BRITISH STUDIES - PETER STORK

( Ms Trang Pham revised)

Contents
Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................................3
1. SIGHTSEEING BRITAIN...........................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction to England Scotland & Wales...........................................................................1
1.2 Scotland.....................................................................................................................................1
1.3 Wales.........................................................................................................................................3
 Extra readings..................................................................................................................4
1.A. London.................................................................................................................................4
1.B. Oxford..................................................................................................................................9
1.C. The Bloody Tower (the Tower of London)........................................................................10
2. THE GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE OF BRITAIN..............................................................12
2.1 The British Isles.....................................................................................................................12
2.2 Physiographic features of England, Scotland and Wales...................................................14
2.3. The Climate and Weather in Vietnam and Britain..................................................................18
3. CITIES, POPULATION AND COUNTRYSIDE..........................................................................19
3.1 Major cities.............................................................................................................................19
3.2. Interesting Cities.....................................................................................................................20
3.3. Population...............................................................................................................................21
3.5. Countryside.............................................................................................................................22
4. HISTORY OF UK........................................................................................................................23
4.1. Important Events in British History........................................................................................23
4.2. Three English students talk about their choice of the five most important events in British history. 26
4.3. Unification of the United Kingdom.....................................................................................26
5. FOOD AND DRINKS IN UK.....................................................................................................28
5.1 Traditional food and cooking................................................................................................28
5.2 Traditional drinks.................................................................................................................32
5.3. Eating Customs.......................................................................................................................34
6. TRADITIONAL HOLIDAYS AND CUSTOMS..........................................................................35
6.1. Holidays..................................................................................................................................35
6.2 C us toms ...............................................................................................................................37
7. POLITICS....................................................................................................................................40
7.1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................40
7.2. The British Parliament............................................................................................................41
7.3. The House of Commons.......................................................................................................41
7.6. The Opposition.......................................................................................................................44
8. EDUCATION...............................................................................................................................47
8.1. Early Education......................................................................................................................47
8.2. Early Modern Education.........................................................................................................93
8.3. Primary and Secondary Education..........................................................................................94
8.4. Comprehensive schools and the National Curriculum............................................................96
8.5. Further Education and Higher Education................................................................................97

Acknowledgements
1. The work and benefits of this textbook are in dedication to the commitment, perseverance
and sacrifice of all volunteers who work diligently to help people and organisations achieve more
of their potential and well being.

2. The contents of the textbook were researched, edited and written from select material from the
following sources:

The BBC, Britain Close-Up (Longman), Britain, England Scotland and Wales (Analytical
Software Inc.), The Country and the City (British Council), Discovering England (Quesar)
Education in England: a brief history (Gillard D; 2007), Google Images, Listening Extra
(Cambridge), MSN Encarta, YouTube, What's It Like (Cambridge) and Wikipedia - The Free
Encyclopedia.

Author

Peter Stork, PhD (Science), BSc (Agr.), Grad Dip. Ed.

ESL Teacher-Trainer, December, 2009.

 1. SIGHTSEEING BRITAIN

1.1 Introduction to England Scotland & Wales

This video is your one-stop guide to the pageantry, the majesty and beauty of Great Britain. It
includes Britain’s best cities and stunning countryside. And, you will see why it is American's top
tourist destination. We will start in London to watch the Changing of the Guard. In England, see
magnificent churches such as the Minster in York. In Wales, see charming sites such as Cardiff
Castle. And, in Scotland you will see Edinburgh Castle which stands majestically perched on an
ancient volcano. We will also visit the Royal Mile tour famous battle fields in Stirling plus you
will get a taste of Scotland's famous whisky. Britain has a rich heritage including Shakespeare, the
world’s greatest playwright and the Beatles, one of the world’s greatest musical groups. Finally,
you will see Britain's beautiful countryside from the mountains in Wales to the white cliffs of
Dover which you see here. So, enjoy your tour.
If you only have a week to visit Britain, first see London its capital, then spend a few days in
Edinburgh to get a taste of Scotland. If you have more time, explore other great sites in England,
Scotland and Wales.
1.2 Scotland

Scotland is famous for its fine whiskies, castles and mysterious Lochs and the best way to sample
it, is to visit Edinburgh. The city is divided into two parts. Old Town which you see below is
where the city was formed in the eleventh century and Newtown which was formed in the
eighteenth century.
The most impressive sight is Edinburgh Castle which is perched majestically above the city. It is at
the top of an ancient volcano. The castle was a military base for battles between Scotland and
England before they merged in 1603. Cannons guarded the castle and its famous resident was Mary
Queen of Scots. She tried to bring Catholicism back to Scotland and England but she failed. And
she paid a heavy price. They executed her. The main tourist attractions are located along the Royal
Mile in the centre of Old Town.
Edinburgh Castle is at the top of the Royal Mile and the city grew down the slope of this hill.
Further down the street is Saint Giles Cathedral, Scotland’s most famous Protestant Church. This
is where John Knox preached in the sixteenth century and his passionate sermons against Mary
Queen of Scots led to her exile. At the bottom of the Royal Mile is the palace of Holyrood House.
This is the official residence in Scotland of her majesty the Queen. Inside there are portraits of
Scottish Kings. Most of the palace was built in the seventeenth century and nearby are the ruins of
1
a twelfth century abbey.
Scotland has a wide range of tasty food such as this smoked salmon and green beans. Another
famous Scottish dish is a delicious meal of pigeon and black pudding. Of course, you also might
want to try some of Scotland's fine malt whiskies.
These neo-classical buildings inspired Edinburgh's nickname ‘the Athens of the North'. At the top
of this hill you also get great views of Newtown which has many elegant Georgian shops and
homes. While Scotland is an integral part of Great Britain it is also strongly independent and the
Scottish Parliament sets local policies. This is a very important point to remember. Just like in
Wales they are very proud of their heritage. So never, never say that someone from Scotland or
Wales is English.
The royal yacht Britannia was used by the royal family to sail the world’s seas for over forty years.
This majestic ship has lavish interiors which include the state dining and drawing rooms. Also, see
the Scottish folk evenings which include bagpipes and traditional dancing. The Scotch Whiskey
Heritage Centre has videos and a scale model of how whisky is made. It is distilled from grains
such as rye or barley. Then it matures for a few years in wood casks. Scotch whiskey has a dry
smoky flavour. At this centre there is also a ride about the history of Scotland's national drink.
Finally, you get a sample of whisky. If you want a drink in a good time, this is a quaint place to
visit.
Stirling was at the centre of many famous events in Scotland. And, Stirling Castle dominates the
surrounding countryside. This was the site of key battles between Scotland and England. On this
side of the castle there is a beautiful garden. Much of the castle was re-built in the fifteenth century
and it is where Mary the Queen of the Scots was crowned in 1543. Some even say that the
legendary King Arthur lived in Scotland although other sites in Britain make similar claims.
Robert the Bruce ruled as king of Scotland from 1306 to 1329 and there is a statue of him in front
of the castle. These are some of the cannons which defended Stirling Castle. These guns
dominated the valley below and they show why this fort paid such an important role in Scottish
history. Across the plains there is a monument to the Scottish folk hero, William Wallace. In 1297,
he led Scotland in a famous battle against the English army. During the battle of Stirling Bridge,
Wallace re-captured Stirling castle. The bridge, which you see here, was a strategic point to cross
this river. In the movie Brave Heart, Mel Gibson portrayed Wallace paying tribute to the Scottish
hero.

