
of next of body
signalman or as directed by tower/ wands at a 90-degree angle No
slowly moveand
to sides to above
slowlyhead
move to
orand
taxi point
area. with wands to ground control. until wands cross.
direction of next signalman above head until wands
Meaning: Proceed to next
or taxi area. cross. Normal stop.
Meaning:
signalman or as directed by
tower/ground control.
(7a)
Description: Raise hand Description: Raise right arm
(9)
Raise
just above hand justheight
shoulder above to head level with wand
with open palm. Ensuring Raise up
pointing right
andarm
startto
a head level
shoulder height with open
eye contact with flighteye
crew, with wand
circular motionpointing
with hand;up and
palm. Ensuring contact
close hand into a fist. Do Not atstart a circular
the same motion
time, with left with
with flight crew, close
move until receipt of “thumbs
hand Set brakes. arm raised S
hand; at above head level,
the same time, with
into
up” a fist. Do Notfrom
acknowledgement move point to engine to be started.
left arm raised above head
untilcrew.
flight receipt of "thumbs up"
level, point
Meaning: Start to engine to be
engine(s).
acknowledgement from
Meaning: Set brakes. started.
flight crew.
(7b)
Description: Raise hand Description: Extend arm
(10)
Raise
just hand
above justheight
shoulder above with wand forward of body
with hand closed
shoulder heightin a with hand atExtend
shoulderarmlevel;with
movewand
fist. Ensuring forward
hand of body
and wand to top at shoulder
of left
closed in aeye contact
fist. Ensuring
with flight crew, open level; move
shoulder hand
and draw wandand wand
eye contact with
palm. Do not move until
flight crew, Release brakes. toto
toptop
of right shoulder in a and C
of left shoulder
openofpalm. Doup”not move slicing
receipt “thumbs drawmotion
wandacross
to topthroat.
of right
until receipt of "thumbs up"
acknowledgement
shoulder
Meaning: Cutinengine(s).
a slicing motion
acknowledgement
from crew. from
across throat.
crew.
Meaning: Release brakes.
(8a)
Description: With arms Description: Move extended
and wands fullyand
extending (11)downwards in a
arms
With arms wands fully
above head, move
extending above wands
head, move
Move extended
“patting” arms
gesture, moving
inwards
wandsininwards
a “jabbing” in a "jabbing" Chocks inserted. downwards
wands in afrom
up and down "patting"
motion until wands touch. waist to knees.
S
motion until wands touch. gesture, moving wands up
Ensure acknowledgement is and down
Ensurefrom
received acknowledgement
flight crew. is Meaning: Slowfrom
down.waist to
received from flight crew. knees.
Meaning: Chocks inserted.
CAP 637
P 637 Visual Aids Handbook
(18)
(14b) Point right arm
Description: Fully extend
Description: arms
Fully and
extend
with wandright
Point downarmand bring
with wand arms
wands and at
wands at a
a 90-degree angle
leftdown
arm from overhead 90-degree
to sides angle
and, to sides
with and,
palms M
and bring left arm
vertical position to horizontal Turns while backing (forwith
tail
palms
turned turnedmove
down, down, hands
from overhead vertical
position, repeating left-arm to port). move hands downwards.
position to horizontal
movement.
downwards.
Speed of movement
Speed of
position, repeating left-arm movement
indicates indicates
rate of descent. rate of
Meaning: Turns while
movement. descent.
backing (for tail to port). Meaning: Move downwards.
CAP 637
P 637 Visual Aids Handbook
Description:
(25) Hold arms fully
extended
Hold arms abovefully
head, open
extended
left hand horizontally
above head, open and
left hand
(21)
Description: Move right-
ENGINE move finger tips of right hand
hand wandright-hand
in a “fanning”
Move wand in a into a touch open palm of finger C
horizontally and move
motion from shoulder
motiontofrom tips of (forming
right hand into
"fanning" left hand a “T”). At a (t
knee, while at the same time touch open palm of can
left hand
shoulder to knee, while at Fire. night, illuminated wands
c
pointing with left-hand wand
the same also be usedato"T").
(forming form At
the night,
“T”
to area of fire. time pointing with
BRAKE left-hand wand to area of above head. wands can also
illuminated
fire. Fire.
Meaning: be usedConnect
Meaning: to form the "T"
ground
above
power head.
(technical/servicing
communication signal).
(26)
Hold arms fully extended
Description: Fully extend Description:
above head Hold armsfinger
with fully tips
arms and wands downwards
(22) extended
of rightabove
handhead with open
touching
at a 45-degree angle to sides. finger tips of right hand
Fully extend arms and horizontal palm of left hand
Hold position until aircraft is touching open horizontal
wands
clear downwards
for next manoeuvre. at a 45- (forming
palm a "T");
of left hand then amove
(forming D
Hold position/stand by.
degree angle to sides. Hold right
“T”); hand
then moveaway from the
right hand s
Meaning: Hold
position position/
until aircraft is clear left.from
away Dothenotleft.
disconnect
Do not s
stand
forby.
next manoeuvre. disconnect
power until power until
authorised by
authorised by flight
flight crew. At crew.
nightAt
night illuminated wands
illuminated wands can also can
also be used to form the “T”
be used
above head.to form the "T"
above head.
Meaning: Disconnect
power (technical/servicing
communication signal).
May 2007
GA RISKS
Including: 115
Pilot fitness >
117
Pilot competence >
119
Decision making >
122
Staying in control >
123
Avoiding the ground >
124
Avoiding collisions >
GA RISKS
The following chapter is not a comprehensive guide to risk mitigation in
GA; it simply highlights some common risks that pilots should be aware
of and how to think about mitigating them.
Key info !
Some of the top causes of fatal Behind many GA accidents also
GA accidents include: appear the themes of pilot:
Pilot fitness
A large number of aviation accidents identify pilot
fatigue or medical factors as contributory. Pilots
often get away with flying in a less than optimal
physical and mental condition, but it can have a
critical impact in the event of an emergency or
a more insidious issue that an alert pilot would
stand more chance of surviving.
