Advanced Ship Building

Materials
Lesson – 9, 10, 11
LESSON OUTLINE
▪ RAW MATERIAL USED IN GLASS REINFORCED PLASTICS(GRP)
– METHODS OF BINDING RAW MATERIAL
– PROPERTIES OF RAW MATERIAL
▪ TYPE OF RAW MATERIAL
– RESINS USED IN GRP WORK
– METHOD OF MANUFACTURING OF RESIN
– CHARACTERISTICS OF RESIN
– GEL COAT
– TYPE OF GLASS (FIBRE MAT)
– CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF GLASS MATS

▪ OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

– CATALYST - FILLERS
– P.V.A - ACCELERATOR
– PIGMENT - ACETONE
RAW MATERIALS OF GRP

▪ Fiberglass is simply a composite consisting of glass fibres, either

continuous or discontinuous, contained within a polymer matrix.
▪ Polymer matrix may include:
– Catalyst - Fillers
– P.V.A - Accelerator
– Pigment - Acetone
METHODS OF BINDING RAW MATERIAL

▪ The matrix phase of fibrous composites may be a metal, polymer, or ceramic. In general,
metals and polymers are used as matrix materials because some ductility is desirable; for
ceramic-matrix composites, the reinforcing component is added to improve fracture
toughness. The discussion of this section will focus on polymer and metal matrices.
▪ For fibre-reinforced composites, the matrix phase serves several functions.
– First, it binds the fibres together and acts as the medium by which an externally applied stress is
transmitted and distributed to the fibres; only a very small proportion of an applied load is sustained
by the matrix phase.
– Furthermore, the matrix material should be ductile.
– In addition, the elastic modulus of the fibre should be much higher than that of the matrix.
– The second function of the matrix is to protect the individual fibres from surface damage as a result of
mechanical abrasion or chemical reactions with the environment.
– Such interactions may introduce surface flaws capable of forming cracks, which may lead to failure at
low tensile stress levels. Finally, the matrix separates the fibres and, by virtue of its relative softness
and plasticity, prevents the propagation of brittle cracks from fibre to fibre, which could result in
catastrophic failure; in other words, the matrix phase serves as a barrier to crack propagation.
– Even though some of the individual fibres fail, total composite fracture will not occur until large
numbers of adjacent fibres, once having failed, form a cluster of critical size.
METHODS OF BINDING RAW MATERIAL
▪ It is essential that adhesive bonding forces between fibre and matrix be high to
minimize fibre pull-out.
▪ In fact, bonding strength is an important consideration in the choice of the matrix–
fibre combination.
▪ The ultimate strength of the composite depends to a large degree on the magnitude
of this bond; adequate bonding is essential to maximize the stress transmittance
from the weak matrix to the strong fibres.
▪ Polymer-matrix composites (PMCs) consist of a polymer resin as the matrix, with
fibres as the reinforcement medium. These materials are used in the greatest
diversity of composite applications, as well as in the largest quantities, in light of their
room-temperature properties, ease of fabrication, and cost. In this section the various
classifications of PMCs are discussed according to reinforcement type (i.e., glass,
carbon, and aramid), along with their applications and the various polymer resins that
are employed.
PROPERTIES OF RAW MATERIAL
PROPERTIES OF RAW MATERIAL
PROPERTIES OF RAW MATERIAL
RESINS USED IN GRP WORK
▪ The polymer matrix often determines the maximum service temperature, since it
normally softens, melts, or degrades at a much lower temperature than the fibre
reinforcement.
▪ The most widely utilized and least expensive polymer resins are the polyesters and vinyl
esters; these matrix materials are used primarily for glass fibre-reinforced composites .
▪ A large number of resin formulations provide a wide range of properties for these
polymers.
▪ The epoxies are more expensive and, in addition to commercial applications, are also
utilized extensively in PMCs for aerospace applications; they have better mechanical
properties and resistance to moisture than the polyesters and vinyl resins.
▪ For high-temperature applications, polyimide resins are employed ; their continuous-use,
upper-temperature limit is approximately 230C (450F).
▪ And finally, high-temperature thermoplastic resins offer the potential to be used in future
aerospace applications; such materials include polyetheretherketone (PEEK),
polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), and polyetherimide (PEI).
METHOD OF RESIN MANUFACTURING

