United Arab Emirates University

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12-2007

An Investigation on the Corrosion Resistance and

Stress Corrosion Cracking Of Ductile NI-Resist
Cast Irons in Desalination Plants.
Yahya Abdulla Alzafin

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Alzafin, Yahya Abdulla, "An Investigation on the Corrosion Resistance and Stress Corrosion Cracking Of Ductile NI-Resist Cast Irons
in Desalination Plants." (2007). Theses. 723.
https://scholarworks.uaeu.ac.ae/all_theses/723

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 AN INVESTIGAT ON ON THE CORROSION
RESISTANCE Al';D STRESS CORROSION CRACKING
OF DUCTIL1� NI-RESIST CAST IONS USED IN
'EB LI AT 0 PLANT .

A the�is S ll'it"e to �le Deanship of Graduate Studies

Of the Un:tec. Arab Emirates University

B .I...
,

YahyJ: AbdtlJ.1a Alzafm

!." •

In Partial Fu:finrrient of the ReqHirer�lent" of The Degree of ivLSc. In

Materi�ls Science and Engi neer: n g

D'�cember/2007
 upervision committee members

Super isor , �., t

Dr. 0 ama A. Abuzeid

Mechanical Engineering Department UAE University

Member

Dr. Abdel-Hamid 1. Mourad

Mechanical Engineering Departlnent, UAE University

Member
 AB TRACT

T\\ o case of stress corrosi n cracking fai l ures of brine pumps casmgs have been
reported. These pumps are i nstal led in two desal ination plants located on the coast of Arabian
Gulf in AE. The materials of construction of failed parts are N i - Resist Ductile I rons (NDI ) and
the em ironment i brine. which is concentrated seawater. Two brands of pumps had d i fferent
l i \ e to total fai l ure: one l ived 1 8 years \vhile the other l asted only 5 years. The fai led parts of
former pumps were made out of Dr material as per American standard ASTM A439 D2
(designated D material ) whereas those of latter pumps were made out of ND! material as per the
B riti h standard BS 3468 S2W (desi gnated G material ).

I n this work, the material factor. as one of the possible factors that coul d have
contributed to this different behavior has been eval uated. Metall urgical, mechanicaL
electrochemical tests and stress corrosion cracking tests were carried out to compare between the
two al loys. Results ha e ShO'vVil ariations in the microstructure, tensile strength and hardness
val ues of both al loys. However, electrochemical tests have shov,'I1 similar corrosi on rates
bet\ veen 0.20 and 0 . 2 5 m mpy in brine at room temperature, whereas. cyc l ic sweeps have shov.fJ1
comparable Tafel plots. To faci litate performing of see testing using the direct tensile test

method a special testing apparatus has been developed. It comprised proof ring, stressing j i g
(frame). corrosion test cel l and electric heater. The see tests ha e been carried with d urations t i l l
ful l fracture o r a m aximum of 8 t o 1 0 days in case of n o fracture. The results have c learly shown
d i fferent behaviors with respect to ee resi stance. The time to fai l ure of D material was m uch

longer than that of G material . This d i fference in behavior was attributed to the higher yield
strength of D material and its more favorable m icrostructural features compared to G material .
This has confirmed the material factor as a main contributor to the d ifferent performance in
resi stance to see of the two i resist ductile irons.

2
 Ackn owled ge m e n ts

I I the prai e and gratitude belong to I l ah, the one and only God worthy of worship. for
\ \ithout his v. elL help and favor this tudy \" ould not ha e been accompl i shed.

I \\ ' uld l i ke to expres my appreciation to m supervisor professor Osama A . Abuzeid

for his 0\ erall supen ision, continuous support and guidance. irnilar appreci ation is also given
to m) second supervisor associ ate professor Abdel-Hamid 1. Mourad for his guidance and
igni ficant a sistance in this stud) especially in mechani cal testing and SEM work. Special
thank are due to my third upervi or Dr. Mohamed Abo Zour for his valuable support and
guidance i n electrochemical testing which was crucial to the success of this work. Thanks are
al 0 due to Mr. Abdulsattar Nour Eldin in the Materials Lab and Mr. Essam Shabaan Attia of
CL department of UAE University. Their assistance in mechanical , optical and SEM
micro copy is highl, appreciated.

The support provi ded by Mr. Saeed M . Al-Tayer, Managing Director and C EO of Dubai
Electricity and Water A uthority (DEWA), is highJy appreciated . Such support was very vital to
the success of this study especially in pro iding the necessary testing materials, machine shop
sen'ices and sufficient supplies of brine sol ution. The support and encouragement received from
my Manager Mr. assir Lootah. Executive Vice President (Generation), are also very much
appreciated. Thanks are due also to my co]]eagues Mostafa Mokhtar, George Ben, Dyanan,
Konder and Shamsuddin for the hel p they extended d uring preparation and execution of the
experimental work.

The help provided by Dubai M unicipal ity's Central Laboratories and its management i n
arranging the tensile testing is also appreciated. Special thanks are due t o Engineer Sameer
Dam;sh who professional ly carried out these tests.

Finall y al l the love, appreciation and gratitude are d ue to m y wife who encouraged me
and stood by me all the time d uring the course of this study. Her patience and unwavering
support were very vital to the success of this study.

3
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

b tract 2
ckno\\ ledgements 3
L i st of Fi gures 6
Li t of Tables 10
bbre\ iations 11
1 . I ntroduction 13
1.1 oti \ ' 13
1 .2 ims and objecti\ e 15
1 . 3 Outline of the thesis 15

' 18
2. 1 tress Corrosion Cracking 18
_.2 Potable water production by Sea\vater Desal i nation 18
2 . 3 B ri ne rec ircu lation pumps 21
2.4 Materials for Saline Water Environments 22

2.4. 1 General Materials of Construction used i n B rine recirculation

pumps 22
2.4.2 A ustenitic stainless steels 23
2.4.3 Duplex stainless steels 25
2.4.4 i -resist d uctile i rons al loys 25
2.4.4. 1 Manufacture of cast irons 25
2.4.4.2 Mjcrostructure. main al loying elements and classi fication
of cast i rons 26
2.4.4.3 Role of graphjte and its effects on properties of cast irons 27
2 .4.4.4 C arbide effects on properties of cast i rons 27
2.4.4.5 Mjcrostructure and chemical composition of ductile i -resists 32
2.4.4.6 Mechanical properties of N i -resists 33
2.4.4.7 Corrosion performance and electrochemical properties of
i - Resists in sea water 33
2.4.4.8 SCC ofNDI & cracking i n other selected d ucti le i rons 36

4
3 . Experimental Work 39
3 . 1 Materials 39
3 . 2 pecimen s fabricatio n and preparati on for testi ng 39
.... . 3 I mage analy si s and hardness tests 42
.... .4 Mechanical Ten i le tests 42
3 . 5 Electrochemical testing 43
3.6 Examination of speci mens having service induced cracks 44
3 . 7 Tensi le constant load CC testing apparatus development 46
"'.8 Tensile constant load CC testing cond itions 54
3.9 Tensile constant load CC testing procedure 55

4. Re uJt and d i sc ussion 58

4. 1 1aterials and chemical composition 58
4.2 I m age analysis, microstructure and hardness 59
4 . 3 Mechanical tensile testing 63
4.4 Electrochemical testing 67
4 . 5 Exam ination of Speci mens v.�tb cracks induced d uring service 69
4.6 Effectiveness of devised CC apparatus 73
4 . 7 CC testing results 76

5. Conclusions and Recommendations 89

6 . References 92

5
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 . 1 ne casing out of man) B RP casings of G type material found \ \;th a crack bv-
tre corrosion (a) and close viev,,' of the crack (b) 14

Figure 1 .2 Pump casing made of ire ist 1) pe 02 \ \;th cracks indicated with arrO\ vs.
Marks of clamping arranging, used to strengthen the casing and prevent opening
of the cracks duri ng ervice, are also visible 14

Figure 2 . 1 M F De al ination Process sho'wing brine, seawater, d i st i l l ate & steam circuits.
Evaporation i n lower part of chambers (orange l i nes) and Condensation on tubes
( l i ght blue) shown. 19

Figure 2 . 2 One B R P removed from the plant during maintenance and awaiting d i sassembly
for i nspection. Left side of picture shows lower part of the pump whereas right
side sho\\ ' s upper part of the pump. Photo taken from a desal i nation plant. 21

Figure 2 . "' Classification of highly alloyed cast i rons 26

Figure 2 .4 Typical graphite shapes after A TM A247. 1, spheroidal graphite; ll, i mperfect
pheroidaJ graphite: I II . temper graphite, IV, compacted graphite; V, crab
graphite: V I . exploded graphite: VII, flake graphite 28

Figure 2.5 Infl uence of graphite morpholog on the stress-strain c urve of several cast i rons 29

Figure 2.6 I nfl uence of nodularity on some mechanical properties of ductile iron 30

Fi gure 2 . 7 Relationship of carbide content with 0 .2% offset yield strength 31

F igure 2 . 8 Relationship of carbide content with tensile strength 31

Figure 2 . 9 i-resist S2W microstructure showing the graphite nodules and carbide areas in
an Austenite matrix . [2] 32

Figure 2 . 1 0 Corrosion performance of i -resi st compared to ordinary cast i ron and carbon
steels in aerated sea water en i ronment 34

F i gure 2 . 1 1 G al anic series of alloys in flowing seawater [2.4-4.0 meter/sec] at ambient

35
temperatures

Figure 3 . 1 B RP casings o f 0 material ( a ) and G material ( b ) with test material cut out. 40

Figure 3 .2 Typical stress rel ief heat treatment used to remove any residual stresses 41

6
 igure 3 . 3 The t\ >.o spec imens used for micros tructur al exami nation 42

Figure 3.4 Fi l l ing the brine tank with brine used in corrosio n tests 43

F igure 3 . 5 Electr chemical te ting apparatus (a) and a typical test specimen (b)
44

Figure 3 .6 The pecimen prior to crack opening v.1th the CC appearing at top. The top
threaded hole (out of two u ed to hold specimen) is hovv'n at top surface 45

Figure 3 . 7 The tv. o pecimens ( G to the l eft and 0 to the right) wjth ee cracks removed
from fai led pumps casings. These were specifical ly used for optical microscopic
e ·ami nation of sec cracks 45

Figure 3 . 8 The proof ring with top bolt. stressing nut and bottom bolt 47

Figure 3 . 9 The proof ring stressing J i g \ vith the proof ring o n left side 48

Figure 3 .10 The proof ring-cel l-specimen assembly fi xed in the stressi ng j i g 48

Fi gure 3 . 1 1 tressing o f the proof ring-speci men assembly using the stressing j i g 49

Figure 3 . 1 2 A photo that shows how the proof ring compression is measured 49

Figure 3 . 1 3 A top iev. (a) and a side view (b) of the test cell wjth all connections fitted
except the tensile spec imen 50

Figure 3 . 1 4 A side iew (a) and a front view (b) of the test apparatus using the stressing j i g
a s a seat 51

Figure 3 . 1 5 The round Teflon seat used for the proof ring-cel l assembly 52

F i gure 3 . 1 6 A front view of the test apparatus using the Teflon bar as a sea 52

F igure 3 . 1 7 Photos ( a ) t o ( c ) that show how a specimen is prepared for resin coating
appl ication at the section reduction portions. Teflon half rings are clamped at
center and threaded ends are \vrapped with Teflon tape. Photo C d ) shows how
the speci men l oo ks l i ke after application of the resin. The solution side of the
resin is angled in a way to minimize crevice effect 53

Figure 3 . 1 8 The electric brine heater wrapped wjth thermal insulation material 54

Figure 4 . ] S E M micrographs showing the d ifference between the microstructures of the D

material (a) and the G m aterial (b) 60

Figure 4.2 Vickers hardness indentations for (a) the D and (b) the G materials 61

7
Figure -+. -, E\I1 mi �ro? raphs of (a) chromiwn carbide area and (b a d istorted graphite
nod ule \\ I thm the matrix of the G materia l 62
Figure 4.4 tres strain curves for D material (a) and G material (b) sho\\n ti l l fracture 64

Figure 4.5 tress-strain plots for the D ( upper c urves) and G ( lower curves) specimens. 2
plots of each material are sho\\11. The CUf \ es are ShO\\11 to lov,,· strain values to
sho\-\ 0.2% offset yield points. 65
Figure 4.6 tress strain curves of sub-size speci mens of both D and G materi als. 0.21}0
Yield stresses are indicated by arrows. C urves are l imited to strains at wmch
strain gauges detached from test speci mens 66
Figure 4 . 7 Corrosion rates of 4 speci mens (2 from each material ) 67
Figure 4 . 8 Potentials o f 4 pec imens (2 from each D & G materials). Potentials are
measured versus Ag/AgCI reference electrode 67
Figure 4 . 9 Tafel plots of 4 peci mens ( 2 from each D & G materials). A l l potentials are
measured versus Ag/AgCI reference electrode. 68
Figure 4 . 1 0 Opening up of G material usi ng universal tensile test machine (a). D was
opened similarly. Photos (a) and (b) show chemically cleaned D and G materials
respectively. 69
Figure 4 . 1 1 Service i nd uced CC cracks of D material at (a) 30X, (c) I OOX , (e) at 200X
and those of G material at (b) 30X. (d) at 1 OOX and (f) at 200X. Cracks
propagate through matrix without preference to phases 70

Figure 4. 1 2 E M micrographs of D material fai led during service. The top photo shows
d i mpled mechanical l y ( upper-right area) and flat SCC fractured areas ( lower-
left) magnified at X35 \vhereas the bottom photos shows (b) an area fractured by
CC alone and ( c ) an area fractured mechanicall alone magnified at X200.
M echanical fractures were produced using universal testing machine 71