Guidance ?
‘IM SAFE’ is a common mnemonic for self-
assessing fitness before flight:
GA RISKS
Pilot fitness
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
>> Even common ailments such as colds >> During a long day’s flying it is often easy
or medication for common issues such to neglect lunch – remember to take
as hayfever can have an effect on your something with you to eat and drink if
fitness to fly – check with an AME if you will not be able to have a sit down
you are unsure. They may be able to meal. Staying hydrated is important.
give you advice on which medications
are considered safe for flying. >> Oxygen should be used above 10,000 ft.
Be aware that the effects of hypoxia can
>> While flying is often a good way to get occur at lower altitudes, especially for
away from the stress of modern day life, smokers. At night use of oxygen above
this is best done on a calm summer’s 5,000 ft can improve night vision.
day with plenty of time to enjoy yourself
– not on a flight that might itself create >> Dress appropriately for the aircraft
stress, such as a long cross country in and time of year. Heater failures in GA
marginal weather with passengers. aircraft are not unknown and during
the winter this will be very unpleasant
>> If you are fatigued due to work or other if you do not have suitable clothing.
issues, give yourself plenty of time to
rest before flying – an early start after
a late night working should be avoided.
Also be aware of the cumulative effect
of fatigue – a long period of poor sleep
will not be overcome in a single night.
GA RISKS
Pilot competence
MAINTAINING SKILLS
Guidance ?
The average GA pilot only flies about 30 >> If undertaking a proficiency check, do
hours per year. Most would admit to not not be afraid to use the time to go over
always finding this enough to maintain subjects you are unsure of after the
proficiency in their chosen aircraft. check is complete – a good examiner
should be more than happy to do so.
While it may be sufficient for a simple
flight in good conditions, you may be >> If you have had a long period with your mind
surprised at how quickly handling skills and away from flying, set aside an amount of
recollection of operating procedures fade, time to review the speeds and procedures
particularly if overall experience is low. for your aircraft, local operating procedures
or any other pertinent subjects. Ease
Throw in some high winds, unfamiliar yourself back into it and wait until you are
aerodromes or airspace and quickly the lack fully up to speed before taking passengers.
of currency may become more apparent.
>> If flying a new aircraft, even if differences
>> Be realistic about your current skill training is not legally required, spend
level – while you should not be afraid lots of time reading the AFM and find
of taking on more challenging flights, a knowledgeable instructor who can
some refresher training with an instructor properly convert you onto type. Research
may be necessary before doing so any idiosyncrasies the type may have.
in more challenging conditions.
>> Doing something new like aerobatics
>> Often it is pilots with some experience or converting onto a new type of
that have accidents, rather than those who aircraft can also be rewarding and is
have just gained their licence. As you build a good way to improve your skills.
experience, but with the memory of the
training environment fading, be wary of >> The General Aviation Safety Council
allowing bad habits to creep in. Pursuing (GASCo) produce a ‘personal currency
further training towards additional ratings chart’ which can be downloaded from
and refresher training with an instructor their website – www.gasco.org.uk.
is a good way to guard against this.
Guidance ?
>> If you have an SEP (or similar) rating you
Many GA Associations have pilot proficiency
will be required to have had an hour’s
schemes approved under the CAA’s Pilot
flying with an instructor every two years.
Recognition for Operational Up-skilling and
Use this time to revise areas you may
Development ‘PROUD’ framework. They are
be rusty on, such as short field landings,
a good way to challenge yourself to improve
steep turns or practice forced landings.
your flying. Search for “CAA PROUD”
online to find a scheme that suits you.
Pilot competence
ATTITUDES
Guidance ?
Attitudes to risk will always vary, especially in It can be tempting to abridge the pre-flight
the broad church of general aviation. Overall check or not bother to check NOTAMs, on
an attitude that is thoughtful and cautious the basis that there is rarely anything critical.
will stand you in good stead for GA flying.
Remember: It could happen to you.
There are a few specific attitudes that have been
consistently identified as being factors in poor >> Macho – thankfully perhaps less common
decision making and the cause of accidents: today than it once was, a macho attitude
is essentially one that sees risk-taking as
>> Anti-authority – aviation regulations a positive thing and a challenge to rise to.
sometimes have a reputation for being For example, pushing on into poor weather
ineffective or irrelevant. However, for the in the belief that you are tough enough to
most part the basic operating rules for GA handle it or taking risks to impress others.
have developed from harsh experience.
Remember: Taking unnecessary
Following the rules will not guarantee
risks is foolish.
safety; however breaking them will
likely expose you to additional risks.
>> Resignation – with so many different
Remember: The rules are factors to contend with when flying, it is
there for a reason. sometimes tempting to believe that you
have no influence on outcomes and that
>> Impulsiveness – accidents often seem fate will run its course regardless of how
to involve actions that are inexplicable you act. While some accidents appear to
or out of character for the individuals betray the hand of fate in a way no one
involved. Pilots who are ‘usually so careful’ could have foreseen, these are generally
occasionally seem to do things that appear the exception. Many GA accidents would
to be quite reckless. One explanation is that not have happened had better decisions
situational pressures overcome peoples’ been made before or during the flight.
ability to make rational judgements and the
Remember: You are the master of
impulse to ‘just do something’ takes over.
your own destiny. Take decisive
Remember: You must always think action to achieve a safe outcome.
before you act, regardless of how much
pressure there is to act on impulse. Guidance ?
Everyone at one point or another will likely
>> Complacency – people often believe bad
display elements of a risky attitude. The trick is to
things only happen to others. One of the
remember that all humans are vulnerable to this
most enduring truths about aviation is that the
and remember what the ‘antidote’ attitudes are.
hazards within it treat all who enter equally.
GA RISKS
Decision making
Good decision making is one of the first lines of defence against risk since it allows for risks to
be avoided or mitigated, rather than relying purely on skill or luck to manage them.
There is a large amount of material available about aeronautical decision making and how human
factors influence it; far more than can reproduced here. Fundamentally, good decision making is
about assessing the risks associated with different decision making options and then acting on it
appropriately.