1.3 Wales
2
 Cardiff is the capital of Wales and one of the most unusual sites here is Cardiff Castles. What
makes it so charming was the renovation in 1865 by a tycoon who had time and money to burn.
Inside the castle he created lavish interiors. Visitors to Cardiff will enjoy this tranquil oasis inside
this bustling city. Ducks and geese roam the castle ground. Watch as this beautiful peacock
grooms itself. Cardiff is Wales largest city. This impressive building is Cardiff's city hall which is
located downtown. Nearby is a beautiful park with fountains. And, down the street is the National
Museum and Gallery. This has a vast array of paintings and sculptures. While Wales merged with
England in 1536 they retained their own customs and culture. In fact, almost one fourth of the
population speaks their native language. A visit to Cardiff is a great way to sample Wales on a
day trip from London. Northern Wales has stunning scenery and the best way to see its mountains
and coastlines is by rail. You will enjoy riding these vintage trains which have been fully restored.
These steam engines were first used in the eighteenth sixties to carry slate from the mountains to
the ports, but today they are used by tourists to explore the beautiful countryside. This is Wales's
highest peak Mount Snowdon which is 3500 feet tall. In the surrounding national park you can
horseback ride or mountain bike. And, cattle graze in the valley below. This area has breathtaking
scenery. However, it is a long train ride from London so you might want to spend the night in
northern Wales. While you are here take time to visit some of its famous castles. And, remember,
if you want to escape the hustle and bustle of the large cities, a train ride through northern Wales
is a refreshing way to explore this majestic countryside.
 Extra readings
1.A. London
We will begin our tour in London which is the capital of the United Kingdom and its largest city.
This is the centre of England's culture and commerce and it is also one of the world’s most exciting
cities. The Houses of Parliament shown here is the heart of British democracy. This is where
debates are held to set British laws. Big Ben is a famous clock in the tower above the Houses of
Parliament. Across the street is Westminster Abbey where the Monarch's of England are crowned.
Nearby is a statute of Churchill, the Prime Minister who led Britain during World War 2. There is so
much to see and do in London. You are watching the Household Cavalry these two horse-mounted
sentries are marching towards their posts. During the day they will not move as they silently stand
guard. At Trafalgar Square there is a monument to Lord Nelson’s victory against the French in 1805.
Nearby is the National Gallery which offers stunning collections of Western art including works
from Leonardo da Vinci and Monet. Now let us take a quick tour of other famous sites of London.
We begin in Piccadilly Circus where you can catch a bus or a train to explore the city. It is busy here
day or night because of the wide range of activities in this area including shopping, cafe, restaurants

and theatres. The famous Tower of London was first built in the 11th century and it has served as a
3
castle and later as a prison. Today, it is home of the Crown Jewels and Beefeater Guards who serve
as guides. Now let us watch the inspection of the troops at the Wellington Barracks.
St Paul's cathedral is one of the most famous churches in London. This magnificent structure was
completed in 1710 and its dome is over 350 feet tall. The church replaced another one which was
destroyed by the Great Fire of London.

Now we are back at Piccadilly Circus. There is a lot to do here. You can shop, eat at great
restaurants or go to the theatre. However, there are some seedy nightclubs nearby, so watch yourself.
The pulsating lights of this square draw the crowds. Have fun, yah baby!
1.B. Oxford
Listen to the dialogue and fill in the blanks with the word you hear.

Oxford is the oldest university in Britain and one of the best schools in the world. This is Radcliff
Camera which serves mainly as a reading room for an adjacent library. This was filmed from the
tower of Saint Mary's Church which offers some of the best views of Oxford. From this beautiful
church you can see most of the town including its shops and small streets. The University has grown
since the twelfth century into over thirty colleges the largest of which is Christchurch. In the nearby
river there are majestic swans. The rustic settings in this university town make it a great day trip
from London. This area is filled with quaint villages and hamlets and you can also see Warwick
Castle, one of England's best medieval castles.
Traditions are very important in Oxford and rowing is one of its greatest sports. You can watch the
crews practice and compete. And, the Oxford Cambridge race which was first held in 1829 is one
of the most famous in the world. This swan was a little messy cleaning its feathers with its beak.
Yet, it is very elegant as it majestically spreads its wings. And, on the other side of the river here
come more rowers who are practicing for a race. In this streamlined path you can imagine how a
deacon at Christchurch was inspired to create Alice in Wonderland, the adventures of a young girl
in an imaginary world. He used his story to entertain the Deacon's children. This is the bridge Size
named and patterned after the famous bridge in Venice. However, in Venice, it is expensive to ride
a gondola under the bridge. Here you can walk under it for free. Oxford is charming. It has
beautiful buildings in a rustic setting and it is s great place to visit.
William Shakespeare was the world’s greatest playwright and Stratford-Upon-Avon was his
hometown. This is the house in which he was born in 1564 and where he also grew-up.
Throughout this quaint town there are tributes to Shakespeare. Along the banks of the river Avon is
the Royal Shakespeare Theatre where you can see excellent performances of his plays. See
Shakespeare famous tragedies such as Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth and Hamlet or see his comedies

4
 such as The Merchant of Venice. Nearby is the Holy Trinity Church where Shakespeare was
baptised in 1564. This is also where he was buried in 1616. During that short time Shakespeare
wrote some of the most famous plays of western civilisation. So make sure you stop by Stratford.
It is only a few hours by bus or train from London and it is a great day trip.
1.C. The Bloody Tower (the Tower of London)
The Tower has stood on this ground since 1066 when Duke William of Normandy invaded England.

And, throughout its history it has been used as a prison and place of execution. Which may be why
today, some people say this is one of the scariest places on earth. There are many tales of ghosts here
but the ghost most people see is Anne Boleyn, the second wife of King Henry the Eighth. When she
did not give birth to a boy she was beheaded on Tower Green in 1536. A headless female figure in a
white dress has often been seen close to where she was executed, near Queens House. She is also
said to haunt the Chapel Royal where the same headless figure has been seen leading a ghostly
procession of Lords and Ladies down the aisle towards where her headless body is buried. The Tower
was also the scene of the infamous disappearance of the two princes; Edward Twelve and Richard
Nine who were thought to have been murdered in 1483. When their father King Edward the Fourth
died his brother Richard took the boys to the Tower for their protection. But they disappeared.
Richard was later crowned Richard the Third. According to one story, guards in the late fifteenth
century spotted the shadows of two small figures gliding down the stairs in the White Tower.
Nearly two hundred years later in 1674 workmen found a chest beneath the stairway of the White
Tower that contained the skeletons of two young children recently proved by DNA testing to be the

two princes. Lady Jane Gray was just seventeen when she was executed on the 12th February
1554 after only nine days as Queen to Henry the Eighth. Her ghost is said to appear on the
anniversary of her death on the Salt Tower. Other ghostly appearances include the chained and
headless body of Sir Walter Raleigh who was often been seen in the Byward Tower. And, another
ghost many people have seen is Henry's fifth wife Catherine Howard. She ran away from her
executioner and her ghost has been seen running down the Tower's hallway screaming for help.
Now let us go further into the Tower and see if we can find any of these ghosts.
Questions:
1. Where can we see natural sightseeing in UK?
2. Where can we see mountains?
3. Where can we visit historical places?
4. If you have 3 days to visit UK, what places will you plan to see?

5
 2. THE GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE OF BRITAIN

2.1 The British Isles

The British Isles consist of two large islands,
Great Britain and Ireland. They have
thousands of smaller islands surrounding
them. Great Britain or Britain is the name
given to the combination of England, Scotland
and Wales. Important seas surrounding the
British Isles are the North Sea in the east, the
Atlantic Ocean in the west, the English
Channel between England and France, the
Irish Sea between Great Britain and Ireland.
The topography of Great Britain can be
roughly divided into Lowland Britain and
Highland Britain.

The coast has many estuaries and inlets, so that no place in Britain is far from the sea. The climate of
the British Isles is mild and damp and moderated by light winds blowing in from relatively warm
seas in the Atlantic Ocean. Inland temperatures do not usually get below freezing in winter or above
30°C in summer. Light rains (drizzle) occur everywhere all year. Fogs usually
develop in winter. The British Isles were once almost entirely covered with forests, but tree cover
is now one of the lowest in Europe. The mighty woodlands of the British Isles of the past have
been reduced to a few pockets of vegetation due to extensive farming.
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2.2 Physiographic features of England, Scotland and Wales.
The term United Kingdom has been used to refer to
the combined regions of England, Scotland, Wales
and Northern Ireland. We will focus on England,
Scotland and Wales in this course of study on British
Culture because Northern Ireland is only technically a
part of the UK today as most Irish in Northern Ireland
would not consider themselves British.
Citizens of Great Britain are referred to as Britons.
This term is used to refer to the ancient Britons who
were inhabitants of Britain south of Scotland’s Forth
River. The Firth of Forth is the estuary of the Forth
River.