Figure 4 . 1 3 S E M micrographs of G material fai led d uring service. The top photo shows
dimpled mechanical (upper-left area) and flat SCC fractured areas ( lower-right)
magnified at X 3 5 whereas the bottom photos shows (b) an area fractured by
SCC alone and (c) an area fractured mechanically alone m agnified at X200.
M echanical fractures were produced using universal testing macmne 72

Figure 4 . 1 4 Micrographs showing SCC of ductile N i resist material . Photo (a) is an optical
micrograph magnified to X l 00 whereas photo (b) is an S E M micrograph of
fracture s urface m agni fied at X400. 73

Figure 4. 1 5 A photo taken whi le SCC test is in progress. The tensile speci men is seen in the
cell with browni sh layer of corrosion products. 74

8
Figure 4. 1 6 picture (a) at a close d i stance foc used at the exposed portion of the specimen
at on et of test. The surface is sti l l shin\ and vet to be covered bv corrosion
products (ferrous oxides). The RE i s se� n to the left. Photo (b) o f speci men after
1 5 minute v.ith a developed dark layer of ferrous oxide and photo (c) after 30
minutes \\ ith the blackish laver - of ferrous 0 ·ide boettin bo covered \ vi th (tin�J
globe ) redd i h ferrous oxide. In photo (d) the specimen is covered with stable
thick red-brovmish layer after4 hour. 75

Figure 4. 1 7 Two photograph of specimen during e e testing: (a) before and (b) after full
fracture. 76
Figure 4. 1 8 nother spec imen d uri ng ee testing: (a) before and (b) after fracture. 76
Figure 4. J 9 Photographs of the 4 fractured G material specimens (a) and those of4 D
material specimens with only D 1 fractured. 77
Figure 4.20 Photographs of specimens D2 to D4 after application of dye penetrant method
for crack detection 78
Figure 4.2 1 EM micrographs of G material specimen G 1 (a) at X 70 showing both see
area at upper right and mechanicall y fractured area at lower left. Photo (b) i s an
X200 magni fication of selected see area of photo (a). 79
Figure 4 .22 E M micrographs of G material speci men G2 (a) at X70 showing both see
area at upper right and mechanical l y fractured area at lower left. Photo (b) i s an
X200 magnification of el ected see area of photo (a). 80

Figure 4.23 EM micrographs of G material specimen G3 (a) at X70 showing both see
area at upper right and mechanical ly fractured area at 10\ er left. Photo (b) i s an
X200 magni fication of el ected se e area of photo (a). 81

F igure4.24 S E M micrographs of G material speci men G4 (a) at X70 showing both sec
area at upper right and mechanical l y fractured area at lower left. Photo (b) is an
X200 magnification of elected sec area of photo (a). 82

Figure 4.25 S E M micrographs of D material speci men Dl (a) at X50 showing both see
area at upper part and mechanical ly fractured area at lower part. Photo (b) i s an
X25 0 magn ification of elected sec area of photo (a). 83

F i gure 4.26 A reconstruction of Fi gure 4. 5 showing strain values (indicated with circles) of
86
0.33% for D and 1 % for G materials at a stress val ue of 260 M Pa.

9
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2- 1 ea v. ater and B ri ne Environment Chloride oncentrations 20

Table 2-2 Material ombi nation used in construction of B rine & W Pumps

Table 2-3 Chemical composition of t\ o\'o grades of Ductile i-resi st 32

Table 2-4 echanical properties of t\\ o grades of ductile i-resist

Table 4- 1 Reported chemical compo itions of the D and G-types N i Resi st austenitic

cast iron i n relation to the pennissible range of composition as per the A TM 5 8

Table 4-2 I mage analy is o f the D and G -Types o f the i -resist austenitic cast irons 61

Table 4-3 Perfonnance o f G and D materials with regards to SCC resistance 78

Table 4-4 E ffect of specimen section reduction due to unifonn corrosion on final

state of stress 84

10
 ABBR E VlATIO S

TM American oci et} for Testing and Materials

BRP Brine Recirc ulation Pump
B B riti h tandard
D Duple tainless teels
M F Multi- tage Fla rung Chambers

DJ i-resist Ductile I rons

EM Scanning electron microscopy
tress Corro ion Cracking
tai nless teels
TD Total Dissohed olids
'RF X-ray fl uorescence

1]
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

12
1. In trod u c t i o n

1 . 1 Motivation

i -Re i t Ductile I rons D J ) ha\ e been widel, used in sea water desalination plants.
These i ron based al loys pos e high strength \ ith a moderate ductil ity [L 2 ] . Compared to
ordinal) cast i rons and orne teels NDI 's have much better resistance to general corrosion. They
also ha e better resi tance to local i zed corrosion than some types of stainless steels [2, 3 . 4].
Dr al 0 pos e good erosive wear resistance, good machineabil ity and castabil ity and
controlled e pansion [ 1 2]. Their microstructure i s characterized by unifonnly d istributed
nodular graphite in an austenitic matrix which also contains carbide areas [5, 6] .

tress corrosion cracking ( C C ) of pressure parts of brine pumps in a desal ination plant
located on Arabian Gulf has been i nvestigated i n this study. Two brands of pumps had d i fferent
l i ve to total fai l ure. The fai led parts of former pumps were made out of N D I material as per
A TM A439 D2 (denoted D material in this study ), whereas the latter pumps were made out of
N DI material as per BS 3468 S2 W (denoted G material in this study). Photographs of fai led
cas ings are shown in fi gures 1 . 1 and 1 .2 . These two grades of d ucti le N i -resi sts are equivalent
according to the applicable standards [ 5 , 6 ] . Deliberate add ition of N i ob i um in J:JDnor percentage
glves the 2W better weldabil ity. However performance of these BRPs was not the same. The D
material has l asted for around 1 8 years prior to fai l ure by SCC whi le the G material has lasted
for only around 5 years prior to SCC fai l ure.

The B RP fai l ures cause reliabi l i ty problems in desalination plants, the main water source

in the Arabian Gulf countries. and can lead to catastrophic fai l ures resulting forced and extended
outages in case proper and t i mely corrective actions are not taken. Therefore it was felt

necessary to study and eval uate this difference i n SCC performance of the above brands of
pumps. Thi s d ifference i n resi stance to SCC may have been caused by mai nly two factors
working individually or in combination. The fi rst i s presence of high tensile stress, appl i ed or
resi d ual. The second factor i s properties and features related to material of construction. The
latter is studied i n this work.

13
 Long
Crack
co ered
\\ ;th
brownish
corrosion
products

(a) (b)

Figure 1 . 1 : (a) One casing out of many B RP casings of G material (Niresist B S3468
2\\') found v,ith a crack b. stress corrosion and (b) close view of the crack.

C l amping
Cracks marks

F i gure 1 .2 : Pump casing of D material (Niresist A TM A439 D2) with cracks indicated
with arrows. M arks of clamping arrangement, used to strengthen the cas ing and prevent
opening of the cracks during service, are also visible.

14
1.2 1m a n d O bjective

everal t) pe of e ami nations and testing \\ ere performe d. The specimen s used in this
work were all from casings that fai led during service. The obj ectives of this work are :

To perform metal l urgical exami nations. i mage analysis and mechanical testing. Optical
and EM micro COP) as well as standard mechanical testing methods are used.

To conduct electrochemical te ting using a potentiostat and pe software.

3 To de\ ise a no el testing apparatus to al low easy and repeatable stress corrosion testing
using the direct tension test constant load method.

4 To calT) out tensile stress corrosion testing using the devised apparatus to compare the
performance of two brands o f N DI with regards to resistance to Sec .

1.3 Ou t l i n e of t h e T h es is

This thesis is compri sed of five chapters. The first chapter is an introduction describing
the subj ect. motivation to thi s work in addition to the aims and obj ectives. A l iterature review is
pro\ ided i n chapter two starting on definition and aspects of see and description the
desalination process. The chapter then pro ides detai l s on various materials used making internal
components and parts of brine pumps in desal ination plants and their performance against
corrosion in general with an emphasis on stress corrosion cracking of stainless steels and ductile
i-resist i rons. Experimental work including materials examination and various lab tests is
detailed i n chapter three. The chapter provides detai l s of apparatus used and devices fabricated
to fac i l itate the stress corrosion testing. It also incl udes sections on testing conditions and
procedures. Results and d i sc ussion on experimental work is provided in chapter four. The
chapter is comprised of five sections. Section one is on materials and chemical composition.
Section two is on image analysis. microstructure and hardness tests. ection three is on
mechanical testing resuJts. Section four includes electrochemical testing results. Section five i s

15
on examination of specimens \\ ith service induced cracking. ection six is on effectiveness of
ee testing apparatus. ection e\-en incl udes the sec testing results l isting times to fai l ure.
crack. morphology and di c ussion on the these results. Concl usions are incl uded in chapter fi\ e
\\ ith recommendation for further work.

16
 Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

17
2. Li tera ture Review

2.1 t re Corro ion Cra cking

tres corro ion cracking ( C C ) is defined as the "cracking caused by the simultaneous
pre ence o f t nsil stres and a specific corrosiv e medium . " [ 7] Due to its l ocalized nature, the
CC initiate a fine cracks whereas the remaining material surface in contact with the corrosive
em ironment is virtual l) free of such type of corrosion attack. The sec usual ly takes place at
stres v alue within design tres range. The seriousness of this type of attack is that it can be
undetected til l failure take place leading to operational problems, process breakdown or e en
major afe!) hazards in some cases.

2.2 Pota b le Water P roduction by Seawater Desalina tio n

Potable \ \'ater in the gul f region is mainl y produced by desalinating seawater by one or
more of 3 methods/technologies namely: multi-stage flashing chambers ( M S F) desalination
p l ants, reverse osmosis (RO) plants and multi-effect desalination ( M ED ) plants. M S F

desalination i s reported t o account for producing about 8 0 % of the desalinated water [8].

The fol lowing details d escribe a modem MSF desalination unit as found in the Plant
Operation & Maintenance Manuals. It is as usual ly made of 3 sections namely heat input section,
heat recover) and heat rej ection sections. A deaerator CD/A), in which fresh sea water is added,
is connected to the l ast stage of the heat rej ection section. Figure 2 . 1 shows a simplified
i l lustration of an M S F desalination plant. The heat input section is a shel l and tube type heat
exchanger (brine heater) in which steam, imported from steam generating boilers, is fed to heat
up the circulating brine. The steam is condensed across the heater tubes and the condensate is
collected and sent back to the boiler plant. In modem high capacity M S F desalination plants the
heat recovery and rej ection sections are made of a series of c l osed box like chambers of around
1 9 stages ( 1 7 recovery stages and 2 rej ection stages).

18
 S \- 01..-:-

STL�\1

D m.L;>,.-:E
---- �

I .HEA:­
'"ER S:-AGE --,
RqIC
. -

BRINE

REJECT

F i gure 2 . 1 : M S F Desalination Process sho\ ving brine. seawater, disti l late &
steam circuits. Evaporation in lower part of chambers (orange lines) and
Condensation on tubes (light blue ) shown.

The lower side of the chambers act as a channe l in which the circulating brine flows
taking it from the preceding chamber (or brine heater for stage 1 ) to the fol lowing chamber
through weir gates. In the l ast stage of rejection section the brine is col lected in a sump and most
of it is directed to the t ubes ( upper part) of l ast stage in heat recovery section through two l arge
heay) d Ul) vertical brine recirculation pumps ( B RP). In the upper part of the heat recovery
section chambers the brine flows in l aterall y arranged tube bundles connected from stage to stage
by inter-stage piping. The brine flov. direction in the tubes from stage to stage is opposite to that
in the channel (the lower part). After the brine flowing in the tubes of stage one reaches brine
heater t ubes it is d i rected to the fust stage channel area ( lower part). This way the brine flo\ \1ng
in the tubes progressi el� picks up the heat of the condensi ng vapor that flashed i n the l ower part
of each stage. For heat rejection section sea water flows i n the tube bundles from l ast stage (stage
1 9) to first stage of this section (stage 1 8). It then divi des into two streams. The first is rejected
out to dump whereas the other stream goes to the DIA to make-up for the produced dist i l l ate and
the rej ected brine so that fixed flow rate of circulating bri ne is approximately maintained . The
deaerated sea water at the bottom of the DIA flows to stage 1 9 and m ixes with the brine in the

19
sump " here it gets c i rculated by the brine pumps. During start up the plant i under cold
circulation \.\ here no e\.aporation takes place hence no distil l ate is produced. On admission of
heating steam to the brine heater the brine gets heated up slo\\ I ) til l the temperature reaches
around J 05 deg . s the pres me in the first stage chamber is kept at around a value of 1 atm a

rapid e\.aporation process take place in \\ hich the c i rculating brine flashes as water vapor (\.\�th
high purity ) in lower portion of the chambers rising upv\. ard and getting in direct contact v.ith the
urfaees of the tubes. The brine inside the tubes i s cooler that the water apor. As such the brine
absorb the heat of the vapor \ \.-hich l eads to its condensation. The condensate i s col l ected in
\.\ ater tray s \.\ hieh are connected in al l stages and fi nal l y col l ected in a pipe and pumped av ay as
di til l ate for further treatment. The evaporation process results in a reduction in temperature of
the brine in the chambers due to loss of heat energy by evaporation. To al low the continuation of
brine e\ aporation proces with decreasing temperatmes from stage to stage; and hence abiding
by l aws of Thermodynamics, a dedicated vacuum system controls the pressme in a decreasing
fashion going from stage J to l ast stage (stage 1 9) . As the evaporation process also increases the
salinity of circulating brine during its travel through the stages. it is essential to control the brine
sal inity keeping it within a specified range. This is achieved by continuousl y and simultaneousl y
adding fresh sea water is in the D/A and rejecting out a controlled quantity of the brine before its
return to the heat recovery section of the desalination plant.