The pre-flight check (see p.06) list at the There are some key principles to
start is designed as an aid to remembering follow and factors to consider as part
most of the common things that need to be of good decision making practice:
considered before flight, however it is also
important to assess the overall risks of a flight Knowledge and information
and pick up on particular ones that need to
be considered, mitigated or eliminated. >> Review all the appropriate information
relating to the flight such as weather,
The ‘PAVE’ checklist is a more NOTAMs, the route and aerodromes.
thematic way of assessing this. Without this you will not have the
appropriate information to base your
The items listed below are just examples decisions on. Develop a routine that involves
that might fit into the themes; consider your chosen sources. Use a planning
all possible factors around a flight: checklist to ensure you do not miss any.
Decision making
Attitudes >> Avoid exposing yourself to pressure to
complete a flight – for example, planning
>> Have a realistic understanding of one such that delays due to weather or
your skills and capabilities. aircraft serviceability would place you in
a difficult situation such as needing to
>> Adopt a cautious attitude to decision return for an important work meeting.
making, always checking information and
carefully considering the different factors. >> Never put yourself in a position where
you would not feel able to cancel a
>> Adopt a risk-based approach – identify risks flight or turn back after starting one.
such as weather or lack of currency. If you
identify a number of risks on a particular >> Manage the expectations of others.
flight, question whether it is sensible to Explain the limitations of flying in light
proceed. Consider modifying your plans aircraft to passengers and why it is
to reduce some of the risk factors. sometimes not safe to fly due to weather
or aircraft serviceability issues.
>> Always ask the ‘what if?’ question – for
example, if the weather is worse than Time and capacity
forecast or you are unexpectedly delayed.
>> When making pre-flight decisions, give
>> Take positive decisions to respond to yourself time to review information free
information and manage risks – do not from distractions. Give extra time to
proceed on the basis of “waiting to see account for things such as passengers or
what happens” or “hoping it will be OK”. potential aerodrome-related delays. Do
not place yourself under time pressure.
>> Re-evaluate situations when you have
new information or when new factors >> Make decisions in good time. Be wary
emerge – do they require you to adopt of delaying decisions such as whether
a different course of action? Take a to divert due to weather on the basis
balanced view of information – be wary of that you can “wait and see” what
discounting it just because it contradicts happens. You may miss the window of
your existing understanding of a situation. opportunity to ensure a safe outcome.
>> Be wary of the so called ‘hazardous >> In the air, think ahead of the aircraft so that
attitudes’ and recognise them if they you can anticipate what decisions will have
start to influence your thinking. to be made, such as what type of circuit join
to conduct at your destination or whether
External influences to ask for a transit of controlled airspace.
>> Ensure you are fit to fly – you may not take >> Anticipate and control developments
good decisions if you are distracted, fatigued in the flight rather than simply reacting
or unwell. Even being hungry or dehydrated to them. For example, use time in the
might cause you to lose concentration. cruise to the next phase of flight, when
you might have less mental capacity.
Decision making
>> Be competent in the management of the Threat and error management TEM
aircraft and its systems. This helps decision
making insofar as it relieves mental capacity >> TEM is the practical summation of threat
to make decisions, rather than having to and error management for pilots. It’s a way
focus unduly on controlling the aircraft or of thinking in advance what could go wrong
operating its systems such as avionics. on any particular flight just in case it does.
GA RISKS
Staying in control
Key info ! Guidance ?
Many loss of control accidents occur during Specifically:
the take-off or approach phases of flight,
often resulting in departure from the runway >> Know the correct speeds for your aircraft
surface and in worst cases, low level stalls in all phases of flight, including stall
and/or spins that cannot be recovered from. (clean and with flap) and best glide.
>> Remember that an aircraft stalls at a
It is difficult to generalise as to why
particular angle of attack, which as g-loading
these accidents happen, although some
increases, will occur at a higher airspeed.
recurring themes appear to be:
In a 2g manoeuvre the stall angle of attack
is reached at a 41% higher airspeed.
>> Distraction;
>> Be proficient in slow flight and stall
>> Poor handing technique; recognition/recovery techniques.
GA RISKS
>> When there is either frontal convective or >> In poor weather and turbulence you
foggy weather around, it can be hard to may not have the mental capacity to
predict exactly what conditions at a certain use them properly – you will be too
point will be. Study the weather carefully and focused on controlling the aircraft.
consider options in different scenarios should
>> Would you still be able to navigate
the weather be worse than anticipated
confidently if they failed?
– calculate altitudes that if forced below
by weather, you will turn back or divert.
GA RISKS
Avoiding collisions
Key info !
Unfortunately, there is at least one mid- >> Avoid aerodromes or other hazardous
air collision in the UK most years. More airspace reservations like glider sites. Note
than 100 ‘airproxes’ are reported to the cable launch heights on your chart. Be
the UK Airprox Board every year. aware gliders do not confine themselves to
the overhead of their operating sites or the
Almost all mid-air collisions occur in good VMC immediate vicinity of it. Gliders will often
at relatively low level, reflecting the areas in congregate around an area of thermals – if
which the chances of aircraft being in close you see one, there will likely be others.
proximity to each other are highest. Around
>> Hang gliders and para gliders often launch
half of mid-air collisions in the UK happen
from, and congregate around, hill sites facing
near aerodromes, with many in the circuit.
into wind, often in large numbers. These
sites are not shown on charts, but some can
It is a common observation that separation in
be activated by NOTAM. An active site may
uncontrolled airspace is achieved as much by
contain tens of gliders circling in ‘gaggles’
the ‘big sky’ (i.e. by chance) as it is by ‘see-and-
and they are likely to depart on cross country
avoid’. It is now well understood that even when
routes, normally in a downwind direction.
operating a very effective visual scan, most
pilots will not achieve a 100% detection rate, >> Randomise your cruising levels. There is
especially if the conflicting aircraft is outside no requirement in the UK for VFR flights to
the area normally visible from the cockpit. The follow ‘semi-circular’ rules (although there
risk of collisions can never be mitigated entirely; may be in other states), so sometimes
however by taking a number of precautions you fly at different altitudes like 2200 ft
can stack the odds of survival in your favour. instead of round figures like 2000 ft.