Britons are descended mainly from the different ethnic groups that settled there before the 11th
century such as Celtics, Romans and Anglo Saxons.
While the climate of Britain is similar the physiographic features of England, Scotland and Wales
are quite different. They are summarised in following paragraphs.
England: The total area of England is 130,410 square kilometres and London is its capital. It is
also the largest city in the United Kingdom. The coast of England has excellent natural harbours
that are easily accessible to deepwater shipping.

This has been important for its economic development and for its culture as a seafaring nation.
Some important and famous harbour ports are Newcastle upon Tyne, Hull, London, Dover,
Plymouth, Bristol and Liverpool Harbour. The northern and western parts of England are generally
mountainous. Lowland Britain consists of the South, London, East Anglia, and the West Country
which has many rivers connected by a network of canals. The Thames is a major river flowing
through London, Oxford, Reading and Windsor in southern England. It is 346 kilometres in length
and is the second longest river in the United Kingdom.
England mainly consists of flat land and rolling hills
except in the Midlands and the 'North'. These
regions that contain the most important English
mountain ranges called the Pennine Chain or
Pennines (between 890-630 metres) and the Lake
District (between 970-820 metres), one of the most
picturesque regions in England. The city of
Birmingham is the centre of the Midlands and is the
second largest city of the United Kingdom. York is
another famous historic city in the North of England.

The Pennine Mountain ranges.

In the east of England lies The Fens, a vast area of flatland that was a marshland that was drained.
To the south of the Bristol Channel is an elevated plateau that slopes upward ending in the barren
uplands and moors of Cornwall and Devon. Sequential ranges of chalk hills can be seen from the
English Channel and are known as the white cliffs of Dover.

Scotland: The capital of Scotland is Edinburgh and Glasgow is its largest city. Scotland can be
divided into three areas. The Southern Uplands are the fertile plains and hills bordering England.
The Central Lowlands run from Edinburgh to Glasgow and contain the industrial towns and most
of the population. The Highlands are mountain (between 1350-1200 metres) rising to their heights
at Ben Nevis (1344 metres), Britain's highest mountain. The largest islands that belong to Scotland
are the Hebrides, the Orkneys and the Shetlands. Many of these islands are inhabited.
About three-quarters of Scotland is A loch in the Scottish Highlands
made-up of uncultivated bog, rock
and heather including a lot of peat
soils. The land area of Scotland,
including the islands, is 78,790
square kilometres. The longest river
is the Tay. Scotland has a very
irregular coastline with numerous
inlets from the sea. The larger and
broader inlets are called firths such
as the Firth of Clyde and the Firth
of Forth. The main natural harbour
is located in the Firth of Clyde.
Scotland is very mountainous and
more than one- half of Scotland is
occupied by the Highlands and
contains narrow lakes or
lochs. Loch Lomond is the
longest
lake in Scotland and Loch Ness, according to legend contains a sea monster (The Loch Ness
Monster). The Clyde, which flows through the city of Glasgow, is Scotland’s most important
river and serves as a transportation outlet to the Atlantic Ocean.

Cambrian Mountain ranges, Wales Cambrian Mountains (between 750-600 metres), which
Wales: The capital city of Wales is extend north and south through central Wales. These
Cardiff and it is the principal seaport
and shipbuilding centre of Wales. The
total area of Wales is 20,760 square
kilometres. Wales has an irregular
coastline with many bays, the largest
of which is Cardigan Bay. Wales is
almost entirely mountainous with
three main regions; Snowdonia in the
north-west, the Cambrian Mountains
in mid-Wales and Brecon Beacons in mountains are the source of River Severn which is 354 km
the south. The principal range is the in length and is Britain's longest river.
The Senern flows through mid Wales and enters the West Midlands and South West England before
discharging into Celtic Sea through the Bristol Channel. Mount Snowdon is Wales's highest
mountain and is the source of the Dee River which is a major river of Wales. It is 110 kilometres in
length and flows through northern Wales passing through the Bala Lake, which is the largest natural
lake in Wales, before entering North West England.

Questions
1. What are the main mountain areas of England, Scotland and Wales called?
Cambrian Mountain ranges, Wales
2. Which region(s) of Britain are the most mountainous? The least mountainous? Which region(s)
have the highest and lowest mountains?
3. How do the three regions of Britain compare with each other in land area? Which region has
the largest amount of flat land? Which region has the largest land?
4. Which part of Britain has the largest number of coastal firths and lochs?
5. Which part of Britain has the largest number of harbours? Why is it good for the economy of
the region?
6. Name the seas and countries closest to Britain?
7. What are the similarities between the geography of Britain and Vietnam?
8. What are the differences between the geography of Britain and Vietnam?

The Geography of Britain

Britain is an island country that is surrounded by three seas: the North Sea, the Atlantic Ocean and
the Irish Sea. Britain separated from Ireland and Northern Ireland by the Irish Sea and from
France by the English Channel. The most mountainous areas of are in the north of Britain: the
Highlands and Southern Uplands of Scotland. The southern part of Britain contains smaller
mountain ranges such as the Pennines in England and Cambrian Mountains in Wales and the
rolling hills of England such as the Downs.
England also has most of the flatland such as drained marshlands called the Fens and the moors of
Devon and Cornwall. The south part of Britain also has the greatest number of rivers and canals while
the northern part has many narrow lakes called lochs and sea inlets called firths
 .

2.3. The Climate and Weather in Vietnam and Britain

The climate of the United

Kingdom is classified as a mid-
latitude oceanic climate with
warm summers, cold winters and
constant rainfall throughout the
year. The constant rainfall causes
frequent cloudy conditions. This
causes the country to have very
low sunshine hours throughout the
year. Sunshine hours are the
number of daylight hours in each
day that are free of most clouds.
The Gulf Stream. The large arrow shows the direction of warm watercurrents that travel
The principal past Britain
factors keeping this ar
that influence
cold.
the country's climate is its
northerly latitude (which ranges
from 50° to 60°N), the close
proximity to the Atlantic Ocean,
and the warming of the
surrounding waters of the Atlantic
Ocean by the Gulf Stream. The

weather is very variable and it can change from one day to the next but these variations in weather
through the year are relatively small.

England has a mild and moist climate. The mean annual temperature ranges between 11°C and
9°C. July is the hottest month of the year, and January, is the coldest month. Fogs, mists, and
overcast skies are frequent, particularly in the Pennine and inland regions. Rainfall is heaviest
during October and average rainfall is about 760 mm in most of England. England has slightly
warmer maximum and minimum temperatures throughout the year compared with Scotland and
Wales. The climate of Scotland is similar to the rest Britain but has the coolest temperatures. Lower
temperatures are common in Highland areas during the winter months. Wales also has similar
weather to England but has slightly warmer temperatures throughout the year than Scotland and
lower temperatures in winter compared to England.
Vietnam has a tropical monsoon climate, with humidity averaging 84% throughout the year.
However, because of differences in latitude and its mountainous regions, the climate tends to vary
considerably from place to place. For example, Dalat can be very cool while Ho Chi Minh City a
few hundred kilometres away can be very hot. The winter or dry season is usually between
November to April. The south westerly summer monsoon normally occurs from May to October.

(i) How do you think that the climate of Britain and Vietnam influences its people?
 3. CITIES, POPULATION AND COUNTRYSIDE

Exercise:
1. Locate cities on the map of the United Kingdom and write their names
2. Why are these major/ intersting cities?
3. Which cities do you like the most?
4. Which major/ interesting city in Vietnam do you like?
5. What does the distribution of major cities, other cities, financial centres, arts and tourism
centres across the United Kingdom imply?

3.1 Major cities

Cardiff is the capital of Wales and is about sixty-seven kilometres east of Swansea on the south
coast of Wales. The city was once a major port for coal transport. It is now a shopping, commercial
and industrial centre. The city centre has international sporting stadiums such as the Millennium
Stadium for rugby and soccer. Many colleges of the University of Wales are based in Cardiff.
Cardiff Bay has many tourist centres of interest on the waterfront such as the Millennium Arts
Centre and the Welsh Assembly.

London is the capital city of England and the United Kingdom. It contains the centre of
government at the Houses of Parliament. It is a major financial, commercial, distribution and
communications centre, situated in the South-East of England, some eighty kilometres north of the
south coast. Greater London covers 625 square miles and consists of thirty-three separate boroughs
(districts), including the City of London (the financial centre), and the City of Westminster (site of
the Houses of Parliament). It is also one of the major centres in the world for the arts with major
theatre and music companies as follows.