▪ Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between

epichlorohydrin (ECH) and bisphenol-A (BPA), though the latter may be replaced
by other raw materials (such as aliphatic glycols, phenol and o-cresol novolacs) to
produce specialty resins.
▪ The epoxy resins can be obtained in either liquid or solid states. The two
processes are similar. Firstly ECH and BPA are charged into a reactor. A solution of
20-40% caustic soda is added to the reaction vessel as the solution is brought to
the boiling point. After the evaporation of unreacted ECH, the two phases are
separated by adding an inert solvent such as methylisobutylketone (MIBK). The
resin is then washed with water and the solvent is removed by vacuum
distillation. The producers will add the specific additives to create a formula that
lend special properties such as flexibility, viscosity, colour, adhesiveness, and
faster curing, depending on a particular application.
▪ In order to convert epoxy resins into a hard, infusible, and rigid material, it is
necessary to cure the resin with hardener. Epoxy resins can cure at practically any
temperature from 5-150oC depending on the choice of curing agent. Primary and
secondary amines are widely used to cure epoxy resins.
METHOD OF RESIN MANUFACTURING
GEL COAT

▪ Tooling gelcoat based on vinyl ester resin which provides maximum

resistance to chemicals and solvents. This high performance gelcoat lends
the mould a lasting high gloss finish which will stand up to a relatively large
number of lifts between each waxing and polishing operation. Owing to its
high deformation temperature (over 100c) and flexibility this gelcoat is a
robust quality and consequently less susceptible to crack formation and
dull patches
TYPE OF GLASS (FIBRE MAT)
CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
GLASS MATS

▪ CHOPPED STRAND MAT

– The most common form of reinforcement used
with polyester resin for hand lay up. Strands of
glass fibre are held together by an emulsion
binder to form a mat. Supplied on a roll usually
96 cm wide in grades of various thickness
expressed in weight per m².
▪ Fast Wet-out
▪ Even thickness
▪ High mechanical strength
▪ Excellent wet strength retention
– Emulsion bound mat is not suitable for use with
epoxy based resins. Please order powder bound
chopped strand mat.
CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
GLASS MATS

▪ POWDER BOUND CHOPPED STRAND MAT

– Strands of glass fibre are held together by a weak
powder binder to form a mat which is much easier
for resins to dissolve, particularly suitable for use
with epoxy resins. Available in 300g and 450g
weights, roll width approx. 1m.
CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
GLASS MATS

▪ SURFACE TISSUE
– A thin glass fibre mat in a form similar to tissue
paper. Supplied on a roll 1m wide and only 25-30
grams per m².
– During moulding it is used to cover up the coarse
glass pattern produced by CSM.
– When sheathing it can be applied onto the CSM
while the resin is still wet, again to cover the
glass pattern and form a smooth surface for the
flow coat to be applied. Uses 100g of resin per
m².
CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
GLASS MATS

▪ WOVEN ROVEN FABRIC

– Supplied on roll usually 1m wide in grades of
various thickness. It is not twisted, is easier to
wet out and drapes fairly well. As it costs less
than fabric, it is often used for boat building in
conjunction with CSM to increase flexural
strength. Fabric laminates use approx. 1kg resin
to 1kg fabric.
CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
GLASS MATS

▪ TWILL WEAVE FABRIC

– Twills have one or more warp fibres alternatively
woven over and under two or more weft fibres
giving a diagonal rib or zig zag style pattern.
Superior wet out and drape to equivalent weight
plain weave with only a small reduction in
stability..
 CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
GLASS MATS

▪ PLAIN WEAVE FABRIC

– Cloth is made from “Yarn” (twisted glass
filaments) generally to produce a lightweight
laminate with uniform thickness from approx.
100g per m².
– Fabrics will flex more than CSM before breaking
but are not as rigid.
– The best strength comes from the thinnest cloth
with the tightest weave which tends to make
them difficult to wet out and so for fabrics above
275g per m² woven roving is used.
– Adhesion between 2 layers of fabric is poor and
should be avoided. Bonding is improved with
thicker cloth and fewer layers or combining with
CSM.
 CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
GLASS MATS