GA RISKS
Avoiding collisions
THE VISUAL SCAN
Despite the recognition of its flaws, an effective should shift by about 10º per movement.
‘look out’ will go a long way to mitigating the risk 15º is around the normal width within
of collision. Ensuring the windscreen is clean which the eyes can focus on a particular
and clear of dead insects which might obscure area, so 10º allows for some overlap.
the dot of a conflicting aircraft is also important.
It is usually easier to remove dead insects There is no single correct way to maintain
immediately after a flight, which also saves time an effective look out scan. There are
for when you (or someone else) next go flying. however two methods that have been
identified as being effective techniques:
For VFR operations, you should aim to
have your eyes inside the cockpit no more >> Side to side scanning method: Start
than ¼ of the time. The rest of the time you at the far left of your visual area and
should be looking outside. Provided you hold a make a methodical sweep to the right,
steady visual attitude, there is no reason why pausing for a couple of seconds in each
the aircraft should climb or descend while you ‘block’ of the viewing area to focus
are looking outside. Adopting a systematic your eyes. At the end of the scan,
approach to scanning the view outside the return to and scan the instrument panel
cockpit will help you maintain an effective and then repeat the external scan.
look out as well as giving you time to check
direction and altitude on your instruments. >> Front-to-side scanning method: Start
in the centre block of your visual field,
move to the left, focusing very briefly on
>> In general you should move your eyes
each ‘block’, then swing quickly back to
(and head as necessary) in short and
the centre block after reaching the last
regularly spaced movements that bring
block on the left and repeat the action
successive areas of the sky into the central
to the right. Then, after scanning the
visual field. You should pause for at least
instrument panel, repeat the external scan.
a second to refocus on the new area and
detect any aircraft. The centre of focus
2s 2s 2s 2s 2s 2s 2s 2s 2s
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Side-to-side
scanning method
2s 2s 2s 2s 2s 2s 2s 2s 2s
5 4 3 2 1
6 7 8 9 10
Front-to-side
scanning method
Avoiding collisions
>> ‘Block’ means an area that can be focused USE OF ATS
on at one time in the normal field of view.
Talking to ATC and obtaining a Traffic
>> Inevitably there will be times in which you
Information Service will also reduce the
will have to keep your eyes in the cockpit
risks. Remember that a Basic Service does
for longer than is ideal – for example, to
not include guaranteed traffic information.
change a radio frequency or if an engine
gauge is causing concern. Try not to get
You should always consider which of the nearby
fixated on this, and look back outside every
ATSUs will provide the best mitigation against
few seconds. Consciously re-establish the
other traffic – for example, if passing close to
scan once the interruption has passed.
an aerodrome, it may be best to contact them.
>> If you are flying with another pilot,
or a passenger you have educated
on ‘looking out’, tell them you are
going ‘eyes down’ so that they know
to keep an extra keen look out.
GA RISKS
Avoiding collisions
ELECTRONIC CONSPICUITY (EC) More recently they often also
incorporate ADS-B In and Out functions,
Guidance ? broadcasting the aircraft’s position
and detecting other ADS-B signals.
It is a legal requirement that if your aircraft is
equipped with a transponder, you should use >> FLARM – was originally developed for
it to its full capabilities. This allows ATC to get gliders. Early versions were essentially
more information than via a primary contact, proprietary since they transmitted and
and also allows the Traffic Collision Avoidance received the position of other FLARM
Systems (TCAS) on larger aircraft to detect you. users on their own (non-aeronautical
band) frequency. Later versions can also
Transponders work on the principle of receive ADS-B and transponder signals.
transmitting a signal (including altitude
in the case of mode C or S) after being >> Other ADS-B based EC – these broadcast
‘interrogated’ by a signal from a secondary the aircraft’s position and/or receive
radar station on the ground. the position of other equipped aircraft
(depending on the device) via ADS-B.
More recently, technologies such as ADS-B Note: ADS-B systems that are designed for use in aircraft
(Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast) that do not have a transponder and use downlink format
have emerged that have the potential to (DF) 18 are not visible to airborne traffic advisory/collision
bring forms of EC to a much wider audience avoidance systems. See the CAA’s publication on EC devices
at www.caa.co.uk/cap1391 for more details.
than available with traditional transponder
technologies, since they require less electrical
power. ADS-B works on the principle of taking
the aircraft’s position from a navigation source VISUAL CONSPICUITY
(for example the aircraft’s GPS) and then
broadcasting it (known as ADS-B ‘Out’) for Use of lights and aircraft colour can have an
ADS-B receivers (known as ADS-B ‘In’) to detect. influence on how effectively you can be seen
by other aircraft. Strobes and anti-collision
For light aircraft a variety of traffic awareness beacons should be on at all times after entering
systems are available to enhance your the runway environment. Landing lights should
electronic conspicuity and the detection be on once approaching an airfield and at all
of other aircraft. They are available with times when in areas of high traffic density.
different levels of sophistication. The following
provides a very brief summary of what is an Colours like black are actually more likely to
exciting area of developing technology: show up against the ground or sky, whereas
white or patterns that break up the outline
>> Traffic advisory systems – these work of the aircraft will tend to visually merge into
on a similar principle to TCAS systems a predominantly grey background. If you are
found on larger aircraft. They interrogate based in an area of high traffic density, consider
the transponders of other aircraft, thereby what impact the colour of your aircraft might
determining their position and relative be having on your visibility to other aircraft.
movement. They require other aircraft to
have at least a Mode C transponder.
EMERGENCIES
Including: 129
General Principles >
129 Mayday or Pan call format >
130 Distress and Diversion Cell (D&D) >
132
Lost >
132 Loss of communications >
132
Electrical failure >
134
Engine failure >
135
Fire >
135
Ditching >
136 Incident and accident reporting >
08.