Theatre The West End, The Royal Shakespeare Company, The National Theatre
Music The London Symphony Orchestra, The London Philharmonic Orchestra, The Royal
Opera and the English National Opera

Birmingham is a manufacturing and commercial city and communications centre in the West
Midlands with the second highest population in Britain after London. It is 169 kilometres north-
west of London. The city centre was redeveloped in 1960s and 1970s as a national commercial
centre. It is the home of the National Exhibition Centre and the International Convention Centre
which are major venues for commercial conventions and industrial fairs. The city’s cultural
activities include dance (the Birmingham Royal Ballet) and music (the City of Birmingham
Symphony Orchestra).

Manchester is an important cultural and commercial centre on the western side of England about
298 kilometres north-west of London. This city was a creation of the Industrial Revolution of the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when, it was known as 'Cottonopolis', for textile
manufacturing and became regional capital of the North-West. It is home to the Halle Orchestra
and Royal Northern College of Music. It is also a major centre for higher education, the arts and
the media industry.

Belfast is the capital of Northern Ireland, whose Irish name is Beal Feirste, meaning 'mouth of the
sandbank' in Gaelic. It was once had a major shipbuilding, tobacco and linen industry. It is also
famous for its Victorian architecture.

Edinburgh is the historic city and capital of Scotland on the south side of the Firth' of Forth, 608
kilometres north of London. It is a centre for law firms, banking, insurance and is also a cultural
centre. Its industries include printing and publishing, brewing and tourism. The city is dominated
by Edinburgh castle. The International Festival of Music and Drama is held here annually.
Edinburgh also has distinctive architecture.

3.2. Interesting Cities

Brighton is the first seaside resort on the south coast of England. It has lots of well-known
buildings, including Brighton Pavilion, a palace commissioned by King George IV, and famous
girls' school Roedean.

York has preserved or reconstructed Roman, Viking and medieval remains, ancient walls and the
beautiful 'Minster', that are popular with tourists. It is situated inland, 311 kilometres north of
London.

Oxford is situated at the meeting point of the River Thames and the River Cherwell, eighty-five
kilometres north-west of London. Oxford University was founded in the thirteenth century. The
University and Cathedral is a tourist attraction. Oxford is a commercial centre too, with a car
manufacturing industry at Cowley, just outside the city.

Sunderland developed as a coal port and a centre of shipbuilding and engineering in the
nineteenth century. It is situated seventeen kilometres south-east of Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Nottingham is a city on the River Trent, seventy-two kilometres north-east of Birmingham. It is

the nearest city to Sherwood Forest, home of the legendary Robin Hood. It contains a
seventeenth-century castle, restored in nineteenth century; houses museum and art gallery. It’s
industrial prosperity as a centre of lace- and hosiery-making commenced with the invention of the
stocking-frame in 1589.

Glasgow is a city, port, commercial and industrial centre on the River Clyde, sixty-six kilometres
west of Edinburgh. It was once known as 'the second city of the British Empire' after London. In
the nineteenth century it was the centre for the building of great locomotives and ships which were
exported worldwide. The name 'Clyde-built' came to mean 'of the highest quality'. The city was
greatly affected by industrial decline after 1945. Now a major artistic and cultural centre; it
became the first 'European City of Culture' in 1990.

Sheffield is a city on the River Don, 256 kilometres north-west of London and 116 kilometres
north-east of Birmingham. Coal mining was once located near the city. It has been a centre for the
production of cutlery since the Middle Ages and of high-quality steel since the eighteenth century.
In recent years it has become an important venue for conferences.

Leeds is a commercial and industrial city on the River Aire, and on the Leeds–Liverpool Canal,
fifty-eight kilometres north-east of Manchester and 270 kilometres north of London; south-west of
York. It has been traditionally a centre of the textile trade.

Liverpool is fifty-six kilometres south-west of Manchester and close to the border with North
Wales on the north-west coast of England. It was once a major port and is now a centre for
commercial redevelopment such as the Albert Dock which has been transformed into offices,
shops, museums and a television studio. Liverpool has universities, Anglican and Roman Catholic
cathedrals and world-famous football teams.
 Swansea is a large port city at the mouth of the River Tawe, sixty-seven kilometres west of
Cardiff. It was once a centre for iron, steel, coal and tin mining. There are coal-mining and oil-
refining industries near the city today. It is still an industrial, residential and academic centre and
also the main shopping centre for South-West Wales. The remains of a fourteenth-century castle
or manor house are the main tourist attraction.

Aberdeen is the centre of North Sea oil industry. It is third largest fishing port in Britain and
famous for its granite buildings.

Newcastle-upon-Tyne is a city and port, 180 kilometres north of Leeds. It is a commercial and
industrial centre. The quayside and the river, where coal-exporting gave Newcastle its identity for
centuries, now combine picturesque decay with signs of redevelopment.

3.3. Population
The 2001 population census of the United Kingdom showed it has a population of almost 59 million
people. Approximately 49 million live in England, 3 million in Wales, 5 million in Scotland and 2
million in Northern Ireland. The census shows that the UK is still a nation of crowded cities and
thinly populated rural areas. In Scotland and Wales the greater part of the population is concentrated
in the more lowland areas, particularly the area between Glasgow and Edinburgh, and in the eastern
and south-eastern parts of Wales.
The South-West of England has been the fastest growing region of the United Kingdom. Between
1981 and 1990 populations fell in the North-West, the North-East and Scotland. People moved away
from the old industrial cities, involved in coal, shipbuilding and steel, in the North-East, West
Midlands, North-West and Wales and moved to the light industries and services of the more
economically attractive South-East and East Midlands. The biggest shift in population has been
between the South-East and the South-West of England.
3.4. Cities
Eighty per cent of the British people live in towns or cities with a population of 100,000 inhabitants or
more. Most of these town dwellers would prefer to live in the countryside. This feeling has a lot to do
with the national state of mind of the British. One of the most notable aspects of all British people is

A typical suburban street of houses with neat

hedgerows and front and back gardens built Victorian terrace houses with mid‐twentieth century
between 1900 and 1930 housing in the background. Virtually every town
and city in England has houses like these.
their love of the countryside. Many people, whether they live in a suburban house or in a flat in a
high-rise block, would say their dream home was a country cottage and a garden in which to grow
flowers and vegetables. The British have a deep nostalgia for a world of neat hedgerows, cottages and
great country houses, surrounded by parkland and eighteenth-century style gardens that are
harmonious and natural. The nostalgia is largely from a romantic love of nature which has been such a
powerful theme in English art and literature. The National Trust, which owns or manages hundreds of
country estates and great country houses, was founded a century ago on this nostalgia. Wealthy
people usually own a country cottage to which they retreat to at weekends.
As a result of this longing for a rural paradise, British people are always trying to move out of larger
cities to the countryside or smaller towns. Another reason for moving to the country and smaller
cities is to escape a decline in the quality of life in Britain's larger cities, due to increasing
population, traffic congestion and pollution. By 1914 most of London’s middle classes and a smaller
'service' class had moved to new suburbs which were engulfing the countryside within a 40 km
radius of the city.
These suburbs were characterised by houses with front and back gardens. Between the 1920s to the
1970s, professional middle-class people started to move out beyond 'suburbia' into the towns and
villages of the Home Counties about a hundred kilometres or more from the heart of London so they
could live in what were still quiet country towns. They did this because they could either afford a
motor car or the train fares to travel in a reasonable time to work in London.
In the late 1970s and 1980’s the pressure to move out of London and its suburbs intensified. The steep
rise in house prices in London area and in the Home Counties made people move further, up to 250
km or more from London, in areas around Brighton, Salisbury, Bristol, Oxford, Northampton,
Cambridge, Peterborough and Norwich where it was possible to buy an affordable house. They would
spend up to two hours travelling to work by rail each day. Finally, there has also been another smaller,
but growing number of people who no longer needed to work in central offices, but work from home,
linked by computer and fax facilities to their employer.