▪ COMBINATION MAT • BIAXIAL FABRIC

– A glass fibre reinforcement combination fabric • Biaxial fabric consists of 2 layers which are
consisting of bi-directional woven roving one unwoven, lightly stitched and orientated
side with a chopped strand mat stitched to other +/- 45o. Available in 450g/m2 and
side with a fine polyester yarn 600g/m2. Roll width 1270mm
OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS – Accelerator

▪ Added in small quantities to polyester

resins to speed up cure times.
▪ Can also be applied directly to wood
prior to applying resin to improve
bonding. This is a 1.0% solution of cobalt
soap dissolved in styrene.
▪ Recommended addition levels are
between 0.5% and 2.0%.
▪ Never allow catalyst to come into
contact with accelerator as this can cause
a fire or explosion.
OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS – Flexible Resin Additive

▪ Flexible Resin Additive for polyester

resin. Mix up to 10% to improve tenacity,
elongation, flexibility and impact
resistance.
OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS - P.V.A

▪ PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) is a water-based liquid plastic that can be applied to

waxed moulds to prevent moulded parts from sticking. PVA is not always
required. Often laminators rely solely on mould release wax to create a surface
contaminant on the mould that allows parts to be removed. However, on
complicated moulds and on new moulds, when the risk of a part sticking in a
mould is greatest, PVA can be applied over a waxed mould.
▪ PVA can be applied by brush, paint roller or with spray equipment. PVA often
leaves a texture on the surface of the mould after it dries. This texture is
duplicated or moulded into the part produced in the mould. For parts that will be
painted later, this texture is not an issue. However, for parts that rely on the
mould surface to create a smooth final finish, the texture can be a problem.
▪ To achieve the smoothest and least textured PVA coating, apply it with spray
equipment.
OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS - P.V.A

▪ The preferred application technique is to

spray a couple of very fine mist coats a
few minutes apart before applying a more
generous wet coat over the entire mould.
This technique minimizes the likelihood
of getting “fisheyes” or imperfections in
the coating and produces a very smooth
PVA release coating.
OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS - Pigment

▪ Pigments are used to colour resins, gelcoats and topcoats. Because

pigments tend to detract from the mechanical properties of the resin no
more pigments should be added than necessary.
▪ Gelcoats and Topcoats: Most colours will require up to 10% addition by
weight. Some pale colours may require up to 15% addition by weight for
full coverage.
▪ Resins: Mix up to 5% addition by weight. The full range of BS, RAL and
custom colours can be ordered subject to supplier availability.
▪ Colour samples are a guide only, an exact colour match cannot be
guaranteed due to printing processes.
 OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS - Pigment

▪ Luminescent pigments
– These amazing pigments are available in a fine crystal form for easy mixing
into our Polyester Clear Cast Resin, Polyurethane Clear Cast Resin, Clear
Gelcoats and Topcoats and Varnishes.
– They can be added to the resin or sprinkled over the surface and sealed in
place. By day the crystals absorb UV light and after dark they release
energy in the form of a long-lasting glow.
– Unlike conventional pigments, photo-luminescent fillers are not primary
light reflectors, but are actual sources of light.
– They absorb radiant energy from sunlight ( or artificial lighting ) and
convert it into longer wavelengths in the visible spectrum, thereby
emitting it as light with the sensation of colours.
– Add to resins at approx. 10-20%
OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS - Fillers
OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS - Fillers
OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS - Fillers
OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS - Fillers

▪ METALIC JEWELS
– Sprinkled on the back of clear
gel for glitter mouldings or use
just like normal glitter.
OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS - Fillers
OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS - Fillers
OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS - Fillers
OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS - Fillers
 OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS - Fillers
• Metal powders are added to resin to produce realistic metallic finishes
in cold casting.
• The higher the addition of metal, the better the finish, but generally
mix at the rate of 50 parts filler to 50 parts resin.
• For economy, the powder can be added to the resin used for the outer
surface only.
• When cured the main body can be filled with resin and a more
economical filler such as talc.
• When removed from the mould it can burnished with wire wool and
metal polishes.
• Different metal powders can be mixed before adding to the resin for
creative effects
OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS - Catalyst