140
Interception procedures >
EMERGENCIES
The following information is intended to be a general guide to emergency
considerations. It is not intended to replace the specific procedures for
particular aircraft, which you should be familiar with. Take time, for
example when the weather is poor, to review the emergency procedures
that you need to memorise for your aircraft.
General principles
>> Know your aircraft – be familiar with >> Assess the situation – once the aircraft
the speeds and actions listed in the is under control, take a moment to
AFM for particular emergencies. assess the situation; do not jump to
conclusions about what the problem is.
>> Fly the aircraft – many accidents
happen when faults that should not >> Declare an emergency – if in doubt, declare
have been fatal, distract from the an emergency in good time. It is easier to
task of keeping the aircraft flying. cancel a distress call if the situation is later
resolved than wait until it may be too late. If
not talking to an ATSU at the time, call 121.5.
>> Urgency: “Pan Pan, Pan Pan, Pan Pan” >> Any other relevant information, such as
pilot qualifications or persons on board
Followed by:
>> Intentions
EMERGENCIES
EMERGENCIES
Explanation Exchange
Explanation Exchange
Commencing the call with the Training Fix request
“Training fix Training Fix
gives the controller the opportunity to understand
Training Fix G-DOME
that this is not a real urgency situation, but also
request Training Fix.”
gives them time to triangulate your position.
EMERGENCIES
Lost
With the widespread use of GPS systems, >> Prior to establishing contact with either an
cases of being completely lost are thankfully ATSU or D&D, squawk 0030 – this will alert
rarer than they once were. However, such other ATSUs that there is a lost aircraft.
systems are not universally carried, and
even if they are (which is recommended), >> Orbit near any prominent landmarks
they can be misinterpreted or fail. that could be described to ATC. Do
not continue to fly aimlessly.
>> If in contact with an ATSU that has radar,
ask them to clarify your position.
Loss of communications
>> Many apparent communication failures >> Once overhead an aerodrome, observe
are caused by incorrect setting of the the signal square and circuit. Watch for
radios – check basic issues like volume, other traffic and any light signals from
squelch, frequency and audio selector the ground. Land once you believe it is
panel settings before concluding you have safe to do so and report your landing to
actually experienced a radio failure. the relevant ATSU as soon as possible.
>> If you really have lost communications, set >> A good mitigation against loss of
7600 on the transponder, maintain VMC and communications is to carry a handheld
proceed to the nearest suitable aerodrome. A radio and suitable headset adaptor.
quiet one outside controlled airspace is best. However, these often have short
range, particularly at low level.
Electrical failure
>> Alternator failure is a common cause of >> Expect to lose radio communications
electrical failure. Depending on condition, once the battery fails.
you might have power for a limited
period (perhaps 20 minutes) from the >> Know which systems in your aircraft
battery but this will drain quickly. are electrical, for example flaps, and
be prepared to land without them.
>> Minimise use of anything that uses electrical
power (for example lights) to prolong battery
life. Try to maintain VMC and proceed
to the nearest suitable aerodrome.
EMERGENCIES
Engine failure
>> Know your best glide speed and >> If faced with prospect of
procedures for your aircraft. landing in a field, assess:
>> Particularly at low level, focus on maintaining >> Wind direction – try to land into wind;
speed and control. Provided you keep the >> Size – the bigger the better;
aircraft at flying speed and under control,
engine failures are unlikely to be fatal. >> Surroundings – avoid power
lines or other obstructions;
>> If a failure happens shortly after take-off,
>> Shape – square gives the best
landing ahead is safer than attempting to
range of touch down options;
turn back. Assess the area immediately
in front of you and pick the place that >> Surface – grass is one of the
is likely to cause the least damage. better surfaces, ploughed fields
or crops are less desirable since
>> If you have some height, check for they may flip the aircraft; and
common causes of failure such as fuel
tank selection or carb icing – know >> Slope – avoid significant slopes.
the specific drill for your aircraft.
>> You should consider what would happen in
>> Partial engine failures can confuse the the event of a forced landing – for example
decision making process. Assess whether if planning to fly over the Scottish mountains
the failure is likely to become worse – for in the winter, it would be prudent to have
example if rapidly losing oil pressure, the warm clothing and appropriate provisions in
engine may not run for much longer. Take the aircraft, including cooking apparatus.
a positive decision to either put down in a
field or continue to an aerodrome, depending
on your judgement of the problem.
EMERGENCIES
Engine failure
1
2 Aiming point
Wind
3
If too high
If too low
A commonly taught forced landing technique 3 Fly an arc around the edge of the field,
is that of the ‘constant aspect’. The full pattern tightening or widening the turn to keep
assumes a height of around 2000 ft or more, the visual angle constant. If you intend
although the main principle of it applies at any to land with full flap or lower the landing
height. Assuming you are sitting on the left, it is gear, aim further into the field to account
much easier to compete in a left hand direction. for the extra drag once you deploy them.
EMERGENCIES
Fire
ON THE GROUND IN THE AIR
>> Every aircraft has a checklist, which >> The engine or electrical system are
includes what to do in the event of the most likely sources of fire.
emergency’s including fire. This must
take priority over anything and it’s always >> In the case of an engine fire in a single
good to know these checklists by heart. engine aircraft, shut down and perform
a forced landing as soon as possible.
>> The most likely time is when starting the If the fire does not go out, lowering
engine. Be prepared to cut the mixture, landing gear, flap and/or slide slipping are
turn off the fuel and vacate the aircraft. potential ways to lose altitude faster.
>> It is often recommended that you keep >> Electrical fires can sometimes be prevented
cranking the engine and (once the mixture by early detection and isolation of the
and fuel is at cut-off) open the throttle source – for example if a circuit breakers
fully. This should draw the fire back into pops, be wary of resetting it and never
the engine. However, if the fire has not reset more than once – it may cause a fire.
stopped shortly after cutting the mixture,
vacate the aircraft and move upwind. >> If a burning smell is detected, try to
determine if it is coming from a particular
source and if electrical, isolate by
pulling the relevant circuit breaker.