As can be seen from the above discussion the circul ating medium; i.e. brine, in the M S F
desalination process i s a very corrosive environment which i s very rich i n chlorides. Typical
salinities of Gulf sea water and brine m easured in the desalination plants of fail ed B rine pump
parts are indicated i n the Tabl e 2- 1 .

Table 2- 1 : Actual measurements of sea water and brine Environment sal i nities.

Environment SEA WATER BRINE

Total Dissol ed Solids 45200 - 45360 6 1 924

[mg I Ltr]

20
 The a\ erage alinity of earth oceans, TD , ranges from 32000 to 37000 mg�tr
[9, 1 0],
een from the above table the Gulf being almost a c losed sea, is al read\ yerr saline which
make the brine it e l f a much more aline em ironment.

2.3 BRTh� REC I RCULAT I ON PUMP

It i c lear that the nvo brine recirculation pumps (ERrs) are essential pIeces of
machine!) that are respon ible for circulation of brine in an M F plant. They are heavy duty
pump that are subj ect to continuous hydraulic and mechanical loading. They also handle a ery
corrosive environment � ith high chloride content. Failure of these c ritical pumps would result in
hut dO\\T1 of the desalination plant. Further upstream in the desalination process. the sea water
pump . \VP·s. are also as c ritical and are usual ly of same vertical construction. Figure 2.2
below shows a photograph of one of the B RP' s removed during maintenance.

Figure 2 . 2 : One B RP removed from the plant during maintenance and awaiting
disassembly for inspection. Left side of picture shows failed casing of G
material \ vhereas right side shows upper part of the pump.

The B RP s may suffer catastrophic failures due to mechanical loading. They may also fail
due to o
o-eneral corrosion as wel l as l ocalized forms of corrosion. In any case. such failures wil l
result in a shut down of the M S F desalination plant which may have its costly consequences.
nless such fail ure mechanisms are prevented or at l east developing damages are caught and
repaired before the) l ead to a total failure the plants wil l suffer from unacceptable failures with
plant reliability and availability problems.

21
 According to \\ ork conducted b ' Miyasaka [4] the temperature of the brine, in the range

of 400 to 4 � C as it enter the brine pumps. and it high alinit) can accelerate the CC process.
o

Trus temperature i relatiyel� high compared to that of ea water and hence B RP"s tend to suffer
more failures due to localized corrosion than sea water pumps.

2.4 M a terial for Sa l i n e 'Vater E n v i ro n ment :

Fol lo\\ ing i a technical literature re ie\ " on performance of abo e material s of
construction against corro ion in aline water en irolUnents.

2.4.1 Gen e ra l material of con truction used in b ri ne a n d Sea water p umps:

In a reference book [3] critical duty of l arge pumps in power, desalination and industrial
plant is highlighted . The book al so gives guidelines on use of the various materials in marine
service to ensure their compatibility with each other. It discusses in details use of a number of
group of material s for saline water envirolUTIent. It extensively reviews arious types of
corrosion attack expected in marine service. In l arge M S F plants. B R P's and S WP's are usual ly
of vertical construction with rotating parts ( shaft and impe l l er) usuaJ] made out of Stainless
teels or Duplex tainl ess Steels. The stationary parts are suction barrel containing al l
submerged parts and pressure casings that contain the rotating parts. The suction barrel is usually
made of Carbon Steel \\ith special corrosion protective lining of rubber or metal lic al loy of rugh
corrosion resistance against brine. The pressure parts (casings) are usual ly made out of i-resist
ductile irons DI), austenitic stainJess stee l s (ASS), duplex stainless steels (DS S ) or a
combination of 2 or more of these c lasses of ferrous al loys.
The above materials are usual l y used in combinations ( mixing of 2 or more materials )
considering factors such as cost and required m aterial perfom1ance. It has been reported [ 3 , 1 4]
for example that N D I material s provide cathodic protection to A S S parts against pitting
corrosion that can take place in stagnant water conditions during standby service or even during
flov "ing conditions at crevices (tight places/pockets with relatively stagnant water condition; e.g.
fl anged j oints ). Such a protection however is not needed w hen pumps are in continuous service
provided that a crevice tolerable design is used.

22
 Table 2-2 sho\\s material combinations indicated [ 3] to be compatibl e and of proven
experience. The material s not onl) relate to pre ure casings but al so other components of B RPs
uch a rotating part and 1 0\\ pres ure parts uch as pW11 p suction barrels. Considerations were
given to effects of galvanic corrosion and other properties required in hand ling saline waters.

Table 2 - 2 : Material Combination u ed in construction of Bri ne & W Pump [3]

Part Reference Altemati\e

Transition piece CF3M,3l6L ANl-D2W. D2. EC steel

Column Pipe A I-D2W, D2-FSR., 316L EC steel

Diffu er A I-D2W, D2-FSR 316L

Bo\.\l A J-D2W . D2-FSR CF8M

Inlet Bell ANI-D2\\" D2-FSR ANl-D2W, D2

Impeller CF3 1. CF8M,CD4MCu Austinitic & Duplex SS

haft 04400,316 50 DSS2205

>"';otes: CF3M & CF8M: cast eq uivalent of 316 & 316L, DSS2205 is a duplex SS.

A_ '1 ( 'i-Resist= austenitic cast iron types D2 and D2W (weldable)). FSR: furnace stress relieved. EC= epo>..)'

coated.

2.4.2 Austen itic stainless steels ( SS ) :

Moller reported [13] excelJent performance of austenitic S S in sea water service flowing
at high velocity . He reported occasional failures by severe l ocalized attack by pitting at cre ices
or under deposits in quiet sea water. Mol ler concluded that to combat pitting cathodic protection
is needed either by using other components lower in the galvanic series or by using sacrificial
anodes. He stated that chloride SCC at ambient was not a problem based on field data. He also
indicated that fabricated austenitic SS parts can suffer from intergranular corrosion cracking if
sensitized (exposed to a specific temperature range for sufficient time during fabrication).

23
 Todd re\ iewed the \'ariou fact r [ 1 4 ] that are important for au teniti material
election fi r manne en i e. He di us e the i ue of localized corro ion in th form of pitting
and re\ Ice c rro ion di couraging de igner again t th lection of ustenitic . He.
ho\\ \ er. emrha iz d good re i tance of u t nitic to high \, elocit) eawater e peciaU) for
pump· haft and impe l ler . H e poi nted out the imp rtance of cathodic prote tion needed to
pre\ ent pitting (in tagnant water ndition ) and that uch protection can be pro\ ided b) u ing
Ie. noble mat rial _ uch as i -re i t casing .

ed [I:] corro ion r si tance of austenitic in various naturall) occurring

\\ ater inc luding ea\\"ater.
knO\\11 in e their in eption . H id ntifted the teps needed to minimized l ocalized corrosion of
o\ustenitic m eawater em i ronment uch a avoiding crevices or m inimizing their effects by
making th m ·'a op n and as hal lO\\ ' a po ible", to cathodical l ) protect them and maintenance
of h i gh \ elo it) of ea\\ ater to pre\ ent permanent depo ition of olid.

1\1alik t al report d [ 1 6] \ ar) ing degree of corrosion attack on materials used in gul f
a\\ at r em ironment. The) tud i ed performance o f the materials generall) used i n this
em ironment with regard to general pitting and cre\ ice corrosion using weight los and electro­
chemical technique . The) concluded the fol l O\ ving. General corrosion rate is ver) low in
temperature 25°-50° . In crevice and deposit fee sy terns. al l standard materials are not subj ect
to ri k of l ocalized attack . Otherv ,; e onl) highly alloyed appear to have atisfactor)
perfonnance.

Praka h et al tudied [ 1 7] the CC beha\ ior of m i l d teeL austenitic stainless steel s. 3 1 6L

and 3 1 7L ferritic 430 and nickel based al l oy Monel 400, al l u ed i n desalination plants.
under ) nergi tic action of corrodents such a chlorides. oxidants and hydrogen sul fide (H::! ).
Ling tandard proof ring and -bend sample in A C E and H ELL solutions containing H2
combined \\ith electrochemical polarization measurements threshold tresses for CC had been
detennined . i l d tee I. al lo) 4 3 0 and Monel 400 suffered SCC i n H::! environment, whereas
3 1 6L and 3 1 7L were found i mmune to CC under test conditions. A l l above material \\ere
ranked based on the resistance to CC under above environment .

24
204 .3 Du p l \. tai n l e teel (D ):

o are a gr up of tainle teel \\ ith au tenite areas in a matrix of ferrite both ri h in

hromlum all preferred \\ ith a 5 0° ' 0 to - 0° ° bal an e of each phase [3] . Th e material are u ed
as pump material dditi n of nitr gen has mad the e material \ er) useful in pumps adding

ad\ antage of imprO\ ing ductilit) . repairabilit) and reduced partitioning of chromium ben\ een
pre ent phase . Thl ha i mpro\ ed pitting re istance of duplex steel .

T ai et al il1\ e tigated [ 1 8] the b ha\ ior of 0 220 regarding it re i tance to

- C in
26° 0 \\ 1 a I _olution at 900 . The} e\aluated it su ceptibilit) to . u ing 10\ \ strain te ting
method. at both open ircuit potential a we)) a \ ariou anodic potential . The} identified
p tential of - 1 0m \' to be c ritical to re i tance to C above v ,hich material i u ceptible.
them i e the) found it immun to thi form ofl ocalized corrosion attack.

phie Jacque [ 1 9] the importance of using and 0 in de alination

plant to combat corro ion with empha i on pitting and cr \ ice corro ion. The) conducted test
on orne grade of the abo\ e tainles teel \\ ith regard to pitting and cre ice corrosion
re i tance at condition similar to those pre\ ailing in desalination plant . The reported result
indicat d the 0 arne or better pitting corrosion resistance than

au tenitic grade 3 1 6L. The) al 0 reported that grade D 32205 offered a better
corro ion re i tance than grade 3 1 6L e pecial l)' from c re\ ice corrosion.

20404 i-Re i t Ductile Iron (NDI) A l loy :

I n order to ha\e better under tanding of this c lass of materials it is important to kno\\ and
di cu the \ arious propertie of cast iron and ni-re ist ca t irons as special c 1 as es of metal! ic
engineering material s.

20404.1 Man u factu re of ca t iro n :

C ast iron is manufactured from its oxide ores [ I ] . I ron is reduced in a bla t furnace where
coal or coke. limestone and iron oxide ore are charged at the top of the furnace and hot blast air
is introduced at the bottom along with some h) drocarbon fuel . The liquid iron 'pig iron' (4-5 ° 0
.0.5- 1 °'0 i) is col l ected at the bottom of the furnace and allowed to olidif) in various forms,

25
 ub equent pr ce ing \\ ith man) allo) ing opti n in electric r other furnace i n eded to
produ e th Iron r teel c; of desired propertie fi r the intended application . ontrar) to steel
product ca t ir n ha\ e c n iderabl ) lo\.\ er ductilit) or are b ical l ) brittle. Therefor cast irons
are u ual h btained as ast product \', hereas t el ar u ual l} produ ed in \ ariou form uch
a plate . beam . bar . ca t. etc .

2 0 404.2 M ic ro t ru ctu re, main allo� in g element an d cla ificatio n of ca t iron :

a t Iron are ferr us al l ) that ha\ e carbon rich phase [ I ]. The common. i.e. non­
al lo) ed or 1 0\\ -al lo) d. ca t iron ha\ e iron. carb n and silicon a main elements. The matrix in
common ir n can ha\ e the different micro tructures such as pearlite or ferrite. The matrix rna)
ha\ e different allo) ing element in o l ut ion. Other phases. i.e. graphite and carbides. also exi t .

t\. 1 deratel) and highl y al lo) ed c a t iron contain. among other elements. rugh

percentage of al lo) ing element [ I ]. The e special high-al l oy cast irons are manufactured to
,eT\ e \ ariou engineering application . uch applications rna) require heat resistance. corrosion
re I tance. \\ ear re i tance or a combination of the e desirabl e properties. Figure 2 .3 is a
l a ifi ation of uch peciai cast irons.

'::�r p I': '

10 Fe ' c

w- . '1....ar orros. on ", oj

� Stste'" . r�Sl s:a r..

Figure 2 .3: C lassification of highJy al loyed cast irons [ 1 ] .

26
2 .4A.3 Role f g ra p h ite and it effect o n propert ie of ca t i ro n :

raphlte i belie\ d [ 1 ] to gi\ e the cast iron three main ad\ antages 0\ er teel . The fi rst i

b� lo\\ ering the p uring temperature due to the higher carbon content. The ec nd is b)
increa ing the m It fluidit) as the graphite act as a lubricant. The third \ \'a) i b) re ulting in
m derate shrinkage of the metal during olidification as the graphite increa e in \ olume and
compen. ate for orne of the metal hrinkage. The e advantage al lows for casting the iron in
intri at hap reducing
.....
manufac turing
.....
0 t : e.g.
.....
ca ting
..... i imple t and mo t direct \ \ a) of
an ex.ample. c a ting in a pattern in tead of cold working or wel ding. gi\es

more con i tent product \\ithout dimen ional change with mor uniformit) in tructure a\ oiding
homog neit) problem or flaw introdu ed by welding. Graphite can have different hape
depending on liquid treatment. prior to pouring. and chemical c mpo ition. Figure 2 .4 i l lustrates
the \ ariou fonn of graphite in ca t iron .