3.5. Countryside
The large numbers of families who have bought cottages in the country, to live permanently or to use
as a holiday home has changed the nature of village life in Britain. Many villages now have a large
proportion of inhabitants who are commuters. These people live in the village but earn their living
elsewhere. This is in contrast to about fifty years ago when villages were much smaller and were
populated by those who made their living from the country around the village, primarily farmers and
farm labourers. In Hampshire, for example, almost all villages are entirely commuter-based. The
inhabitants of the village travel to work as far as Southampton, Bath, Bristol and London which are
distances of approximately 100 kilometres or more. Apart from traffic congestion, this migration has
transformed the occupancy of the villages. Pretty old cottages have been bought at higher prices that
most local people cannot afford. Local people on low incomes have been steadily squeezed out of the
village, particularly during the past 30 years, into low-cost or publicly-owned rented housing on the
edge of the village. A commuter-based village society has also led to the decline of essential facilities
and services in villages. Forty percent of villages no longer have a permanent shop. Thirty percent no
longer have a post office and 13 per cent have lost their bus service.
4. HISTORY OF UK4.1. Important Events also built water supply, sanitation and sewage
in British History. systems. During the Roman occupation towns

The Roman grew up along the main roads they built and
invasion (AD 43) agriculture was developed on large estates.
and occupation of
Britain.
The Romans made
southern Britain a
part of their
empire for almost
four centuries.
During
their occupation they built an extensive network
of roads which continued to be used in later
centuries. Many of Britain's major cities, such
as London, Manchester, Chester, Bath and York
were founded by the Romans. The Romans
 defeat of the last Danish
King Alfred defeats the Viking invasion of Britain
Danes (AD 878). in the 9th century.
Alfred was the king of King Alfred defeated the Vikings who invaded
Britain with 300 ships carrying Viking warriors
the southern kingdom of
and their families. Alfred the Great was also a
Wessex from 871 to 899. learned man and encouraged education and
improved his kingdom's law system as well as its
He was the only English
military. Alfred established an army and navy,
king to be awarded the divided the country into shires, and rebuilt the city
of Londo
title 'the Great' for his
n
English language.
The Battle of
Hastings (1066).
The Battle of
Hastings was fought
between the
invading Norman Henry VIII and the
army of William the founding of the Church of
Conqueror, and the England in 1533. Henry VIII was crowned king
English army led by In 1509 at eighteen years of age. He is a
King Harold II. In significant figure in the history of the English
the battle Harold II monarchy and is popularly known for his struggles
was killed and Duke with the Roman Catholic Church and for having
William claimed six wives. The Church did not approve of his first
England. Norman French became the language re- marriage and this ultimately led
of administration and justice. This had a to the creation of the Church of England with
himself as the Supreme Head of the Church of
lasting influence on the development of the England. He was a brutal King who was most
notorious for the beheading of two of his wives
.Magna Carta the rights of the people. This document was
(1215). written in Latin and called the Magna Carta
In response which is known in English as the Charter of
to the Freedoms. The king was forced to sign this
tyranny of famous charter of personal and political
King John (1199-1216), the noblemen of liberty at a meeting with his barons at
England drew up a document designed to Runnymede near Windsor.
limit the powers of the king and guarantee
 The Elizabethan age and Shakespeare. settlers of colonial states of North America to
The Elizabethan era is in honour of the reign help finance its European wars. This led to a war
Queen Elizabeth I (1558– 1603). This period is of independence between England and the settlers
considered to be a golden age in for 18 years.
English history for poetry and literature. During Britain lost this war resulting in the creation of
this time the Elizabethan theatre flourished and the United States of America. As a result
William Shakespeare and many others, Britain lost a valuable source of income from
composed plays that broke free of England's its former colony.
past style of plays and theatre. It was also the
period when England was finally united with
Scotland. Opening of the Channel Tunnel (1994).
The tunnel from England to France allows
cars and passengers to cross the Channel in 20
Declaration of independence in N. America minutes. It is important because it symbolises
(1776). Britain's tried to impose taxes on the the country's increasing links with Continental
Europe in commerce and tourism.
Battle of Waterloo (1815). Union of Great Britain and Ireland (1800).
The success of the American colonies in ending
the rule of England inspired rebellion amongst
the Irish, who had desired an independent
republican state for a long time. The revolt was
put down with great brutality. Following this,
the Act of Union joined Ireland and Britain and
a single legislative assembly was made for the
two countries.

Second World War (1939-1945).

The Battle of Waterloo was fought near
The defeat of Nazi
Waterloo in Belgium between the army of the
Germany by Britain
French Empire under Napoleon Bonaparte and
and its Allies is one
the Seventh Coalition which consisted of the
of the most proud
Prussian army and an Anglo-Allied army under
moments in British
the command of the Duke of Wellington.
history. The
Bonaparte's defeat at Waterloo put an end to his
memory of the war
rule as the French emperor and diminished
remains strong in
French military power in Europe.
Britain even today.
It was a time of
great hardship and
sacrifice by the
British people in the
face of an invasion
by a powerful
The Beatles' first albums (1960s). enemy who
conquered almost
all of Europe.

The Beatles were one of the most successful and highly

acclaimed musicians in the history of popular music. Over one
billion of their music albums have been sold internationally.
The Beatles were a music band from Liverpool, England, with
 a new style of rock music. This music had large appeal with
the younger generation and their influence remains today. The
Beatles music and lifestyle conveyed modern themes of
society and was a break from the past. Their dress, hairstyle
and their lifestyle was copied by young people all over the
world. They also showed a growing social awareness through
their music and were very influential during social and cultural
revolutions of the 1960s. They became famous for their protest
songs against war. The group consisted of John Lennon, Paul
McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr.

Question. What is your choice of the five most important events in British history? Explain.
4.2. Three English students talk about their choice of the five most important events in British
history.

Listen to the conversation and fill in the blanks with the word you hear.

Student 1: ... the five I put down were the Roman invasion of Britain, ... I think 'cause I'm doing
Latin I notice how much Latin has influenced English. I think that's really important. Also ...
Henry the Eighth, founding the Church of England, that's part of my History syllabus. And, ... I
think the break with Rome was really important. If you think about how much time has elapsed
since then and the Church of England is still in existence ... the union of Great Britain and Ireland
... especially with the problems in Northern Ireland, that is so important; and I'm not sure how it
can be sorted out now, it's just one of those horrible things. Also the Second World War ... I think
that should be enough of a reminder to everyone that war is unnecessary.
And then the Beatles' albums 'cause I think they started a revolution of a different type and any
band that survives still and is so popular forty years on has got to be pretty important.

Student 2: 1 think 1215 was the Magna Carta and I think that's when the sort of the first hint of
sort of democracy came into the country sort of thing. There was the first sort of Parliament was
first created so that's I think that's very important. Henry the Eighth founded the Church of
England in about ... 1533 which was ... I think it was an important break. It gave the country some
more national identity. The Battle of Waterloo and the Second World War. I think they're both sort
of almost together in that they've sort of stopped a sort of greater ... probably well it was almost an
invasion of ... the Battle of Waterloo I'm sure Napoleon would have come towards us if we hadn't
stopped him and the Second World War Germany tried to invade us and so I think they're great
turning points in history. And the fifth one I'd choose was ... 1966, 1 think, which, when England
won the World Cup, which is the only time we've ever done it and we're very proud of it so I think
it's extremely important in our history.
4.3. Unification of the United Kingdom
England has been an independent state for
almost 1,000 years which is longer than any
other European country. By the sixteenth
century, Wales was fully incorporated
into English administration and law. Britain
became a single political entity by 1707, when
 the ancient kingdoms of Scotland and England
were united. Ireland came under English
military rule in the sixteenth century and was
formally a part of the United Kingdom in
1801.
Ireland achieved independence in 1921, with
the exception of six northern counties which
remained part of the United Kingdom. These
counties were amalgamated to become
Northern Ireland.

Question: (i)Describe the stages of unification of Britain.

 5. FOOD AND DRINKS IN UK

5.1 Traditional food and cooking

For several centuries British cuisine was often based around what was commonly called "meat and
two veg". This meal consisted of roasted, grilled or boiled meat, usually beef, pork or lamb. It
was eaten with boiled or steamed green vegetables such as beans or broccoli and root vegetables
such as potatoes, carrots or turnip. The use of spices or herbs such as peppers, garlic and onion or
sauces was not a cooking tradition in Britain. The frying of meat or vegetables with cooking oil
was not practiced either with the exception of sausages which were cooked in lard. English
sausages were made from fresh meats that were not smoked, dried, or strongly flavoured with
herbs and spices like European or Asian sausages. Traditional British cuisine therefore had a
reputation of being bland and heavy. However, modern British cuisine has been made more
interesting by foreign influences such as immigration. For example, a most popular British dish
today is an Indian curry called Chicken tikka masala. A former British Government Minister, ex
Foreign Secretary Robin Cook said it was "Britain's true national dish".