Ditching
Ditching characteristics vary between aircraft >> It is strong recommended that you
– know the procedures for your aircraft. carry a liferaft if crossing any significant
body of water – such as the English
>> If you have determined that the Channel. Especially during the winter
carriage of lifejackets is required and/ months, you are unlikely to survive for
or desirable, it is strongly recommended more than an hour immersed in the
that in a single engine aircraft, these water unless wearing a survival suit.
are worn at all times un-inflated.
>> For more details on surviving ditching,
see GA Safety Leaflet on ditching.
www.caa.co.uk/safetysense.
EMERGENCIES
EMERGENCIES
Interception procedures
Interception is a very unusual event to occur to a GA aircraft; however it is a requirement for EASA
aircraft flying under Part-NCO and for all aircraft flying internationally to carry the interception
procedures specified in ICAO Annex 2 (Rules of the Air) and the SERA. These are reproduced below.
SERA.11015 Interception
>> (a) Except for intercept and escort >> (4) if equipped with SSR transponder,
service provided on request to an aircraft, select Mode A, Code 7700, unless
interception of civil aircraft shall be otherwise instructed by the
governed by appropriate regulations and appropriate air traffic services unit;
administrative directives issued by Member
>> (5) if equipped with ADS-B or
States in compliance with the Convention on
ADS-C, select the appropriate
International Civil Aviation, and in particular
emergency functionality, if available,
Article 3(d) under which ICAO Contracting
unless otherwise instructed by the
States undertake, when issuing regulations
appropriate air traffic services unit.
for their State aircraft, to have due regard
for the safety of navigation of civil aircraft.
EMERGENCIES
Interception procedures
Table S11-1: Signals initiated by intercepting aircraft and responses by intercepted aircraft
EMERGENCIES
Interception procedures
Table S11-2: Signals initiated by intercepting aircraft and responses by intercepted aircraft
>> (c) If any instructions received by radio from >> (e) If radio contact is established during
any sources conflict with those given by interception but communication in a
the intercepting aircraft by visual signals, common language is not possible, attempts
the intercepted aircraft shall request shall be made to convey instructions,
immediate clarification while continuing acknowledgement of instructions and
to comply with the visual instructions essential information by using the phrases
given by the intercepting aircraft. and pronunciations in Table S11-3 and
transmitting each phrase twice:
>> (d) If any instructions received by radio from
any sources conflict with those given by the
intercepting aircraft by radio, the intercepted
aircraft shall request immediate clarification
while continuing to comply with the radio
instructions given by the intercepting aircraft.
EMERGENCIES
Interception procedures
Table S11-3
Phrases for use by INTERCEPTING aircraft Phrases for use by INTERCEPTED aircraft
Phrase Pronunciation1 Meaning Phrase Pronunciation1 Meaning
CALL SIGN KOL SA-IN What is your CALL SIGN KOL SA-IN My call sign
call sign? (call sign)2 (call sign) is (call sign)
FOLLOW FOL-LO Follow me WILCO VILL-KO Understood,
will comply
DESCEND DEE-SEND Descend for
landing
CAN NOT KANN NOTT Unable to comply
YOU LAND YOULAAND Land at this REPEAT REE-PEET Repeat your
aerodrome instruction
AM LOST AMLOSST Position unknown
PROCEED PRO-SEED You may proceed
MAYDAY MAYDAY I am in distress
HIJACK3 HI-JACK I have been
hijacked
LAND (place LAAND (place I request to land
name) name) at (place name)
DESCEND DEE-SEND I require descent
>> (f) As soon as an air traffic services unit >> (3) establish contact with the intercept
learns that an aircraft is being intercepted control unit maintaining two-way
in its area of responsibility, it shall take communication with the intercepting
such of the following steps as are aircraft and provide it with available
appropriate in the circumstances: information concerning the aircraft;
>> (1) attempt to establish two-way >> (4) relay messages between the
communication with the intercepted intercepting aircraft or the intercept
aircraft via any means available, control unit and the intercepted
including the emergency radio aircraft, as necessary;
frequency 121,5 MHz, unless such
>> (5) in close coordination with
communication already exists;
the intercept control unit take all
>> (2) inform the pilot of the intercepted necessary steps to ensure the
aircraft of the interception; safety of the intercepted aircraft;
EMERGENCIES
Interception procedures
>> (g) As soon as an air traffic services unit
learns that an aircraft is being intercepted
outside its area of responsibility, it shall
take such of the following steps as are
appropriate in the circumstances:
>> (1) inform the air traffic services unit
serving the airspace in which the
interception is taking place, providing
this unit with available information
that will assist in identifying the
aircraft and requesting it to take
action in accordance with (f);
>> (2) relay messages between the
intercepted aircraft and the appropriate
air traffic services unit, the intercept
control unit or the intercepting aircraft.
TABLES AND
CODES
Including: 146
Crosswind component >
147 Distance, weight and volume >
147 Weather abbreviations >
150
Morse code >
Crosswind component
50 REP
OR
TE
DW
IN
10º
D
SP
20º
EE
40 D
-K
º
30
HEADWIND
N
O
COMPONENT
TS
º
40
- KNOTS
WIND DIRECTION
30 º RELATIVE TO
50
RUNWAY
º
60
20
70º
10
80º
DIRECTION OF FLIGHT
90º CROSSWIND
RUNWAY
0
10 20 30 40 50 COMPONENT
- KNOTS
100º
10
10
20
110
º
EXAMPLE:
20
30
12
0º
WIND SPEED 20
KNOTS. ANGLE BETWEEN
13 RUNWAY AND DIRECTION
40
0º
OF WIND 60º. CROSSWIND
30 COMPONENT - 17 KNOTS.
TAILWIND HEADWIND COMPONENT -
14
50
10 KNOTS.
0º
COMPONENT
- KNOTS
15
0º
40
160
170º
º
180º
50
Weather abbreviations
These are relevant to TAFs, METARs and Metform 215.