Th hape. ize and di tribution of the graphite in ca t irons can ignificantl) affect their
prop rtie [ I]. For e:\.ampJe big variation in mechanical strength is a result of difference in
graphite morphol og� as depicted in fi gure 2.5. II the stre s strain CUf\ es in the figure indicate
lad. of linearit) or c l ear ) ield point . For ductile. al so knO\ \11 as nodul ar.irons the percent
nodulari!) also affect mechanical properties [ 1 ]. Ductil e iron are usual l y specified to have
greater than 90 0 0 nodularit) [ 1 ] . Lo\ \ percentages of nodularity can ad\ er el) affect mechanical
propertie . uch a 0 .2 offset yield and tensile trength. a shown in figure 2.6.

2 A,4,4 Carbide effect o n p ropertie :

C arbide in cast iron al 0 affect their mechanical strength properties [ I ] . Presence of

carbide i indicated to affect both 0.2 off: et yiel d and ten ile strengths of cast irons. Figures 2 . 7
and _ . 8 bel o\ \ ho\ \ that as the carbide content increases the 0.2 0'0 offset ) ield strength increases
and the tensile strength decrease respectivel ) .

27
 Ii

III

�l $ �
-e C;1 4 �
.$ �
'»

v VI

Vl I

Figure 2.4: T) pical graphite shapes: L spheroidal graphite: I I . imperfect pheroidal

graphite: I II . temper graphite. I V. compacted graphite: . crab graphite: I . exploded
graphite: II. flake graphite [ I ]

28
 4W .----,----�---r--� 6 T

52

300 ¢3.5
cr.
a.. ;)
:i
III
ri 240 35 /II
I» r;g
IP .....
...
III
�
po

e
� l ao F l a k t! 26 '00
0; c;
c: �
(I) I-
�
l LC t1 5

�J-+-+----+----i---+---I 9

C L----'---�---.L.�-....-
.. --l O
o 0.1 D.2 03 0.4 05

Figure 2 . 5 : Influence of graphite morphology on the tress-strain curve

of everaJ cast irons. [ 1 ]

29
 100 0

-� .. s d e
900
".
-
/
800

a..
.v

2
- �J
:;:, 8
-

/.
Il)

�')

. ... " 0 .:.:

. se
o
600
YJe:c

500

.1QO

20 �o 50 20 ' ao
I ' o c u l c: ri :,. ':; 0

Figure 2.6 : Influence of nodularit) o n some mechanical properties

of ductile iron. [ 1 ]

30
 co
D... 4 50
2
.r::. C

C
G>
�

-
C
m
42 5
!-?
8
\.J

ill 70° 0 nodu ar gra o I e

>- ..
-
"
(/) 400
-
-

I
·lOC" nocu . u [
0
r2pn:te
0
0
C\J
0 I I I I
0 2 4- 6 3 10 12 1 't
Caru ice conte n , %

Figure 2 . 7 : Relation hip of carbide content with 0 .2°,0 offset yield strength [ 1 ] .

-:l
f'. >90C� O(!U.i:1f r3ch Ie
•

�
-
�

:::;1
r-

tlJ
�

:'1)
0
70:'� nccLJil(
:Jj
J rcphi te

c 5eo
:::J
..

.+5 0 r-
400S ;:..,dt.. tar ·;{ rap.'i .:e

o 2 6 8 :0 i2

Figure 2 . 8 : Relationship of carbide content with tensi le strength [1]

31
2 A A.5 '\1 icro t ru ct u re a n d chem ica l co mpo ition of "' D 1

J 10 1 ' are highl} a l l yed c l as o f ca t iron [ 1 . 2]. Their main al l oying element i s 'ickel

and It content \ arie between I -22° ' 0 as per rel e\ ant tandards gi\ ing it it au tenitic
micro tru tur and it d irable ITO ion re i tan e properti . Other al loy ing element uch as
chrom IUm are pre ent e\ en th ugh in lower percentage than nickel . ] t has been reported that
addition of hr mium, as in i-re i t ea tings.
� form hard carbides and hence higher
�
chromium
I belic\ cd to increas the pr pen it) for microporosit) in the iron castings [2] . D I come in a

\ ariet) of ompo ition d pending on the application. For ea water applications \', hich includes

brine ef\ ice t\ \ O ommon grade of OI are indicated in table 2-3.

Table 2-3: hemi al ompo ition of two grades of Ouctil e i - resist. [2]
l Si
r
rade C Max. Mn P Ma Ni Cr Mg Nb eu

I 1 .5-" 0.7-1.25 0.08 - -

T 1 " .0 18-22 1.75-2 . 7 5 0.04

439 02
I
B S3468 I 3.0 1 .5-2 .2 0.5- 1 .5 0.0 - 1 8-22 1 . 5-2.2 0.06 0.12-0.2 0.5 I

2 \\'
I I I
The micro tructure of - D r grades is compri ed of austenite matrix containing nickel .
among other e lements. i n solid olution \ \ ith two other phase namely graphite nodule and
carbide area [2]. uch micro tructure is shov.n in fi gure 2.9.

..

Graphite
---
odule
" ...
•

�
Carbides .
-'"

•
•
.. • ·fr

Figure 2 . 9 : ND l 2 W microstructure showing graphite nodules and carbides i n Austenite . [2]

32
20404.6 \ 1 ec h a n i ca l pro p rt ie of ' D I

Data o n the 0.2% ) ield and ten ile strength wer comprehen i\. ely publ i hed b) the '0]

[ 2 1 . Table 2-4 h \\ ty pical \. aJ ue of D r grade 02 and 2 \\ .

1 able 2-4 : m chani al propertie o f tw grade of du tile i-resi 1.

0.2 0/0 Proof % longation, Bri ne l l

\ 1 10) trength. 1 Pa tre . M Pa Mod ul u . GPa minimum Hardne

T1\1
3 70-4 0 _ 1 0-250 1 1 2- 1 "' 0 8 1 40-200
4 " 9 02

B "' 46
3 70-490 2 1 0-260 1 1 2- 1 3 " 7 1 40-200

2 .... .... 7 Corro ion performa n ce a n d electroc he m i c a l propertie of NDI in sea " ater
.

'01 alloy are reported to have better re i stance uni form corro ion than ord inary cast
Iron and carbon steel [2] a hO\\11 in the figure 2. I O. They also pos es much better
ero ion corro ion re i tance than the e al loy [ 2 ] . ND l are located mid range in the galvanic
erie of alloy s tested in ea \.\ ater em ironment [2] . Their potential again t HE range from
around -0.:3 to -OA2 . They become anodi c when for example they are coupled \\ ith 316
material as the latter ha a free potential of around -0.05 V. F igure 2. 1 1 shows the galvanic
ene of common al loys i n sea water.

Electrochemical propertie of O J in 3 0 0 aC I sol ution at 25dC were studied by mart et

al [20] using rotating disc \ oltammetry. The) have found that corrosion potential values and
their dependence on rotating speed indicated oxygen reduction as the cathodic process and that it
i of kinetic control 1) pe rather than m ass transport contro l . They have also found that two Tafel
regions existed i n the anodic process one with a lope ca 70 m V decade - 1 . occurring at lo\.\­
current densities. and the other. at higher c urrent densities. v, ith a slope of ca 49 m V decade - J .
The) ha\ e stated that Tafel slope e 'trapolation method was not suitable in determ i ning corrosion

current due to l arge errors i n Tafel slope determ i nation.

33
 5.0 r------r--..

fJ .ra :.d S il \'/ater

/'
/
/
� 3 0 r----7--�/�--
<' /
E
E / .: ' � . : �:: . : �
<1>
.... .
/
ro 2.0 Plain Caro n e -- ..----:r
/
/'---------------�
a:: /"
c
o
<f)
� ,/ /
o
"­
�
/ /" /
.O �--�'��------------------------
/'
----
----�
o
o 7
t·� I-Reslst D-2
--------�I_--_-
o �------�--�
20 30 ·10 5

Tcm� c ature c>c

Figure 2. 1 0 : Corrosion perfonnance of i-resist compared to ordinary cast iron and

carbon steels in aerated sea water environment [2] .

34
 o N M ....",
C O O 0 9 =
.-

Figure 2 . 1 1 : G ah anic series of al loys in flowing seawater [2.4-4.0 meter/sec] at

ambient temperatures [ I 0-27dC ] . [2]

35
2AA. of rD I a n d cra c ki n g i n ot her elec ted d u c t i le i ro n :

M i ya aJ.. a et al stud ied [4] beha\ i r f i-re i t cast iron type TM A436. t) pe 2
and 439. t) pe 02 in a I ol ution u ing con tant load method and mooth round pecim n .
The) examined infl uence of applied a 1 and OX) g n concentration .
potent ial and al lo) ing element on beha\ ior. The) found among other findings, i -resi t
are u_ceptible to and t) pe 02 ( d uctile) being more re i tant to than t) pe 2. The)
found that mechanism \\ a f acti \ e path corro ion cracking, and that l i fe to C fai lure i
i m er el) proportional to applied tre , p tential and temperature.

Kauczor r ported [2 1 ] that i tran granular and run in strait l i ne through the
material \\ ith harp branch that are u uall) at right angl . He tated that the clea\ age urfaces
uld almo t be mi taJ..e n fi r grain boundar) fracture. H e al 0 stated that the types of crack
b ha\ ior could be di tingui hed in the fracture urface from being that of grain boundary fracture
b) omparin g the canning electr n micrograph ( E M ) with sufficientI) magnified optical
micrograph that would ho\\ grain boundarie and crack through the grains.

Oa\\ on and Todd [22] e>..a mined CC usceptibil i t) of 0 1 02 w ith \ eri fying amount
of carbide at 45<>C . The re ults indicated that within chemical composition range required by
A T 1 tandard \ ariou carbide content can occur and that the form of CC i i nfl uenced b)
amount of the carbid . The result al 0 howed that high carbide contents promote more severe
cracking if the e carbides tend to form network. The author recommended good
� �
sil icon
inoc ulation practice and high i i i con and Ie s chromium content . The) also recommend heat
tre rel ieving the i -re i st ca ting to minimize total stre s.

Roger Co\ ert et al reported [2] that i resist are highly resi tant to CC e en though

orne fai l ures had l i kely occurred b) this form of corrosion. They stated that proper stress rel ief
heat treatment after ca ting, \\ elding and machining operations wou l d greatly al leviate or even
eliminate such fai l ures. The) q uestioned what others reported with regards to ranking some
-iresist grades 0\ er other i n their resistance to C c . The) preferred to treat them eq ual ly as the)

believed that other reasons such poor qual ity of c astings. corrosion fati gue and other fai l ure
mechanisms should be considered.

Raman et al [ 2 3 ] studied fai l ure of a cast i ron component exposed to caustic sol ution
during Ba) er process used in processing alumina. They exami ned c racks in the component u ing

36
mcta l lograph) . E 1 . TE 1 and uger electron pe tr c P) . rack \'. ere attributed to
intergranular and embrittl ment of grain b undaI} at crack tip front. Argument \\ a made on
p . ibil it) of h) drogen a j ted ra h. propagati n .

J K i m and J . .I i [ 2 4 ] carried u t fatigue t e t o n ductile c a t iron that \\ ere ubj ect to

super rapid induction quen hing tr atment. The effect of th de\ eloped hard layer on fatigue
ra k initi atIon and propagation \\ a emphasized in the tud) . The) found that the applied
quenchi ng treatment re ulted re triction on crach. i nitiation due to development of martensitic
shell around the graphite n dule as \\ e l l as the compre i\ e re idual stre in the hard layer.
(rach. propagati on wa found to be retard d b) these d eloped feature .

\ er the la t t\\ O to thre d ade there ha\ e been many ca es in \\ hich 0 1 material

fai led by . tre COITO ion cracking ( ) e pecial l y in the rabian Gul f region [4. ] I . ] 2, 2 1 ] .
Due to economi and reliabi l it) con ideration in de al i nation process. the e fai l ures make re­

e\ al uation of and further tudie on performance of the e materials and investigation on u e of

th r candidate mater ial for pres ure ca i ng of paramount i mportance .

Prel iminary im e tigation by the author ha re ealed that t h e fai l ures of the pump ca i ngs
made out of 'OJ grade by 1\\0 d ifferent manufacturer were not related to carbide phases

fomling a neh\ ork or q ual i ty of ca tings. I t i however cracking through austenite matri x without
preference to any micro tructural features. Therefore there is a need to tudy and compare the
d i fferent beha\ ior of the h\o grade of Dr \\ ith respect of their resi stance to the CC in brine

en ice. Even though the d i fference in beha\ ior could be d ue to a ingle or a combination of
factor . only material related factor wi ll be i m e tigated in this tudy. Thi wi ll be achieved by
condu tin!! CC testing on the e two material whi le neutralizing other contri bution factors,
� � �

uch a re idual or applied tres es. temperature, galvanic effects, etc. The study \\i l l be carried
out using specially desi gned CC test cel l and apparatus. The study wil l also incl ude mechanical.
microstructural and electrochemical testing to compare the properties of these two grades and
i m e tigate their relationshi p to CC re i stance of the h\o 0 and G materials.

37
 Chapter 3

EX PERIMENTAL W ORK

38
3. E� pe ri m n ta l W o rk

3. 1 \- l a terials

The te t material. u ed in thi tud) \\ ere de i gnat d . ourced and identified a fol lows:

De i gnatJOn: Th material that had a longer en ice l ive prior to fail ure b) CC i
de i gnated as 0 material (u ed i n d alination plant named D ) \\ hereas the one that had
horter en ice l i fe prior to it fai l ure b) C is de i gnated G mat rial (u ed in
de ali nation plant named G). Th 0 material was manufactured a per TM 439 02
[ 5 ] and material a per Briti h tandard B 3468 2W [6] \\ hich accord i ng to tandard

is more v. eldabl than 0 material due to add ition of iob i um in smal l amounts.