Meat and two 'veg' (vegetables) Chicken tikka masala and rice.

The Sunday roast dinner, made of roasted beef or pork (or turkey at Christmas) with vegetables, is
the most traditional feature of English cooking and eaten throughout the United Kingdom. The
English are also famous for fish and chips and there are a large number of restaurants and take-
away shops selling this meal throughout the United Kingdom. Traditionally, it is served with salt
and vinegar. The English breakfast also known as "a cooked breakfast" is another tradition in the
United Kingdom. It usually consists of fried or scrambled eggs and bacon or sausages, grilled
tomatoes, bread and mushrooms. Meat pies are another traditional English meal adopted
throughout the United Kingdom. They are made with pastry and filled with meat and sometimes
vegetables, and cooked by baking in an oven. Scotland, Wales and Ireland but have many
specialities of their own. Some are included the list of traditional British meals described in the
following paragraphs.

Exercise 1: Match the correct name of each meal (below) to their descriptions using the pictures
of each meal in the following page.
A Shepherd’s Pie is a traditional English dish made with minced meat which is covered with
mashed potato. The meat is typically beef or lamb left over from a Sunday roast. This term tends
to be used when the meat is lamb.

B. Haggis is Scotland’s best-known regional dish. It is made from lamb’s offal (lungs, liver
and heart) mixed with suet (animal fat), onions, herbs and spices and cooked in sheep
intestine.

C. Fish and Chips are a popular take-away food originating from Britain. It consists of
deep-fried fish (traditionally cod) in batter or breadcrumbs with deep-fried sliced pieces of
potato. It remains very popular in the United Kingdom and countries having large numbers
of descendants of the UK such as
Australia and New Zealand.
D. Scottish smoked salmon is orange in colour. It is prepared by being smoked in sherry oak-
barrels, which gives it a characteristic oaky taste with a tender, buttery and very delicate
texture and flavour.

E. Sandwiches are made from meat and salad vegetables that are pressed between two slices of
bread. It was named after the 4th Earl of Sandwich, an 18th-century English aristocrat. Lord
Sandwich was fond of this form of food because it allowed him to continue playing cards while
eating without getting his hands and cards greasy.

F. British-style marmalade is a sweet preserve with a bitter tang made from fruit and sugar. It is
most often consumed on toasted bread for breakfast. The citrus fruit favoured for marmalade
production in the United Kingdom is the ‘Seville orange’ imported from Seville in Spain.

G. Scones are of Scottish origin. They are made of wheat, barley or oatmeal, usually with baking
 powder as a leavening agent. They are often lightly sweetened, but may also be savory. The word
was first mentioned by a Scottish poet in 1513. About two thirds of the British population (and
99% of the Scottish population) pronounce it as skon.

H. Porridge is made by boiling oats (normally rolled oats or oatmeal) in water and milk. It is a
traditional breakfast of Scotland (where it is also spelled porage). In Scotland, the art of making
this meal is competitive, with the World Porridge Making Championships held annually in
October each year in Cambridge in Inverness- shire.

I. Sausages and mash is an English meal made of sausages and potato. The sausages may be made
of pork or beef with apple or tomato seasoning. The dish is usually served with rich onion gravy.
Sausages are sometimes referred to as "bangers".

J. Roast beef and Yorkshire pudding has been the traditional English Sunday dinner. It is cooked
by roasting joint of meat and having a large tin underneath to catch the dripping fat to make the
pudding. The pudding may also be made in the same pan as the meat, after the meat has been
cooked and removed to another dish.

K. Kippers is also known as a red herring, is a whole fish that has been split from tail to head,
eviscerated, salted, and cold smoked. It is eaten grilled for breakfast.

L. Cornish Pasties are a type of pie associated with Cornwall. It has a baked savory pastry case
traditionally filled with diced meat, sliced potato and onion.

M. Bacon and eggs are a popular meal throughout Britain. Depending on where it is made, it
can be also called a fry up, The Great British breakfast, a full English breakfast, a full Irish
breakfast, a full Scottish breakfast a full Welsh breakfast or an Ulster fry. Such breakfasts are
no longer an everyday occurrence in many British or Irish households due to time constraints
and are the business of many cafés in hotels, guest houses and bed-and-breakfasts.

N. In the United Kingdom, rice pudding is a traditional dessert that is very popular. It is made
with a special pudding rice, milk, cream, sugar and is sometimes flavoured with vanilla, nutmeg
or cinnamon. It can be made in two ways, by cooking it in a saucepan or by baking it in an oven.
Whilst cooking, the pudding should develop a thick crust which adds an interesting texture to the
pudding when eaten.

Britons also have a tradition of giving dishes strange and surprising names, for example, Bubble
and Squeak. It is thought that this name was given to this meal because of the sound of the
cooking of this food. Other names have been given according to what the meal looks like, for
example, Toad in the hole, because the meal looks like toads (or frogs) looking out of a hole.
 Exercise 2: Study the pictures and names of the British meals (below) and then match them with
their description.

1. Black pudding 2. Bubble and squeak 3. Devils on horseback

4. Scotch woodcock 5. Toad in the hole 6. Welsh rarebit (rabbit)

Description
b. Fried onion, cabbage and potatoes.
c. Toasted bread with anchovies, egg yolks and cream.
d. A sausage made with pigs or ox blood, onions, oatmeal and fat.
e. It is made with bread, beer, mustard and cheese.
f. Sausages baked in Yorkshire pudding batter

Tru
 5.2 Traditional drinks
Beer is the most popular drink among men, in the UK. Their consumption is higher than that of
women. The drinking of wine has also increased in the UK. A high proportion of beer is drunk in
public houses called 'pubs'. The British pub is a very old and popular social establishment in the United
Kingdom. Its history can be traced to the Anglo- Saxon alehouses of the fifth century. The Saxon
alewife put a green
bush on a pole to inform people that her ale was ready to drink. Ale is a type of beer brewed from
malted barley and hops and yeast to ferment the brew. The beer has a sweet- bitter taste. Hops give ale
its bitter
flavour and helps preserve it. It was introduced from the Netherlands in the early 15th century. In early
times, the low alcohol content of beer was considered harmless and beer was also thought to be
nutritious. The drinking of beer was encouraged by the Beer Act of 1830 to stop people drinking gin
which was a cheap strong alcoholic drink that was causing social problems among the poorer classes of
Britain. By 1840 there were approximately 46,000 beer houses.
In the nineteenth century, beer houses were replaced by public houses managed by a publican who had
to be licensed to carry out his or her business. These public houses became the pubs of the modern day.
At present, there are approximately 57,500 pubs in the UK. While beer is the main drink imbibed in a
pub, spirit drinks such as whiskey, brandy and gin are also drunk in a pub. Approximately eighty four
percent of pubs are small businesses managed by a publican or licensee. The licensee is either the lessee
or the owner of the pub. All other pubs are owned by a pub company or a brewery.
Approximately eighty percent of adult Britons are regular pub goers and over fifteen million drink in a
pub at least once a week. Most pubs have a public bar and a lounge bar which can also be called a
saloon bar. The lounge bar usually contains dining tables for eating. It is the more expensive bar as it
gives patrons more privacy and has a better decor than a public bar. Meals are sometimes available in
the public bar and are known as counter meals. At present, British pubs serve more than one billion
meals a year. The modern day pub has expanded to include music, games and gambling. Some pubs
will specialise in offering patrons a particular style of jazz or rock music. Darts, pool and snooker are
some of the most popular games played in a pub. Watching sporting events, such as horse racing or
soccer, on a large television screens has
also become very popular in pubs. Most pubs now have poker machines for gambling. British pubs are
renowned for their traditional names which gives them a historical feeling. A survey of British pubs
found
that the most popular names are Red Lion, Royal Oak, White Hart, Rose and Crown, Kings Head,
Kings Arms, Queens Head, The Crown. Since 2006 smoking in pubs is prohibited by law. The United
Kingdom has the sixth highest beer consumption in the world after the Czech Republic, Ireland,
Germany, Australia and Austria. Per capita consumption in the United Kingdom was 99 litres per
person in 2004. This is contrasted by beer consumption in Vietnam where per capita consumption was
21 litres per person in 2008 and is estimated to increase to about 30 litres person in 2013. Beer
accounted for an estimated ninety eight per cent of all sales of alcoholic drinks in Vietnam in 2008,
showing beer drinking is as popular as in the UK.
Health and social problems are associated with excessive drinking of beer and other alcoholic drinks in
the UK. Although the imbibing of alcohol while socialising in pubs is enjoyed and valued by the
majority of Britons, there are social and health costs associated with the excessive consumption of
alcohol.
Mental disorders and damage to organs such as the liver, pancreas, heart, brain and central nervous
system are associated with the excessive intake
of alcohol.
 5.3. Eating Customs