AT CAT CS FEW
At Clear air turbulence Cirrostratus Few clouds (1-2 oktas)
AUTO CAVOK CU FC
Automated report Ceiling and Cumulus Funnel cloud
visibility OK
BC DEG FG
Patches CB Degrees Fog
Cumulonimbus
BECMG DP FM
Becoming CC Dew point From
Cirrocumulus
BKN DR FPM
Broken clouds CI Drifting Feet per minute
(5-7 oktas) Cirrus
DS FRQ
BL CLD Dust storm Frequent
Blowing Cloud
DU FU
BLW CLR Widespread dust Smoke
Below Clear
DZ FZ
BR COR Drizzle Freezing
Mist Correction
EMBD G
BTN COT Embedded Gust
Between At the coast
Weather abbreviations
GEN LSQ MTW PO
Generally Line squall Mountain wave Dust devils
GR LV NC PROB
Hail Light and variable No change Probability
GS LYR NCD PS
Small hail/snow pellets Layer(s) layered No cloud detected Plus
(auto reports only)
H M PSYS
High pressure centre Less than 0º NDV Pressure system
(temperature) No directional variation
HPA PY
Hectopascals M NIL Spray
Less than lowest None
HZ reportable RVR RA
Haze NM Rain
M Nautical miles
IC Metres RMK
Ice crystals NOSIG Remarks
MAX No significant change
INTSF Maximum RVR
Intensifying NS Runway visual range
MI Nimbostratus
ISOL Shallow (for example RWY
Isolated mist or fog) NSC Runway
No significant cloud
JTST MNM SA
Jet stream Minimum N, S, E, W, NE, SW, Sand
SSW etc
KM MOD North, South, East, SC
Kilometres Moderate West, North East etc Stratocumulus
Weather abbreviations
SG TROP WSPD
Snow grains Tropopause Wind speed
SH TS WX
Showers Thunderstorm Weather
SIG TURB Z
Significant Turbulence Zulu Time (UTC/GMT)
SKC U
Sky clear Upward (tendency
in RVR)
SN
Snow UP
Unidentified
SP precipitation (auto
Snow pellets reports only)
SPECI VA
Special report Volcanic ash
SQ VAL
Squalls In valleys
SS VC
Sandstorm In the vicinity (of
the aerodrome)
ST
Stratus VIS
Visibility
STNR
Stationary VRB
Variable
T
Temperature VSP
Vertical speed
TCU
Towering cumulus VV
Vertical visibility
TEMPO
Temporarily WDSPR
Widespread
TL
Until WRNG
Warning
TOP
Cloud top WS
Wind shear
Morse code
Phonetic alphabet and Morse code
Letter Code Word Pronunciation
A • – Alfa AL FAH
B – ••• Bravo BRAH VOH
C – •–• Charlie CHAR LEE or SHAR LEE
D – •• Delta DELL TAH
E • Echo ECK OH
F ••–• Foxtrot FOKS TROT
G ––• Golf GOLF
H •••• Hotel HOH TEL
I •• India IN DEE AH
J •––– Juliett JEW LEE ETT
K –•– Kilo KEY LOH
L •–•• Lima LEE MAH
M –– Mike MIKE
N –• November NO VEM BER
O ––– Oscar OSS CAH
P •––• Papa PAH PAH
Q ––•– Quebec KEH BECK
R •–• Romeo ROW ME OH
S ••• Sierra SEE AIR RAH
T – Tango TANG GO
U ••– Uniform YOU NEE FORM or OO NEE FORM
V •••– Victor VIK TAH
W •–– Whiskey WISS KEY
X –••– X-ray ECKS RAY
Y –•–– Yankee YANG KEY
Z ––•• Zulu ZOO LOO
Morse code
Phonetic alphabet and Morse code
Numeral or numeral Code Pronunciation
element
1 •–––– WUN
2 ••––– TOO
3 •••–– TREE
4 ••••– FOW-er
5 ••••• FIFE
6 –•••• SIX
7 ––••• SEV-en
8 –––•• AIT
9 ––––• NIN-er
0 ––––– ZE-RO
Decimal Thousand DAY-SEE-MAL TOU-SAND
INTERNATIONAL
FLIGHT
Including: 153 Foreign regulations and requirements >
154 Safety equipment and considerations >
154
Flight plans >
157
Documents >
158 Customs, immigration and police >
159 Non-ICAO compliant aircraft or pilot licenses >
INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT
Venturing outside the UK will require knowledge of the requirements and
considerations applicable to flying abroad.
It is worth doing a bit of general research into your intended destination and
the experiences of others who have flown there. An up-to-date flight guide
for the state will also contain a lot of useful information.
>> Many flying clubs or schools offer a so called >> In general, the principles of pre-fight planning
‘cross-channel check flight’ which will be remain the same when flying abroad,
a valuable exercise for understanding the although you should pay additional attention
additional considerations for flying abroad. to NOTAMs and carefully read the AIP entries
of the foreign aerodromes you are visiting.
INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT
Flight plans
As was described in the Pre-flight planning chapter (see p.49), it is a requirement to file a flight plan
for international flights. For more information on UK flight planning procedures, see ENR 1.10 of
the UK AIP. If using the flight planing facilities of another state, ENR 1.10 of the relevant AIP should
be consulted.
FILING
Most flight plan filing is now done online, either >> If for some reason you are unable to
using the Assisted Flight Planning Exchange access the internet and are not at an
Service (AFPEX) or other online and tablet airfield with an ATSU capable of submitting
computer-based flight planning services. your FPL, you may fax it to the CACC
These systems interface with the Aeronautical at Swanwick on 01489 612793.
Fixed Telecommunication Network (AFTN).
It is worth doing some research into which >> A flight plan should be filed 60 minutes or
online platform you find easiest to use. more prior to the estimated off-blocks time.
Flight plans
>> If you are delayed by more than 30 >> Any foreign FIRs that you
minutes from the filed departure time, are passing through.
you must submit a delay message,
either through the ATSU, AFPEX or Further specific addressing details
failing that, to the AFPEX helpdesk. can be found in section ENR 1.11 of
the AIP for the relevant state.