- Te t material of both 0 and G material \\ ere c ut out from pump casing that fai l ed b)
C . Location at \\ hich te t materials were c ut i s elected to be a near to crack area as
po. lble to en ure to the extent po i ble that micro tructure of test material i same a
that of crack d ar a . Figur 3 . 1 ho\\ pump ca ing v.ith cut out porti n . The chemical
compo ition a reported by pump manufacturer were u ed i n the compari on. X-raJ
flore_cence ( "RF) i n trument \Va u ed to compare b tween percentages of main
element of the two type of material s .

3.2 pecimen Fa b ricat i o n a n d P repa ration for Te t i ng

pec imen of d ifferent shapes and ize were fabricated to uit the vario us exami nation
and te ting techniques used in thi stud) . The specimen u ed in both electrochemical and CC
te ting had their urface fini shed to 600 grit size . pecimen used for image anal ) sis were
fini hed a di c ussed in ection " . 3 . P rior to electrochemical tests speci mens \»ere \\'a hed \"ith
fre h \\ ater fol lowed b) acetone wa h and air d rying. Other pecimens were stress rel i e ed b)
heat treatment according to TM A439 [ 5 ] . During heat treatment D and G materials were
stress rel i e\ ed in same oven i n same batch. T) pical heat treatment chart i s shown i n fi gure 3 . To
faci litate micro copic exami nati on chem i cal cleaning by H exa methylene tetra amine olution
\\ as used according to TM G J [ 2 5 ] to remo\ e as m uch as possible of corrosion prod ucts from
samples that fai l ed d uring service and those subjected to CC l aborator) tests. arne cleaning

39
method \\ a u_ed to clean pecl men ubj ected to tre rel ief heat treatment from high
temperature ale prior to gri nding and p Ii hing the e pe imen for corro ion te ting.

(b)

F igure 3 . 1 : B R P casings of D m aterial (a) and G material (b) \\;th test material cut out.

40
u

�- - -- -------

o 0:45 1 : " 0 2 : 1 5 3 :00 3 :4 5 4 : 3 0 5 : 1 5 5 : 5 2 6 : 3 7

Ti m e , h o u rs

F igure 3 . 2 : T) picaJ stres rel ief heat treat ment according to A T M A439 [ 5 ] .

41
3.3 I mage .\ n a ly i a n d H a rd ne Te t :

Round p ci men of OS· thickne and I " d iameter \, ere fabricated for micro copic
c. amination of the mi r tructure a \\ ell as hardne te ting. pe imen are hO\\TI in fi gure
3.3. ece ar\ urfa e grinding wa carried out u ing a rotar) grinder \, jth grinding paper. up to

2400 grit round p c i men \\' re p Ii hed using a rotal) pol i hing machine with diamond
pa tc up to 0.2 �m. � ample wer then etched using 2 0 0 ital olution (2 0 0 itric acid in 98 0 0
Ethanol). i fication of graphite nodules. in both t) p of cast irons. in terms of average
nod ule diameter. number of nodul per quare m i l l i meter and a\erage aspect ratio of nod ule

\\ as determine d u ing E 1 imag and K 300 Kontron El ktronik image anal) is oftware.

I-Iardne te t \\'er cond u ted u ing tandard ickers hardn tester. B ri nnel hardnes te t
were al 0 arranged through a pecial i t laboratory .

Figure 3 .3 : The two spec imens u ed for m icrostructural examination.

3 . 4 M echanical Ten i le Te t :

Ten ile test peci mens 2 of each of the two D and G materials (total 4 ) having a gauge
diameter of 1 2 . � mm were m achined from fai led pump casing . Tension tests were conducted as
per A TM E8 standard [26] using 1 00 MN MT tensile testing machine. The speci mens used i n
C C testing were o f size 6.25 m m . t o s u i t proof ring stressing capability . Therefore. i n order to
examine the effect of specimen size on tensile properties. two round ten i l e specimens size 6.25
mm were prepared and then tested using MT machine . Due to smal l gauge length the a\ai l able
extensometer could not be used and strain gauges v,:ere used instead. The stre s strain c urves
were obtained .

42
3.5 lect roc hemical T ting:
Hollo\\ c� l i ndrical t e t pe I men ha\ i n g 1 2 .4 mm out i d e diameter and 7.94 mm height

both 0 and materials \\ ere used. Following machini ng. pecimens \\ ere tre s rel ieved
f l lo\\ ing the \ T\II guidel i ne [ 5 ] . chemical l) cleaned as p r TM [25] and mechanicall)
pol i hed to 600 grit lze. then degrea ed \\ ith acetone and cleaned v, ith fresh
\\ ater prior to e1t:ctr hemical te ti ng.
The brine used for teo ting \\ as arranged from the de al ination plants in \\ hich the fai l ure
of material by took place. torage tanks were u ed to tore brine at roof level to al lo\\ for
a once through gray it) as i ted flo" and hence a oid u e of pumps. Fi gure 3 .4 sh ws the
desal ination plant and a brine tank being filled \\ i th brine.
1 potentio tat and oftware � stem were used for testing. The test apparatus and
hape of te t pe imen u ed in electrochemical tests are hovm in Figure 3 . 5 .

(a) (b

Fi e£ure 3 .4 F i l l in g the bri ne tank with brine used i n corrosion testing: (a) the desal plant and
�

(b) the tank being fi ll ed v.ith brine.

43
 (a) (b)

Figure "' .: : Clectr h mi al te ting apparatus (a) and a t) pical te t spec imen (b)

l sing the a\ ai lable ft\\ are prepared peclmen \\ ere subjected to long term l inear

p l arization reo i"tance mea urement ( for carro ion rate determination) and long term re t potential
mea urement. The. mea ur m nt were carried out over a period of about 1\\ 0 days at room
temperature (25 ± 2° ). Th duration \\'a cho en to allow for urface stabil ization to ensure
repeatabi l it) of re ult . The abo\ e tests were d irectl ) fol lowed b) potentiodynam ic weep tests to
corn par between the carro ion beha\ jar of both material types. tandard A TM G3. G 5 9 and
G6 1 [27. 28 and 29] pertai ning to these te ts \\ ere used.

3.6 E xamination of peci mens H a v i n g erv ice I n d u ced C ra c ks :

To permit E M examination of the fracture surface i nitiated b) C d uri ng service one

.
pecimen each from both D and G materials of a ize approximatel ) 2" b) , , b) I " and having
crack.s \\ ith crack front were c ut out from fai led casing . Holes with threads were prepared and
pecial fixtures \\ere fabricated to open the crack surfaces up using the M T \ \ i thout damaging
the crack surface. Figure 3 .6 i l l ustrates the G speci men read) for c rack opening. Two other
pecimens \\;th CC crack were al so prepared for optical m icro COpy to examine nature of
crack propagation i n the matrix and other phase pre ent. They are hown i n Fi gure 3 . 7 .

44
Figure 3 . 6 : The . pe i men pri r to crack opening v" ith the CC appearing at top. The top
threaded hole (out of t\', 0 u ed to hold pecimen) is hown at top surface .

F igure 3 . 7 : The two pec imens ( G to the l e ft and D t o the ri ght) with
CC crack removed from fai l ed pumps c asings. These were spec i fi cal l y
used for optical microscopic exami nation o f CC cracks.

45
3. Ten i l e on<.;tant Load Te t i no ppa ratu De, elopment

Due to it implicit) the c n tant load method u ing direct tension te t a proof ring \Va

selec tcd to e\ al uate and compare the material re i tance to C and as per A TM tandard G49
[ �Ol Due to l i mited res ur e . commercial i ) a\ ailabl pro f ring could not be arranged. Thi
required dc\ cl ping a pro f ring of uitable apa i t) to handle i-re i t materials. fter the
fabri ation of th proof ring it wa l oaded and cali brated u ing T . cali bration table wa
pn.:pared. It indicate. the load \al ues a hie\ abl e again t the denection \ alue of the ri ng. The
pr f ring \\ i th P cimcn h i ding bolt and tightening nut are hov.n in the figure 3 . 8 .

1'0 all \\ proper and ac urate tres i n g o f the pecl men a special j ig \\ a de\ i sed.

rectangular opening at the hold i ng brack t through \\ hich the top tressing bolt is i nserted
en ure that b) turning the nut the bolt doe not tum. H ence the peci men recei es onl) tensile

loading " ithout tor ion tre . Thi i important a onl) ten i l e l oadi ng hould be present d uring
te ting. Figure 3 .9 and " . 1 0 ho\\ tre ing j i g before and after proof ri ng- pecimen
as "embl) \",hereas fi gure 3 . 1 1 how the stre ing of the proof ring and pecimen. The j i g also
made it po ible to accuratel) measure the reduction ( deflection) of the diameter of proof ring
u ing a digital \ emier cal i per. For this purpose. the i nternal diameter of the proof ring would be
mea_ured in yertical direction. The required load to be appl ied on the specimen and the

orre ponding compre ion was identi fied using the proof ring cal ibration table. Figure 3 . 1 2

ho\\ ho\\ mea urement i made.

The te t cel l wa then desi gned and fabricated using plastic materials. The main bod) is a
tran parent plastic pipe 2 inches i n d iameter. The two open ends were provided with Teflon caps
which contained holes for sol ution inlet and outlets. The specimen would be in erted at the
center of the cel l in \ ertical arrangement The cell was also designed to permit electrochemical
te ting. The cel l has holes for accommodating the working ( spec imen), counter and reference
electrodes in addition to holes for thermometer and venting tubes. Figure 3 . 1 3 sho\ s top and
side \ ie\\ s of the cell ",:ith orne of the items fitted in holes. The cell would be supported in
incl ined arrangement. During the trial testing the proof ring-c e l l assembl) \vas eated on the
stressing j i g as ShO\Vl1 in Fi gure 3 . 1 4. However in order to overcome l eakage of electric currents

46
ob cn ed d uring initial te. ting a non- ond ucting round T fl n bar \\ 1th opening to aIT) the proof
ring- ell as. embl) \\ as de\ i ed a ho\\n in figure "' . 1 - . It has grov e at the ide 0 a to be
fitted on the side \" all f the drainag pan \\ ith the ell in incl ined po ition as i hO\',11 in fi gure
.., . 1 6. fhe incl ination of the cell all \\ hydrogen gas. e\ oh ed during the electrochemical pr ce

at the cath de. to be \ nt d at inlet ide for the cel l through a naITO\\ v ent t ube. The \ enti lation
prev ent. d \\TI \\ ard di placem nt of the brine in the cel l b) gas evol ution hen e en uring all time
immt.:rsion of the pec imen.

� pecial att ntion \\ a g i \ en to preparati n of pec llnen for C in the bri ne solution.
After machining th m thc) \\ ere tre relieved and chemical l ) cleaned. A fter that the) had to
undergo . urface preparation b) fine grinding to grade 600. The) were then prepared for coating
the mo reduction portion' of p ci men b) re i n 0 a to en ure two purposes. The first was to
seal the te t cell a the pecimen \\ uld p netrate the cel l at top and bottom . The econd was to
ensure a re\ ice fre urface at gauge length. This i show n in Figure 3 . 1 7 .

Figure 3 . 8 : The proof ring v,,;th top bolt stressing nut and bottom bolt.

47
 pening for
tre ing bolt

pening for

Proof Ring
bottom fi xing
point

Figure "' .9: The proof ring tre sing J i g \\ ith the proof ring on left side.

Figure 3 . 1 0 : The proof ring-cell -specimen assembly fixed i n the stressing j i g.

48
 Figure 3 . 1 1 : tres i ng of the proof ri ng-speci men assembly using the stressing j i g.

\1eas ured
Oi tance

Figure 3 . 1 2 : A photo that shows hov. the proof ring compression i measured.

49
 ...

(a)

gCI
Thermo­
Ele trode
meter

Counter
E lectrode

\ ent Tube

Outlet
Tubing

Inlet Tubmg

T\\o hole
(\\ith Teflon E nd Teflon
eal ) for Cap
peclmen
in ertion

(b)

Fi gure 3 . 1 3 : A top \ ie\\ ( a) and a side view (b) of the test cel l with al l
connection fitted except the tensile specimen

50
 (a)

(b)

Figure 3 . 1 4 : side vie\\ (a) and a front view (b) o f the test apparatus using the stre i ng j i g as a
eat

51
 Figure '" . 1 5 : The round T flon seat used for the proof ring-cell a sembi ) .

Figure 3 . 1 6 : A front vie\,,' of the test apparatus using the Teflon bar as a seat.

52
 �__ __
(a)

(b )

(c)

Figure 3 . 1 7 : Photos (a) to (c) that show how a specimen is prepared for resin coat i ng
appl ication at the section red uction portions. Teflon half rings are clamped at center and
threaded ends are wrapped with Teflon tape. Photo (d) shows how the specimen looks
l i ke after app l ication of the resin. The solution side of the resin i s angled i n a way to
minimize crevice effect.

53
3.8 Te t i n g C o n d ition

In order to accelerate the te ting the specimens ". ere subj ected to fol lo\\1ng test
conditions. These v" ere adopted after consulting the l iterature as wel l as rele ant tandards.

I. part from the bri ne ol ution corrosion aggressivene ss it was aerated b) allov\1 ng
atmospheric air to enter the 0\ erhead brine tank. Continuous suppl ies of the brine ensure that
the brine in the test cel l tays fre h and rich in chJorides hence maintaining its corrosivene s .