The conduct of a person while eating a meal at a table with others is called ‘table manners’. Most
families will observe table manners while they are eating breakfast, lunch and dinner. Table
manners are especially observed on formal occasions such as business breakfasts, lunches and
dinners and social occasions such as parties and birthdays. A person who does not observe table
manners on these occasions would be considered rude and ill-mannered.

Questions

1. Explain the table manners in the above cartoon in your own words. Why are they important?

2. How many of the British table manners depicted in the cartoon are observed in Vietnam.

3. What are the differences between table manners in Vietnam and Britain?
 6. TRADITIONAL HOLIDAYS AND CUSTOMS

6.1. Holidays

England has various bank holidays, public holidays, traditional holidays and national events scattered
across its calendar. Some date back hundreds of years, while others are more recent. Some are fun and
festive, encouraging the locals to dress up and join in the festivities, while yet others are more sombre.
These include (where the following dates are mentioned, they apply to 2011):

JANUARY
1 January - New Year.s Day 
1 January - The New Year's Day Parade London (over 10 000 performers travel around London
offering impressive dancing, acrobatics, cheerleading and musical acts)
5 January - Twelfth Night (Christian)
6 January - Epiphany (Christian)
12 January - Plough Monday (the start of the new farming year)
15 . 17 January - Straw Bear Festival at Whittlesey

FEBRUARY
2 February - Candlemas Day (Christian)
3 February - Chinese New Year 
14 February - St Valentine's Day (a Christian festival associated with love and romance) 

MARCH
Pancake Day (a Christian carnival on the eve of Ash Wednesday to start Lent, which is a time of
fasting and devotions)
5 March . St Piran.s Day Cornwall
8 March - The Great Spitalfields Pancake Race
9 March - Ash Wednesday (the start of lent) 
14 March - Commonwealth Day

APRIL
1 April . April Fool.s Day (traditionally the day of practical jokes and trickery)
3 April . Mothers. Day 
3 April - Simnel Sunday
17 April - Palm Sunday (Christian)
21 April - Maundy Thursday (Christian)
21 April . The Queen.s birthday
22 April - Good Friday (Christian)
23 April . St George.s Day (a church festival)
24 April - Easter Sunday (Christian)
25 April - Easter Monday (Christian) 
25 April - Hop Monday
30 April . 2 May . Rochester Sweeps Festival

MAY
1 May - May Day
2 May - Early May Bank Holiday 
30 April - 2 May - Rochester Sweeps Festival
24 May . Empire Day 
29 May . Oak Apple Day (the birthday of Charles II)
30 May . Spring Bank Holiday
30 May . Cheese Rolling (in Gloucestershire)

JUNE
2 June - Ascension Day (Christian) 
2 June . Coronation Day: Gun Salute
12 June . Pentecost / Whitsuntide (Christian) 
19 June . Fathers. Day

JULY
5 July - Tynwald Day (the national holiday of the Isle of Man)
15 July - St. Swithun's Day 
TBC - Swan Upping (a census of swans on the River Thames)

AUGUST
1 August - Lammas Day 
1 August - Yorkshire Day 
26 . 28 August - Reading Festival 
27 . 29 August - The Glenn Miller Festival (the largest jazz, swing and Jive festival in the United
Kingdom)
28 . 29 August - Notting Hill Carnival
29 August - Late Summer Bank Holiday

SEPTEMBER
4 September . 8 November - Blackpool Illuminations
5 September - The Great River Race, London
TBC - Heritage Open Days (free entry to several National Trust properties)

OCTOBER
11 October - Apple Day
11 October - Trafalgar Day 
17 October - Punky Night (children sing through the streets and at residential doors)
31 October - Halloween 

NOVEMBER
1 November - All Saints Day (Christian)
1 November - London to Brighton Veteran Car Run
2 November - All Souls Day (Christian)
5 November - Guy Fawkes
5 November - Lewes Bonfire Night
11 November . Armistice Day
13 November - Remembrance Sunday
14 November - The Prince of Wales' birthday
20 November - Stir-up Sunday (last Sunday of the Christian Church Year)
27 November - Advent Sunday (Christian)
DECEMBER
TBC - Trafalgar Square Christmas Tree Lighting Ceremony 
24 December - A Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols
24 December - Christmas Eve
25 December - Christmas Day (Christian)
26 December - Boxing Day 
26 December - St Stephen's Day 
31 December - New Year.s Eve

January February March April

May June July August

September October November December

6.2 Customs

 DOs and DON'TS (Taboos) in Britain

1. Do stand in line: text taken from and copyright of projcetbritain.com

2. Do take your hat off when you go indoors (men only)
3. Do say "Excuse Me": text taken from and copyright of projcetbritain.com
4. Do say "Please" and "Thank you":
5. Do cover your Mouth:
6. Do Shake Hands:
7. Do say sorry:
8. Do Smile: text taken from and copyright of projcetbritain.com
9. Do Drive on the left side of the road
10. Do open doors for other people
11. Do not greet people with a kiss: 
We only kiss people who are close friends and relatives.
12. Avoid talking loudly in public
13. It is impolite to stare at anyone in public.
Privacy is highly regarded. text taken from and copyright of projcetbritain.com
14. Do not ask a lady her age
It is considered impolite to ask a lady her age
15. Do not pick your nose in public: 
We are disgusted by this. If your nostrils need de-bugging, use a handkerchief.
16. Avoid doing gestures such as backslapping and hugging 
This is only done among close friends.
17. Do not spit. 
Spitting in the street is considered to be very bad mannered.
18. Do not burp in public 

19. Do not pass wind in public text taken from and copyright of projcetbritain.com
Now how can we say this politely? Let's say that you want to pass wind. What do you do? Go
somewhere private and let it out. If you accidentally pass wind in company say 'pardon me'.
20. It is impolite speak with your mouth full of food
21. Do not ask personal or intimate questions 
We like our privacy. Please do not ask questions such as "How much money do you earn?"
"How much do you weigh?" or "Why aren't you married?". text taken from and copyright of
projcetbritain.com
22. Never eat off a knife when having a meal.

 Social Customs
 Time

You should arrive:

* At the exact time specified – for dinner, lunch, or appointments with professors, doctors, and other
professionals.

* Any time during the hours specified for teas, receptions, and cocktail parties.

* A few minutes early: for public meetings, plays, concerts, movies, sporting events, classes, church
services, and weddings.

If you are invited to someone's house for dinner at half past seven, they will expect you to be there
on the dot. An invitation might state "7.30 for 8", in which case you should arrive no later than 7.50.
However, if an invitation says "sharp", you must arrive in plenty of time.

Invitations

“ Drop in anytime” and “come see me soon” are idioms often used in social settings but seldom
meant to be taken literally. It is wise to telephone before visiting someone at home.

If you receive a written invitation to an event that says “RSVP”, you should respond to let the
person who sent the invitation know whether or not you plan to attend.

Never accept an invitation unless you really plan to go. You may refuse by saying, “Thank you for
inviting me, but I will not be able to come.” If, after accepting, you are unable to attend, be sure to
tell those expecting you as far in advance as possible that you will not be there.

Although it is not necessarily expected that you give a gift to your host, it is considered polite to do
so, especially if you have been invited for a meal. Flowers, chocolate, or a small gift are all
appropriate. A thank-you note or telephone call after the visit is also considered polite and is an
appropriate means to express your appreciation for the invitation.