▪ STANDARD CATALYST
▪ Catalyst is supplied free with most resin packs.
Liquid MEKP.
▪ All resins must have catalyst to start the hardening
process, added at 1% - 3% by weight.
▪ Ideal addition is 2% or 20ml per kg of resin.
▪ Catalyst is a corrosive material and must be handled
with special care.
▪ Never allow catalyst to come into contact with
accelerator as this can cause a fire or explosion.
▪ Refer to MSDS on hazards. Dispensers are strongly
recommended for safe and accurate use.
OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS - Catalyst

▪ SLOW CATALYST ▪ FAST CATALYST

– For use on hot days/seasons – For rapid curing under low
temperatures/ winters.
 OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS - Acetone

• The most popular and effective solvent

brush cleaner for removing uncured resin
from tools.
• Not for cleaning unprotected hands. It
should be kept in covered containers as it
evaporates quickly and is highly flammable
 OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS – Cellulose Thinners

• General purpose thinner for use with a

wide range of cellulose base coats and
lacquers.

• Use for paint thinning and cleaning tools

and equipment. Also excellent for
removing wax build-up on GRP moulds
 OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS – Isopropanol

• Isopropanol 99% pure, used widely as a

solvent and as a cleaning fluid.

• Isopropyl alcohol removes smudges, dirt,

and fingerprints from cell phones and
PDAs. It is effective at removing residual
glue from some sticky labels, glass
cleaning and much more.
 OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS – Oxalic Acid

• The boat owners favourite! Mix 1 part

oxalic acid with approximately 6-10 parts
water, makes a highly effective cleaner for
removal of stains and rust from gelcoat,
stainless steel and wood..
 OTHER MATERIAL USED IN GRP AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS – Release Wax
• MIRROR GLAZE NO.8 PASTE RELEASE WAX
• A blend of imported waxes specially
formulated to provide the maximum
number of releases per application.
Especially useful on tooling and new
moulds.
• For best results and fast application, use
with I-polish cloths
• MIRROR GLAZE NO.16 PASTE WAX
• Performs as well as MGM-0811 but more
heat resistant. This soft blue wax is
easier to apply but does not last as long.
• For best results and fast application, use
with i-Polish cloths.
MATERIAL SPREAD RATES

• RESIN
• Priming Plywood Resin = 500g per m2.
• Laminating, for each kilo of 300g CSM use 2.5kg of resin.
• Laminating, for each kilo of 450g CSM use 2.5kg of resin.
• Laminating, for each kilo of 600g CSM use 2.5kg of resin.
• GELCOAT
• Gel coating on mould surface 550g per m2.
• Top coating after laminating 600g per m2.
• PIGMENT PASTES
• Gelcoats and Topcoats: Most colours will require up to 10% addition by weight.
Some pale colours may require up to 15% addition by weight for full coverage.
• Resins: Mix up to 5% addition by weight. The full range of BS, RAL and custom
colours can be ordered subject to supplier availability.
• CATALYST
• Added at 1% - 3% by weight. Ideal addition is 2% or 20ml per kg of resin.
MATERIAL SPREAD RATES

• WAX SOLUTION
• Add 2% by weight to Gelcoat, to make “Topcoat” 20g per kg
• STYRENE
• Add 2% by weight for thinning resin. 20g per kg resin.
• 2 PART PU FOAM
• Expands up to 25 times its original volume. 1kg per cu ft.
• PVA RELEASE AGENT
• On non porous surface 200g per m2.
• G4 SEALER
• Sealing porous surfaces without fibreglass sheathing, 1 coat = 150ml per m2
• Sealing porous surfaces with fibreglass sheathing, 1 coat = 100ml per m2
• CARBORUNDUM GRIT
• Sprinkled onto wet topcoat 1.6kg per m2.