>> It is possible to file a full flight plan in-flight
through London or Scottish Information, FORM COMPLETION AND ROUTING
but this is best avoided due to the amount
of information needed to transmit. ‘I wish
There is further guidance available on the
to file an airborne flight plan’ is the correct
AFPEX website for completion of the FPL
way of phrasing the initial request.
form. Follow links to help and training at
www.flightplanningonline.co.uk. In general, the
ADDRESSING flight plan routes should be described using:
It is recommended that you follow the guidance These points should generally be not
available for addressing in AFPEX at more than 30 minutes flying time apart.
www.flightplanningonline.co.uk and in the Do not use aerodrome designators.
online flight plan form itself. This will aid
addressing the flight plan correctly to those In the case of crossing the FIR boundary into/
units connected to the AFTN. As a general from French airspace, the crossing point (for
rule, flight plans should be addressed to: example ORTAC is a common one) should be
included in the route, and the elapsed flight
>> Departure, destination and alternate time to the FIR boundary included in Item 18
aerodromes – ICAO code followed by ZTZX of the FPL form. For example, EET/LFFF0145
(for example EGKKZTZX would be Gatwick); would indicate you planned to cross into the
relevant Paris FIR 01:45 minutes into the flight.
>> In the UK, the London FIR – EGZYVFRT
and/or Scottish FIR – EGZYVFRP;
INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT
Flight plans
ACTIVATION AND CLOSURE
Flight plan messages are distributed via the >> In the UK, if arriving outside the hours of
AFTN. Assuming the destination aerodrome is operation of the destination aerodrome’s
connected to it, filing a flight plan makes the ATSU, or if the there is no ATSU
relevant ATSU aware of an inbound aircraft. connected to the AFTN, then overdue
action will not be initiated in the event
After filing, a VFR flight plan needs activating of failure to arrive. It is therefore strongly
on departure. If departing from an aerodrome recommended to nominate someone
with an operating ATSU, they should be who will phone the AFPEX Helpdesk in
able to activate it for you, assuming they are the event of you failing to arrive when
connected to the AFTN; if in doubt simply planned – this is sometimes referred to
ask before departure. If not you may: as nominating a ‘responsible person’.
INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT
Documents
Depending on the type of aircraft you are flying, Particularly if flying an aircraft based in Europe,
the requirements may vary. The following list but not on the registry of a European state,
will generally cover everything that would be you are recommended to also carry details
required under EASA or ICAO regulations: of the aircraft being in ‘free circulation’ with
all taxes such as VAT appropriately paid.
>> Approved Flight Manual;
INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT
For flights to and from the EU, there are generally It is also a requirement when leaving most
no restrictions on where you can arrive and depart states, including the Schengen area, to
from the UK. For other destinations you will need depart from a designated aerodrome and
to use an aerodrome that has at least a ‘Certificate give any prior notice of your departure that
of Agreement’ for customs and immigration may be required at that aerodrome.
purposes. Full details of this can be found in the
general aviation report guidance linked above.
**subject to agreements in place with other country’s this
information may not be valid post March 29th 2019. Please
ensure you check with the relevant authority.
INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT
FINDING OUT
MORE
Including: 161
Airspace >
162
Safety >
163
Regulatory >
INFORMATION
AIRSPACE
The Airspace & Safety Initiative (ASI) is a joint The UK Radiotelephony Manual (CAP 413) aims
CAA, NATS, Airport Operators Association to provide pilots, Air Traffic Services personnel
(AOA), GA and MoD project to investigate and and aerodrome drivers with a compendium
tackle the major safety risks in UK airspace. of clear, concise, standard phraseology and
associated guidance for radiotelephony
The initiative aims to encourage good practice communication in United Kingdom airspace.
for all pilots, to help reduce airspace incidents
such as infringements of controlled airspace. UK Flight Information Services
– www.caa.co.uk/cap774
Fly on Track – www.flyontrack.co.uk
The UK Flight Information Services (CAP 774)
Fly on Track is an independent website for details the suite of air traffic services (ATS) which
private pilots, covering airspace infringement (excluding aerodrome services) are the only
issues. The site is run on behalf of GASCo and services provided in Class G airspace within the
is part of the Airspace & Safety Initiative. UK Flight Information Region (where notified,
elements of the UK FIS are also provided to
Airspace for All – www.airspace4all.org aircraft operating in Class E airspace). Therefore,
this document is equally applicable to civilian
and military pilots, air traffic controllers, and
Airspace for All was originally launched under
Flight Information Service Officers. There is a
the name Future Airspace Strategy VFR
supplementary leaflet – www.caa.co.uk/cap1434.
Implementation Group (FAVFIG) in 2011 with
its initial focus on improving the efficiency of
CAT in CAS through an industry Implementation Airspace infringements: Review and remedial
Group (FASIIG). To deliver the vision of the actions process – www.caa.co.uk/cap1404.
FAS to other airspace users a FAS VFR
Implementation Group (FASVIG) was formed If you do end up infringing airspace, the
in 2012. Its objective is to develop a FAS VFR approach for the CAA dealing with this
Deployment Plan to deliver tangible benefits for is set out in CAP 1404. The process is
VFR users from 2015 to 2020 and to establish designed to focus on lessons learnt and apply
a sustainable future for VFR operations. proportionate and appropriate remedial action.
INFORMATION
The Skyway Code / Finding Out More The Skyway Code / International Flight 162
CAA / CAP 1535 / May 2019
INFORMATION
>> Official Record Series 4 – www.caa.co.uk/ AIS is the main source of information relevant
ors4 – ORS4 contains all general (not to air navigation in the UK, containing the
individual) permissions and exemptions Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP),
that are made either against or pursuant Aeronautical Information Circulars (AIC) and
to the ANO or European regulations. An NOTAMs. Airspace details and procedures
example of this are the ‘SERA permissions’, can generally be found in the ENR section,
which set out areas in which the UK has with aerodromes in the AD section.
exercised national discretion under SERA.
European AIS Database
– www.ead.eurocontrol.int