2. The brine olution temp rature was rai ed t o around 5 5° C using a special ly fabricated heater.
Thi temperature was ch en based on work by M iyasaka [4] which suggested that higher
temperature \yould not accelerate CC signifi cantl) A speciall} made electric heater was
.

u ed for thi purpo e. To 0 ercome the electric element damage by brine corrosion attack
ob erved during i nitial trial te t a containment cyl inder housing the element was used . The
C) l i nder was made out of 3 1 6 material and contains automotive radiator coolant fluid
\\ hich transfers the electricaU) generated heat to the cyl inder and subsequently to the flowing

brine. Figure 3 . ] 8 belo\\ hows the heater.

Brine inlet \ alve

Brine vent valve

Heater Bod)

Coolant E xpansion
Brine outlet tube Tube

Power cable and

Thermostat

ent case tube

Figure 3 . 1 8 : The electric brine heater wrapped with thermal i nsulation material .

54
 3 . The specimen v, ere al l anodical l) polarized b) 1 00 mV with respect to their free corrosion
potential . Thi pol arization is believed to be moderate and representati v e of actual situation
during en ice as nire i t is usua l ! ) coupled \\ ith 3 1 6 [3] .

-l . The specimens \\ ere tre ed to val ues ranging from j ust over 70% to 1 02°'0 of the yield
tress of both material . Thi was chosen i n order to accelerate the CC and based on the fact
that tre v al ue v\-ere \\ithin proof ri ng capac ity and that hi gher stres val ues could not be
accuratel) detemlined ba ed on measured stress strain data.

3 . 9 Ten i l e Consta nt Load see Te t i n g P roced u re :

ctual ten ile CC testing was performed o n a total of 8 specimens: i .e. 4 spec imens o f G
material and -l of 0 material . Fol lov,i ng procedure was used :

I . The specimens were fi rst stress relieved using H T curves as per ASTM standard [ 5 ] .
? The applied stresses were chosen as fol lows. Two G speci mens and 1\vo D specimens
were stres ed at around 220 M Pa. Tllis is 1 00% of G specimens yield stress and 86%
of D material yield stress. For unbi ased comparison two G speci mens were also
stressed and tested at 86% ( l 90MPa) of G material yield stress. Two other 0
specimens were tested at 1 90 M Pa and 206 M Pa.
3 . The desi gn o f the cel l necessitated that the stressing o f the speci mens i s carried out.
usi ng the proof ring, after inserting the speci men in the test cel l . U si ng a set of
spanners the proof ring is tightened to the desired stress levels using the cal ibration
table and a digital vernier cal i per as d iscussed in a pre ious section.
4. Once the specimen i s stressed the whole assembly i s placed on the seating
arrangement and vari o us connections are made. The end caps are then fitted to the
cel l . This is fol l owed by fitting all inserts namely; vent tube at i nlet side, thermometer
to the right of vent. the reference electrode next to specimen and the counter
electrode.

55
 5 . Further. the heater would be set at 5 5 ° C using the heater element thermostat. I t i s
es ential that the heater i s al lovl:ed suffi cient time t o warm u p to around the set
temperature. This can be knOV.l1 v.ith the power supply i ndication lamp.
6. The PC connected camera is then hooked around the test cel l using rubber bands and
aimed at the speci men . The camera softv., are is set so as to take photos at intervals of
1 5 minutes.
7. The CM oft\\ are is then set with the required data such as specimen surface area,
polarization, cans rate, etc . 0\\ the apparatus is ready for testing.

8. After ad mitting the bri ne sol ution and reaching at the test temperatme (5 5+- 3 ° C ) the
camera is acti\ ated. the potentiostat is run and the time to fu l l fractme wi l l be
monitored and recorded v i s ual l ) with the camera.

The above procedure was repeated for al l the specimens. The criterion of comparing the
re i stance to stress corrosion cracking is the time to fu l l fracture.

56
 Chapter 4

R E S U LTS AN D DISC U S SION

57
 4. Re u l t a n d D i c u ion

4.1 M aterial a n d C h e m ica l C o m po ition :

The chemical compo ition of both 0 and G material s are hovm in Table 4- 1 as reported
b) pump manufacturers. A TM . 4"9 [ 5 ] and B 3468 [6] ranges of composit ion are also shown
in the table. . iton portable TRF analy zer model XLT898 W was used to compare the alloy
content . Due to l imitation of thi meth d in detecting Carbon and i l i con in cast i ron it was
u ed j u t as a upport to confirm composit ion reported b) OEMs especially regarding contents of
major element such a nickel and chromi um. The chemical composition s so measured are
i ndi ated .

Table 4- 1 : Reported chem ical compositions of the D and G -types i Resist austenitic cast iron i n
relation t o the perm is ible range of composition a s per the A TM .

Element C Si Mn P Ni Cr Mg Nb Cu I ron

AST M A439 - 0 . 7-

02 Range 3 .0* 1 .5-3 1 .2 5 0.08* 1 8 - 22 1 . 75- 2 . 75 -

- - Bal.

D material : 2.69 2.58 0.83 0.0 1 3 1 8 .9 2. 1 2 * 0 0 72 . 8 7

XRf 0 Mat'} - - .93 - 2 1 .4 5 2.27 -

- -
74.92

B S3 468-S2 W 0. 1 2-
3.0 1 . 5-2.2 0 . 5 - 1 .5 0.05 1 8-22 1 . 5 -2.2 0.06 0.5
R ange 0.2

G materia l : 2.77 1 .94 1 .03 0.0 1 5 20. 1 1 .66 0.043 0. 1 5 0.08 72.2 1
I
XRf G M at'} - -
1 .08 - 2 1 .07 1 . 79 - .13
1 - 75.3 1

* amount not indicated though controlled amount of about 0 . 045<J-o is needed to produce nodular graphite in ductile
I rons.

58
 The reported data fal l within ranges spec ified in A TM A4"9 for D material and in
B 2346 for G material . The data measured by XRF method sho\', that contents of nickel. chrome
and m angane e are clo e to tho e reported b) manufactures of fai led pump . l i ght variation in
composition exi ts a carbon and silic n could not be detected due to inherent l imitation of XRF
method.

4.2 I mage A D a ly i , M ic ro truct u re and H a rd ness :

Figure 4. 1 hov, EM micrographs . i U u trating the difference betv;een the

microstructure of the D material (a) and the G material (b). Table 4-2 sho\-\'s the image anal ysis

re ults for both t) pes of cast i ron. The e results show that the number of graphite nod ules per

sq uare m i l l i meter for the D material cast iron i s almost hal f the number of that for the G

material . Howe\ er the average nod ule diameter of the D material is greater than that for G

material. Table 4-2 shows al 0 that the graphite nodules of the D material are more circular in

eros ection than the nodules of the G material cast iron. This is i l l ustrated by the higher

a\ erage aspect ratio of the D material nodules as compared to the average aspect ratio of the G

material nodules. The EM micro graphs of Figure 4. 1 show also higher amounts of carbides

\',ith more uniforml y d i stribution within the microstructure of the D material compared to G

material . H i gher chromium content can cause this [2 ] . This can explai n the relatively higher

hardness of this type of cast iron. as can be seen from the Vickers hard ness i ndentations shov.n

in Figures 4.2 as wel l as B ri nnel hardness measurements d i sc ussed below. Average Vickers

hardness val ues. H V 5 of 220 and 200 have been measured for the D and G materials

respectively . B ri nnel H ardness testing using a 30 kgf load was also arranged separately.

Averages of 5 measurements on each of the 1\>,10 materials were done and values are as follows.

G material had an average value of 1 3 3 HB whereas D material had an average value of 1 3 9

59
B H . The -\ T M and B tandards [ 5 . 6] require minimum values of 1 39 B H and 1 40 B H

respe tivel ) . Figure 4 . 3 sh \\ E M micrographs. i l l ustrating chromi um carbide area and a

d i torted graphite nodule v.. ithin the matrix of G -type. The EDX chemical analysis within the

field area o f th e micrograph how that Cr basical ly exists in carbides rather than being in the

matri x. arne can be said about 0 material as both materials belong to equi alent grades of same

material .

.,.

••

(a)

(b)
Fi gure 4. 1 : S E M micrographs sho'wing the d i ffer� nce betwee � the microstructures of
.
the 0 m aterial (a) and the G material (b) of the Heslst cast Irons.

60
Ta b l e 4-2 : I mage anal ysis of the D and G- Types of the i-resist austenitic cast irons.

Material DMat'1 G Mat'l

Field area (mm-) 4.505 4 . 505

Number of nodule 1 13 227

N umber of nod uJe / mm - 25 .08 50.39

\erage nodule d iameter ( ll m ) 43 .67 3 1 .54

A \erage aspect ratio 0. 7 1 7 0.645

Percentage area of graphite to the total 3.8 % 2 .09 %

field area

(a) (b)

Figure 4 . 2 : V ickers hardness indentations for (a) the D and (b) the G
materi als

61
 Elmt pect. Element

o�
Type 10

Cr K ED 21.15

Mn K ED 3 AO

Fe K ED 73.35

iK ED 2. 1 0

(a) E M micrograph howing carbides \\'ith the corresponding EDX anal ysis in the field
area for the G material cast iron.

Elmt Spect. Element

Type %

C K ED 74.20

Fe K ED 2 1 .30

iK ED 4.50

(b) E M m icrograph for a d istorted graphi te nodule \\1th the correspond ing E DX
analysis i n the field area for G material . This micrograph confirms that Cr exists i n
carbides onJy.

Figure 4 . 3 : SEM micrographs of (a) chromi um carbide area and (b) a distorted graphite
nodule within the matrix of the G material.

62
4.3 \lecb a n ical Ten ile Te t i ng :

The tensile tests results are sho\\TI in Figures 4 A ( a ) and (b). The_ shO\v stress strain
cUr\ e \\ ith ulti mate stren.gths of 347MPa for D material and 3 5 5 M Pa for G material were
measured . The) al 0 sho\\ that G materi al has a hi gher ductil it} ( 9.2%) than D material ( 3 .00 0 ).
The D d uctil it) i s belo\\ th minimum req uired b) the standard. The fi gures hov,ever do not
ho\\ clear ) ield point . Thi s i typi cal of cast irons as discus ed b) Fontana [ 7 ] . Also, it was not
possible to accuratel): identif) modul us of Elasticity of both materials as there was no c lear
l inear ela ticit)' region.
To tr): to identify ) ield points the 0.2% offset method as per ASTM E 8 [26] was used to
appro\.imate the ) ield pi nts. I n order to do that the stress strain curves of fi gures 4a and 4b were
uperimpo ed up to smal l strain \ al ues ( strain scale expanded ) as shovm in Figure 4 . 5 .
cordingl ) . i t was found that the D material has higher 0.2 % offset ield strength 0[ 260 M Pa
compared to G material for which the val ue i s 220M Pa. The mod u l us of D i s found to be 1 3 1
G Pa. The G material's mod u l u i found to be 1 1 0 GPa. Both yield and modulus val ues show
that th D material is on the upper side of the range \\'hereas the G material is on the lower side
of range reported i n the standard [5. 6]
The variation in mechanical properties i s attributed to the higher carbide content i n D
material i n its m icrostructure compared to G material . This effect was reported by R . Covert et al
[2] . However. even though curve of D material i s the upper \vitllin the comparable train ranges
( up to 3°/0 ) the curve of G material having hi gher ductil ity makes its ultimate tensile strength
slightly higher than that of D material .
Figure 4.6 shO\vs stress strain c urves obtained using sub-size specimens of both materials.
The C Uf\ es are shown with strain values between 1 % to 2%. Strain gauges detached from the test
specimens beyond these al ues. The curves are very simi l ar to those obtained using standard

1 12 " speci mens indi cating that size effects are negl i gible.

63
 400

D2
300
Dl

z
� 200
:J)
OJ

i OJ

o
2 6 s '0

(a)

G2
Gl

(l
: 2 � 6 e 1: '2
Stram In "It

(b)

Figure 4.4: stress strain c urves for D material (a) and G material (b) shoV\'l1 t i l l
fracture. C urves D 2 and G 2 are offset b y 1 % and 2 % respectively for clarity.

64
 D

280
G

240
eo:
�
:;; 200
,..

r:F1
r:F1
�
c::: 160
Eo-
r:F1

120

80

0.2 1.0
S T RA I N , 0/0

F igure 4 . 5 : Stress-strain plots for the D ( upper c urves) and G (lower c urves)
specimens. 2 plots of each material are shown. The curves are shovm to 10\\
strain values to show 0 .2% offset yield points.

65
 350 . 00
D

300 . 00

.--. .
2 50 . 00 ......
.

.. /'
co
.-

a..
.'

:2:
2 00 . 00
VI
VI
Cl)
�
....
en 1 50 . 00

1 00 . 00

50.00

0 . 00

o 1 2 3
Stra i n x 1 00 %

F i gu re 4.6: Stress strai n curves o f sub-size speci mens o f both D and G m ater i a l s .
0.2% Y i eld stresses are i n d icated by arrows. Curves are l i m ited t o strains at
wh ich strain gauges detached from test speci men s .

66
4.4 E l ectroc b e m i c a l Te t i n g :

R e ult o f COtTO ion rate . rest potential and cyc l ic s\veeps measurements are sho\\TI i n
figures 4 . 7. 4.8 and 4.9 respectivel) .

G material : 1 and 4
... D material : 2 and 3
c.
E
E
i 25
...
;e

c::
0
'"
...
0
...
.0
'-'

"I" "
o 15 20 30 :;5

Ti me, hours

Figure 4 . 7 : Corrosion rates of 4 speci mens (2 from each type of cast iron)

·350 . .••
_._.

G material : 1 and 4
..
.
. . ..._. ._ ..._." ... _._e . . ... _
·J7S
D material : 2 and 3
L-____�--------------
·
·
·

>
E

Time, h o u rs

Figure 4 . 8 : Potentials of 4 speci mens ( 2 from each D & G materials). Potentials

are measured \ ersus Ag/ AgC I reference electrode.

67
 I

· t OO
• •

G material : I and -+
. -. ... "iI" � 1 �

:00
. ...
D material : 2 and 3 ..
-

--- - 7
t4" ; �
·

.JOO ... •• • _
'-- ; ;

F T
.
..�-.- _._-; /
. . ._ __••

�
�� -
.
_ ·

-400
--·:4)/· --t /�1 1
. /· ··-·
· · ·· 1
·

.-

L- n ��
. --' '-

� ':�2 �' - : : :���:�� :� �

. -.
·
-

r''" . -,�',�; �,'�:,' +..

·700
.
.
-j· · 1
.

:" , :,+: :�" .?,.,J H

.... -: .... . .;_. -:. . _
.

. . ... . - . .. ........... ... .. .;

_ _
._ _ _. . .... . . . . ·..

1 .,
.

\ 0' \0 '
::: 10 ' 1� '
"',· .
1 '
C u rre n t d ensity, mAl cm2

Figure -+.9: Tafel plot of 4 specimens ( 2 from each D & G -Type materials). A l l
potentials are m easured versus Ag/AgC I reference electrode.

The corrosIOn rates stab i l i zed between at 0.2 to 0.25 mmpy and the rest potentials
ranged between -45 0 mV to - 5 00 mV al l with respect to Ag/AgC l reference el ectrode.
imi lar result have been reported by Covert [2 ] .

Figure 4 . 9 shows the Tafel plots obtained from the cyclic sweeps. Both materials sho\,ved
simi l ar behav ior in shape of c urves without any d isti nctive pattern for either D or G materials.
The rest potentials varied from -500m V to -650mV \'vhich i s negligi ble knowing that the such
v ariation is not uncommon in these materials as seen in Fi gure 2 . 1 1 in chapter 2. Simi lar
behaYlor was reported by Smart [20] in synthetic sea water environment ( 3 % NaC l ) solution at
2 5 °C . Severe corrosion process took place at potentials greater than AOOm V CAg/ AgCI RE)
anodi c to rest potential V\ith blackish thin corrosion layer accompanied with ri gorous bubbling
at the surface of the counter electrode. The curves also indicate that N iresists are non passivati ng
materials unl ike stainless steels.

68
4.5 E a m i n a t i o n of peci men )\ ith en'ice I n d uced C racks:

The t\\ O speci mens ampled for exami nation of the crack surfaces were opened up as planned
using the pecial hold r prepared for the purpose . Fi gure 4. 1 0 (a) shows sample of G material
d uri ng this proces . Figure 4 . 1 0 blc sho\\ s fracture photographs surfaces of both materials taken
after opening the crack . The) sho\\ corroded a \\ ell as mechanical l y fractured areas. Figure
4. 1 1 show micrographs of the microstructures of the two D and G material s \vjth CC induced
d uring rvice. The) indicate that all cracks pass through the matrix without preference to phases
pre ent. Figures 4 . ) 2 and 4 . ) 3 ho� M micrographs of fracture surfaces of both the cracked
ample of 0 and G material . The) indicate distinctive regions of mechanical fracture and CC
fracture surface . The CC surfaces are similar to those reported by Kauczor [2 1 ] as shmvn in

Figure 4. 1 L..

(b) (c)
e Ca), D
Figure 4 . 1 0: Openin g up of G materia l using univer sal tensile test machin
d and (b) G
w� opened similarly . Photo (a) show D materi al chem ical ly cleane
materi al as fractur ed prior to cleani ng,

69
 .. •
,
• 'f

" t')("
"
'\ eo .. · . ,
i . •
1 __
(. , ..
_ tl'
•

. •• • '.
t

, . ./
.' � . ' ' . ' :... ' , '
• t "
.

.' • • �
_ '

, ..
.,. , f .... . . .'\.. '. '' ' , ..
•
" .
. . . "" ., ". -
I ' � . ...

' l "'. .
, : • • • • • " ' }l
, " \_/ f •
• • •

'.
-
• '.
_

• • of . :
. _� ..
. 9. . • �" �. . . " � • . .. � .
• ell .. � " • • .'

. : .r : .. .
.

'� "
-, " , l . fA
.
, ,.- .."� . ,.: .
. �
.-'
,· .. I
,,- i ' It � " . �.
- ) �'l-
· � �'

" ' " .

•

.. •

� '"
•
·

• t
• ,t ,
l
\
. .
\.. • •
.
a.

\ :J, � .. . � . . .. . ; . '
::r1. A' • .. .. I.o..: � .. • .. �
(b)

.. .... I
• . ..
.;

..
-, z;
�; 1
� .- ·
• ...I . • .. •
. ....!
�� �
I lao
••
oCJ

� wi �
,. • •
•
.. .. ..
� � *

� ..
f ,.,. ....
�
•
•

- - "'- •
(c) (d)

� J
\
\ -� ..,

r �
"-

'llI

(e)

F i gure 4 . 1 1 : Service induced SCC cracks of D material at (a) 30X. (c) l OOX ,
(e) at 200X and those of G material at (b) 30X, (d) at I OOX and C f) at 200X .
Cracks propagate thro ugh matrix without preference to phases.

70
 (b) (c)

Fi gure 4 . 1 2 : E M micrographs of D material fai led d uring service. The top

photo shows dimpled mechanically ( upper-right area) and flat see fractured
areas ( lower-left) magnified at X35 whereas the bottom photos shows (b) an
area fractured by see alone and (c) an area fractured m echanical l y alone
magnified at X200. Mechanical fractures were produced using universal testing
machine.

71
 (b) (c)

Fi gure 4 . 1 3 : E M micrographs of G material fai l ed d uring service. The top

photo shows d impled m echanical (upper-left area) and flat sec fractured areas
( lower-right) m agnified at X3 5 whereas the bottom photos shows (b) an area
fractured by sec alone and ( c ) an area fractured mecharucal ly alone magnified
at X200. M echanical fractures were produced using universal testing machine.

72
 "

,-y� I

Figure 4. 1 4 : Micrograp h showi ng sec of ducti le iresist materi al. Photo (a) is an optical
micrograph magillfied to X I OO hereas photo b) is an SEM m icrograpb of fracture surface
magnified at 400.

4.6 E ffectiven ess of Deyised see Testi n g A pp a ratus:

D uring initial testing trial on a sacri ficial G spec imen two problems had been faced. These are
I i ted belo\\ .

1 . The fust v\'as heater not heating after a day or two . I n estigation revealed damage of
element by corrosion attack of copper coil of the element. This was sol ed by provision
of a small S 3 1 6 c l i nder to encase the heater element and a coolant fluid.

J
Cell getting d rained of brine. This was solved by i ntroducing vent tube and draining
bottle at outlet tube.

Testing on the second G speci men (designated G l ) was successful v.�th close monitoring (by
attending start up and fi rst 8 to 1 0 hours and then lab visits every 5 to 7 hours). The apparatus
de\ i sed and used i n this study successful l y achieved the i ntended purpose which is conducting
ee using the constant load m ethod using a proof ring. Fi gures 4. 1 5 and 4 . 1 6 show the

development of brovmish corrosion layer on the specimen at start of test and d uring the test.

73
Figure 4 . 1 5 : A photo taken whi l e see test i s i n progress. The tensile speci men
is seen in the cel l \\�th browrll s h layer of corrosion products.

74
 (a) ( b)

(c)

F igure 4 . 1 6 : A picture (a) at a close d istance foc used at the exposed portion of the
spec imen at onset of test. The surface is sti l l shiny and yet to be co ered by
corrosion products (ferrous oxides). The RE is seen to the left. Photo (b) of
speci men after 1 5 minutes with a developed dark l ayer of ferrous oxide and photo
(c) after 30 minutes with the blacki sh layer of ferrous oxide getting covered with
(tiny globes) redd i sh ferrous oxide. In photo (d) the specimen is covered with
stable thick red-brownish layer after 4 hours.

75
4.7 C Te ting Re u lt
Follo\\ i ng e testing of tensile speci mens the times to fai l ure of specimens V,'ere

determi ned to nearest 30 mi nutes. This \\as based on re\ iew of photographs of pecimens
h wi ng ful l fracture. ome typical ph tographs of a spec imen before and after fai l ure to full
fracture d uring te ting are hO\\11 in figures 4 . 1 7 and 4. 1 8 . Photographs of al l specimens
remo\ ed after the e tests are hown in Fi gure 4. 1 9 . Figure 4.20 sho\','s speci mens D2 to D�

after c leaning them u ing sil icon carbide paper up to 400 grit size and after conducting dye
penetrant crack detection method. 0 cracks were detected. The l i fe times to full fracture of the

\ anou peci mens te ted are indicated in Table 4-3 . EM micrographs of fracture surfaces of
both D and G materials are shown in fi gures 4.2 1 to 4.2 5 . In addition to sec the specimens
\\ ere imultaneousl) subj ected to uniform corrosion under anodi c polarization applied to

accelerate the e c . The effect of uni form corrosion on specimens' sectional area was examined

b) mea UIing their diameters after the ee tests. Detai l s are shovm in Table 4-4.

(b)

F igure 4. 1 7 : T\ 0 photograph of spec imen d uring sec testing: ( a) before

and (b) after fu l l fracture.

F igure 4. ] 8: Anoth er specim en d uring sec testing : (a) before

and (b) after
fractu re.

76
 D 'l u 3

(b)

F igure 4 . 1 9: photographs of the 4 fractured G material speci mens (a) and those
of 4 D material specimens with only D 1 fractured.

77
 � � ! . JI'..;, .,
.......
:
,�
-- . t
•

, '- '."
\ • ,-..,. �.� �""II'<' ". \
l, \,\' .
•

Figure -L20: A photograph of spec imens 02, D3 and 04 after applica tion
of dye
penetrant method for crack detecti on. 0 cracks detecte d.

Table -+-3 : Performa nce of G and D materials with regards to sec resi stance (time to fai l ure) .

f Speci men Applied Stress, 0.2% offset Time To Remarks

Stress, M Fa Yield stress* Fai l ure, hours

Gl 225 1 02 . 3 3 7.6 Ful l Fracture

G2 216 5 98.4 86.5 Ful l Fracture

G3 1 90 . 8 86.7 1 00.5 Ful l Fracture

G -+ 1 90 . 3 86 . 5 72.5 Full Fracture

Dl 2 24 . 5 86.4 1 67 . 5 Full Fracture

D2
2 1 6,5 83.4 N o fai l ure. Test stopped.
1 84 . 8
D3
1 90 . 6 73,3 o fai l ure. Test stopped.
254
D4
205.9 79 . 2 o fai l ure. Test stopped.
209

* Percentage of yield stress of materials D & G as applicable. Stress (0.2% o set �

yield) o f G = 220 MFa, Stress (0.2 offset yield) of D 260 MFa (refer mecharucal =

results)

78
F igure 4 .2 1 : S E M micrographs of G material speci men G 1 (a) at X 70 showing both
ee area at upper right and mechanically fractured area at lower left. Photo (b) i s an
X200 magnifi cation of selected sec area of photo (a).

79
Fi gure 4.22: E M micrographs of G material specimen G2 (a) at X70 showing both
ee area at upper right and mechanical ly fractured area at lower left. Photo (b) is an
X200 magnifi cation of elected sec area of photo (a).

80
 (b)
F i gure 4.23 : SEM micrographs of G material speci men G 3 (a) at X70 showing both
see area at upper ri ght and mechanical ly fractured area at l ower left. Photo (b) is an
X200 m agnification of el ected see area of photo (a).

81
Fi gure 4.24: S E M micrographs of G material specimen G4 (a) at X70 showing
both ee area at upper right and mechanical ly fractured area at lower left.
Photo (b) is an X200 magnification of elected sec area of photo (a) .

82
 (b)
Fi gure 4.25 : S E M micrographs of D material speci men D l (a) at X50 showing
both sec area at upper part and mechanical ly fractured area at lower part.
Photo ( b ) is an X25 0 magnification of elected sec area of photo (a).

83
 fable -+--+ : Lffcct of peci men section reduction due to uni fonn corrosion on fi nal state of stress

T I nitial I
- �

pn Load . I nitial Final I Red uction In Stress Final Stress* . %

Di ameter, %
I Dia. mm
I
tres
I
Dia. mm
I
Rise* . f Pa G ltimate tress

� I I
6836
I
I
6 22
I 225 6 11 1 . 77 8.2 65.7

� 645 2 6 16 21 6.5 5 . 86 4 . 87 22.7 67 . 4

I

G3

T
5723
!
I
6. 1 8 1 90 8 6 2.91 1 1 .6 57.0

G4 5856 6.26 1 90 . 3 6. 1 8 1 . 28 5.0 55.0

I
D1 I 6757 6. 1 9 224.5 6 . 09 1 . 62 7.4 66.9

D2 6 1 90 6. 1 9 21 6.5 5.8 6 . 30 1 7.8 67. 5

D3 5940 6.3 1 90 . 6 6. 1 5 2 . 38 9.4 57.6

D4 6379 6.28 205.9 6 . 09 3.03 1 3 .0 63. 1

I I
*Exclud lOg stress n se due to crack effect on sectIon reductlOn.
* * Average percent ri se i n stress is found to be 5 . 7% in both materials.

As can be seen from the table 4-2 all G speci mens fractured during the tests. Out of the .:+
D pec imens only speci men D 1 fractured. The S E M micrographs of fractured surfaces clearl y
indicate t\\ O different c rack surface morphologies . Whi le m uch o f the fracture surface has
dimpled non-fl at areas characteri stic of purel y mechanical fracture. there are fl at areas extending
from edges of specimen . They also contain sudden vertical steps and transverse cracks do exist
i n the flat areas i n m any i nstances. A l l of these fi ndings match the original pump casings crack
features as was seen in fi gures 4 . 1 2 and 4 . 1 3 . They al so are characteri stic of trans granular see
agreeing v.1.th those avai l able i n l iterature as reported by Kauczor [ 7 ] . The results also tend to
ng G
agree \\ ith times to fai l ures observed in actual pl ant service ",,1 .th D material outperfonni
that as other
material ( G fai led in 5 years whereas D fai led i n around 1 8 ). Hence it can be said

84
factor are neutral i zed the material factor has a si gni ficant role in the contrasti ng performa
nce of
0 1 's \\ ith respect to resistanc e to e c . Furthermore, the used test method and apparatus
can
be considered ucces ful in achie\ ing the intended purpo e of obtaining v iable results that allow
comparati \ e ranking of materials resistance to ee in brine or simi lar environme nts.

The d iscu ion belo,>\ i s an e ffort to explain the abov e v ariation in performance of these
t\\ O materials.

As was d iscus ed in the mechanical testing results section the 0.2°'0 offset ) ield stress of
D material i higher than G material b) 40 M Pa. According to Miyasaka [4] the log of time to
fai l ure b) e i s inverseJ ) proportional to applied stress. Even though the ulti mate stresses of
both materials are approxi matel) equal the yield stress would practical ly have a more pronounce
effect on ee re istance. This view point is supported by the fact that sec takes place at

tresse much lower than yield stress a seen in Table 4-2 above and reported by Miyasaka [4] .
For a stress value o f sa) 260 M Pa the G material \\ ould be subj ect to a strain val ue o f around
1 °'0 \\ hereas D material would be strained to a val ue of 0.33% only. This is shown in Figure
-+.26. "With h i gher train \ alues in G material the bond ing between the atoms in the matrix would
b tretched " times more than D material . Thi s \\ould certain l y make G material more prone to
ec compared to D material .

Another possi ble reason for this contrasting behavior in see resi stance is characteristics
of graphite nodules in each material. As indicated in the microstructure section of this chapter,
the nodules of D m aterial are bigger and fewer than G material . The former has an average
diameter that i s around 40°,<> larger than the latter's average d iameter. Also number of D material
nodules are hal f that of G nodules in the same size of field area. As the sec is a surface
phenomenon . i .e. it takes place at surface of material that is in contact with the corrosive
environmen t. the size of graphite nodules and thei r nwnber may be significant. The nodules are
non-load bearing and i ncoherent phase in the iron as clearl y seen in SEM micrographs above
\\- hich i l lustrate voids left by nodules and gaps between the matrix and periphery of exposed
nodules. Raman [23] has studied the caustic see of ductile iron. He found that "where crack
atrix
encounte red graphite nodules. further propagati on i nvolved decohesio n in the nodule-m

85
inter[a e . " s uch. surface nodules can be considered as micro-crack s o r notches. From a
fracture me hanics \ ie\'.. point the smal ler the diameter of these natural notche the more is the
5tres concentration at these points. Al 0 the nodule count rna) also have contributed to the
d i fferent beha\ ior in resistance to C . The higher the number of nodules in the exposed
urfaces of the material higher the possibil it) of a crack to initiate at the surface. Furthermore.
the higher the n umber of nodule in the matri x the higher is the possibil it) of crack propagation.
Thi is supported b) Raman's fi ndings [23 J . The above makes the time to fai l ure b) CC of G

material shorter compared to 0 materi al .

280 -'"
/
,,;

)
240 /

�
�
� 200
OO
<r-

00
�
160
�
�
00 120 f
.

80

40

S T RA I N , 0/0

strain value s (indic ated \\ ith circ les) of

F igure 4.26: A recon struct ion of Fi gure 4.5 show ing
of 260 MPa.
0.33% for D and 1 % for G mate rial s at a stress val ue

86
 tandard A . r . 1 G 4 9 [30] discusses stress con ideratio ns d uring CC testino
- c

emphasi zing on the effects of uni form corrosion accelerated b) polarizat ion on final state
of
tres'> in tested spec imens. It can be een from the Table 4--+ that the a\ erage percent in diameter
red uctIOn in D materi al ( 3 . "' 3 �o) is relatively hi gher than that ob erv ed in G material (2. 7 1 �o).
The conseque nt av erage stres rise in D material ( 1 4 . 6 1Pa) is also relativ ely higher than G
material ( J 1 . 8 8 M Pa). Howe\ er, such stresses are sti l l much belov. the ultimate stresses of both
material \\ith percentage in the range 5 - ° 0 to about 68°'0 of the respective ultimate strengths.
This ind i cates that the result obtained are not biased b) area reduction due to uniform corrosion.

Coven [2] indicated that " assigning of degrees of susceptibi l ity (to SCC ) is of
questionable meri t . " To the contrary to this statement the results in this stud) indicate that
ranking of 'iresist with respect to CC resistance is \ iable. This is al so in agreement \\ith what
1i ya aka [4] had reported .

Further. the results clearly indicate that the relevant standards for Ducti l e Niresists do
not provide the required protection against SCC in marine service even after subjecting the cast
materials to suitable stress rel ief heat treatments again in contrary to what Covert reported [2] .

For better field performance the standards need mod ifications based on further studies
with regards to carbide contents. nod ule features and mechanical properties so as to arrive at an
optimized microstructure leading to best resistance of N D l to sec in marine service. Such
mod i fications would necessitate more stringent qual ity control and assurance procedures in
manufact uring fac i l ities. On the other hand the surface modi fication techniques may give
favorabl e results. As an example, K i m [24] had found that a super rapid induction quench
treatment gives nodular cast irons a better resistance to fati gue fai l ure. A hard l ayer at surface
would provide compressive stresses and also encapsulate the nodules with martensitic shells
retardi ng crack propagation. Appl ication of such a treatment may be promising in the case of
NDI's. On the other hand. use of alternative materials of better perfonnance should be
e\ aluated. As an example. super DSS has found wider use i n marine service in [ 1 2] recent years
and many brine and sea water pumps got their failed N D l casings replaced with such superior
materials.

87
 Chapter 5

C O N C L U SION S AND REC O M MENDATIONS

88
5. C o n c l u s i o n a n d Reco m m e n d a t i o n s

:.1 onclu ion

T\\ o case of CC fai l ures of brine pumps in desal i nation plants were in\, estigated i n thi

stud) . uch fai l ure cau e operational problems and costly shutdo\\TIS and repairs. The stud)

inc l uded microstructura L mechanical. e lectrochemica l and CC testing. B ased on findings from

thi stud) following concl usions are made :

1 . The micro tructure of both ty pes of cast irons i s di fferent in tenns of nodularity of

graphite nod ules. nodule count per square m i l l i meter and content. uniformity and

di tribution of chromium carbides. This di fference in microstructure is reflected in a

variation i n hardness and tensile strength of both alloys. The D material has

relativel ) higher bulk hardness.

2 . Though the ultimate stresses are very c lose to each other. the mechanical tests

howed significant variations in yield stress val ues. modu l i of elasticit) and duct i lit) .

D material has hi gher 0.2% yield stress, higher stiffness but lower ducti l ity than G

material.

3 . E lectrochemical corrosion tests in bri ne sol ution at room temperature bave ShO\\11

similar corrosion behavi or. i n term of corrosion rates and potentials. Tafel plots

showed sim i l ar non-passi \ ating behavior.

4. Stress corrosion cracking tests ha e indicated that D material l asted longer than G

material before cracking.

5. CC tests ha e also ind icated effecti eness of dev i sed testing apparatus and

stressing proof rings used in this stud) .

89
 6 . Further. [ \. 1 mic rographs indicated that CC fai led specImens had distincti, e

fractur surface features composed of flat surface \\ hich rna) hav e cracks and steps

as wel l as mechanical J) fractured surface \\ jth dimpled surface " hich is simi l ar to

fracture surfaces een in D I and ordinary cast irons that fai l under pure tensile

load ing.

7. The d i fference in beha\ ior i n resistance to see IS attributed to mechanical and

microstructural properties.

8. Effects o f unifonn con-osion on tensile see spec imens and consequent reduction in

diameters and increase in final state of stress is found similar i n both materials. As

such results were not bi ased by such effects.

5.2 Reco m me n d a t i o n s

The stud) has concl uded that D material possessed better resistance to s e e in brine than
G material. This d i fferent behavior was attributed to the higher yield strength of 0 material and
its favorabl e microstructure. Further studies are needed on the fol l owing:

1. Effects of carbides features and nodules feature i n N D I on resistance to Sec . TIns

\\i1 1 aUow optimization of see resistance of these material s.

2 . Austenitic and duplex S S materials are gaining more popUlarity as pump casings
material s than N D I in such service. It is therefore recommended to study the
resistance of austenitic and duplex stainless steel s to see in brine sef\ ice using the
test apparatus devised in this study.

90
3 . 1 . K i m and J . J i [ 24] ha\e studied the effect o f surface mod i fi cation b ) application of
the super rapid q uench treatment on fatigue resistance of ductile iron. irnilar stud)
on effect of such treatment on N D I resistance to CC may be conducted as it rna)
offer impro\ ed resi tance.

91
 Refe re n ces

I . .. T f RO M pec ialt) Hand Book. first edition. 1 996

2. "Properties and ppi ications of i-Resist and Ducti le i-Resist A l loys" 'ickel
De\ elopment I nstitute reference book series -0. I I 0 1 8 . 1 998

3. I'v1aterial for sal i ne v"ater. desal ination. and oi l field brine pumps. 2nd ed . 1 99 5 .
. illi
Reference Book o. 1 1 004

4. M. M i yasaka. Corrosion r . 0 1 0. 5 82-588 ( 1 98 7) October

5. tandard pec i fi cation for Austenitic Ductile I ron Castings, A T M A 439-83. 1 999.

6. B ritish tandard peci fication for Austenitic Cast I rons. B S 3468 : 1 986.

7 . Mar G . Fontana. Corrosion Engineering. Third ( International) Edition. 1 987

8 . http:! WW\\ _hv, sdesalination.com/mu!ti%20stage%20flash% 20desalination.htm!

9. http: '/w\\\\".ee. ic .ac . ukleee2proj/akc04/sal inity.htm l

1 0. http: nsidc.org eaice/characteristicslbrine sal init\ .html

I I . T. L. Prakash. J. O'Hara. A. U. Malik " Studies on CC B ehavior of Various Metals and

Alloys U sed I n The Desal i nation and Power Plants". technical report received from
Research & De\'el opment Center. Sal ine Water Conversion Corporation.

1 2. Private communication from B ryan Johnson, C S S Techn ical Support. Sulzer U K Pumps

1 3 . G. E. MOLLE R : The successful Use of Austenitic Stai nless Steel s in ea Water. iDl
Reference B ook o. 1 259

1 4 . B RIAN TODD: icke l - Contaiill ng Materials in Marine and Related Em ironments. 25 th

Annual Conference of M etal l urgists 1 986
-

1 5 . G. .FLINT: Resistance of Stainless Steels To Corrosion i n Natural ly Occ urring Waters.

i D I Reference Book o. 1 262

1 6. A.U. Mali k, Desal i na1ion 1 23 ( 1 999) 205-2 1 3

1 7. T. Prakash. A.V. Malik 1 23 ( 1 999) 2 1 5-22 1

1 8. Wen-Ta Tsai, Corrosion Science 42 (2000) 545-559

92
1 9. . J accques. J . Peultier. . Baud u : " Corrosion Resistance of Duplex tainless teel s for
Thermal Desal i nation Plant " . I DA We' I P07-030, J D World Congress- 1aspa\amos.
G ran anaria- pai n October 2 1 -26. 2007

20 . . , 1\ tud) of The Electrochemic al Properties of i Resist in 3°'0 Sodi um Chloride

olution" 1 . G. M RT. H itchman. Anse l l and Fortune. Corrosion cience. 0 1 . 36. '0.
9. pp 1 47 3 . 1 994

2 1 . Case H i stories in Fai l ure nal ysis. lncl udes articles b) various authors. R eorganized by
M . 1 979

22. J. V . Oa\\ on: I nfluence of Carbide Content on the Stress Corrosion Cracking of \­
Resist cast I ron in \-varm seawater. i O T Reference Book o. 1 00 1 8

2". R.K. i ngh R aman. B . C . Muddle Engineering Fai l ure Analysis 1 1 ( 2004) 1 99-206

_4. J eong-Du K i m . J ueng-K eun Ji Journal of Materials Processing Technology 1 76 (2006)

1 9-23

2 5 . tandard Practice for Preparing. Cleanjng and Eval uating Corrosion Test Speci mens.
A T 1 G I -0 3 . 2003

26. tandard Te t Method for Tension Testing of Meta l l ic Materials [ Metric] . ASTM E 8 M ­
OOb Metric. ::WOO

27. tandard Practice for Conventions Applicable to E lectrochemical Measurements 111

Corrosion Testing, ASTM G3-89 (2004)

28. tandard Test Method for Conducting Potentiodynamic Polarization Resistance

Measurements, A T M G 59 - 97 (2003)

29. tandard Test M ethod for Conducting Cyc l i c Potentiodynamic Polariza�ion

Measurements for Local i sed Corrosion S usceptibil ity of l ron- , ickel-. or Cobalt-Based
A l loys. ASTM G 6 1 - 86 (2003)

30. Standard Practice for Preparing and Use of Direct Tension Stress - Corrosion Test
Speci me ns, ASTM G49-85 (2000)

93
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