Dress

Everyday dress is appropriate for most visits to peoples' homes. You may want to dress more
formally when attending a holiday dinner or cultural event, such as a concert or theatre
performance.
 Introduction and Greeting

It is proper to shake hands with everyone to whom you are introduced, both men and women. An
appropriate response to an introduction is "Pleased to meet you". If you want to introduce yourself
to someone, extend you hand for a handshake and say "Hello, I am....". Hugging is only for friends.

Dining

When you accept a dinner invitation, tell your host if you have any dietary restrictions. He or she
will want to plan a meal that you can enjoy. The evening meal is the main meal of the day in most
parts of Britain.

Food may be served in one of several ways: "family style," by passing the serving plates from one
to another around the dining table; "buffet style," with guests serving themselves at the buffet; and
"serving style," with the host filling each plate and passing it to each person. Guests usually wait
until everyone at their table has been served before they begin to eat. Food is eaten with a knife and
fork and dessert with a spoon and fork.
 7. POLITICS

7.1. Introduction

The term 'Westminster' is given to this system in reference to the Palace of Westminster which is the
place where the British parliament was founded and is located up to the present day. The Westminster
system is a very old and important system of government in the world. It has been adopted by many
countries such as Commonwealth countries.
Prior to the Westminster system, Britain had a feudal system where the monarchs ruled the country
with nobleman as advisors. The monarch extracted taxes from the British people and imposed laws
on them without their consent. The Sheriff of each local area known as a shire collected these taxes
and administered the monarch’s laws on the people. This gradually changed after the signing of the
Magna Carta in 1215 by King John. Today, the United Kingdom is governed by what is called a
constitutional monarchy. This means that while the monarch is the head of state of the United
Kingdom he or she is bound by the laws of its parliament and has to follow the directions of the
parliament in all matters of state. The relationship between the Monarchy and the British parliament
was established after a long struggle for power. In 1689, the parliament won this struggle by
controlling most of the wealth of the country from taxes.

The governing power of the United Kingdom is in the parliaments of United Kingdom, the Scottish
Parliament and the National Assemblies of Wales and Northern Ireland. The parliament of the
United Kingdom is the supreme parliament. It can change the powers of the Scottish parliament
and the assemblies of Wales and Northern Ireland. The laws passed by parliament of the United
Kingdom and Scotland are interpreted and enforced by Law Courts of the United Kingdom, Wales,
Northern Ireland and Scotland. However, as with parliamentary supremacy, the law courts of the
United Kingdom are the supreme body. In this chapter we will focus on the parliament of the
United Kingdom which can be also referred to as the British Parliament. The control or executive
power of the British Parliament is held by the government of the United Kingdom. The Prime
Minister is the head of this government. Indeed, the true monarch in modern times is the Prime
Minister.
Sheriffs to collect taxes and enforce laws. After this, there was a gradual change to the Westminster
System, where the people of the United Kingdom elect those who would make laws and charge
taxes. This is a fairer system.
The British monarchy has existed for over a thousand years and is a symbol of unity of the nation. It
is therefore very important part of the Westminster system in the United Kingdom. The present
monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, is highly respected and has an important influence on the UK’s
system of government. She receives a regular brief by the Prime Minister about Cabinet decisions
and matters of national life. In return, she provides advice to the Prime Minster which is highly
valued. Since 1952, the Queen has given weekly audience to 11 Prime Ministers and therefore has a
lot experience in matters of state.
The British monarchy is also called the British Crown or Crown. This signifies the monarch’s
duties and powers as the head of state. Succession of the monarchy is hereditary. On the death of a
reigning monarch, the oldest male child or Prince inherits the British crown. If there is no male
inheritor, the
Crown passes to the oldest female offspring or Princess of the monarch. By the laws of the British
parliament the monarch must be a Protestant and is formally appointed in a coronation ceremony.

The monarch has many functions and duties. The monarch is ceremonial head of the government
and the judiciary, the head of the Church of England, and the commander-in-chief of the armed
forces. In parliamentary affairs, the monarch’s role is to summon, suspend or dissolve the
Parliament. The monarch also gives royal assent to laws passed by the Parliament and appoints
government ministers, judges, officers of the armed forces, governors, diplomats and bishops of the
Church of England. The Monarch also confers honours, such as peerages and knighthoods and can
remit sentences of convicted criminals. Finally, the monarch can declare war or make peace with
other countries. However, this power has never been exercised in modern history as this is the duty
of the parliament and the Prime Minister.
With the exception of a bestowing some honours, the monarch discharges these functions at the
direction of the government. The refusal of the Queen to exercise her power on matters of state
according to the direction of her Prime Minister would risk a constitutional crisis.

7.2. The British Parliament

The Parliament is very ancient institution originating in the middle of the thirteenth century. It consists
of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. It is also known as 'Westminster', as it is located
in the Palace of Westminster which was once a home of the monarchy. This parliament is the supreme
legislative body of the United Kingdom.
 The House of Lords was created to

View of Westminster across Westminster Bridge at dawn. provide advisors for the Monarch from
the British noble class. This institution is also referred to as the ‘Lords’. The name 'House of
Commons' is derived from the term ‘commoners’ that was used to describe people not from the noble
class such as merchants, farmers and workers. It is popularly known as the ‘Commons’ and it was
created to provide the king with money from the commoners of Britain. The House of Commons
became increasingly powerful as it could obtain money from the people but could also withhold it
from the monarch if it considered the request for money by the monarch was unreasonable or
excessive. By the seventeenth century, the House of Commons had more control in financial matters
and in the passing of laws compared with the monarch and the Lords. In modern times, the
Parliament's functions are to make laws, to raise enough money through taxation to fund government
spending, to examine government policy and administration, and to debate or discuss important
political issues. Each parliamentary session begins with a ceremonial occasion called the State
Opening of Parliament. The highlight of this event is the Queen's Speech which she delivers from her
throne in the House of Lords. Her speech is written by the government, and describes the policies the
government intends to implement during the forthcoming session of Parliament.

7.3. The House of Commons

The people of the United Kingdom vote for members of the House of Commons in general
elections. These elections have to be held every five years but the Prime Minister can call for a
general election before the end of a five year term by requesting the Queen to dissolve parliament
and to declare a new general election. Voters belong to a constituency. Each constituency elects a
Member of Parliament to represent them in the Commons. The UK is currently divided into 659
constituencies with 529 constituencies in England and 72, 40, and 18 in Scotland, Wales and
Northern Ireland, respectively. Voting is not compulsory but about 75 per cent of the electorate
usually vote in elections. British citizens and citizens of the Irish Republic who are resident in the
UK can vote in these elections. To be eligible to vote in an election, they must be older than 18
years and have to register in their constituency. They can be disqualified from voting if they are
 intellectually handicapped, or if they are a member of the House of Lords or a sentenced prisoner.
The candidate who gets the majority of votes in his or her constituency becomes the Member of
Parliament for that constituency. This process is known as the electoral system.
Members of Parliament are
popularly referred to as an ‘MP’ or
‘Member’ by the public or other
MP’s and their function is to
represent the interests of their
constituents. If a Member resigns,
dies or becomes a member of the
House of Lords during the 5-year
term of a Parliament, a by-election
The chamber of the House of Commons must be held to elect a new
member. No candidate is required
to be a member of a political party
to contest an election, but it is very
rare for an independent candidate to
become an MP.
The chamber is where MPs debate and discuss all matters of state. The arrangement of seating in the
chamber is specific for the party political system of the United Kingdom. The chamber is
rectangular. The Speaker of the House sits at one end. The Speaker is chosen by a vote of the entire
House and is usually an MP from an opposition political party. The Speaker presides over the House
of Commons and must know all the rules of the House. The Speaker controls the debate in the
chamber and will warn or eject an MP whose behaviour becomes unruly. If an MP wishes to address
the House they must first ask the speaker. The MP will then address the House after first addressing
the Speaker. On either side of the Speaker’s chair are five rows of benches spanning the length of
the chamber. MPs of the Government sit on the benches on the Speakers right and MPs who oppose
the government sit on the left.

The front benches on either side are reserved for Cabinet Ministers of the government, and the
Opposition’s 'Shadow Cabinet'. Behind the front benches of the chamber sit MPs known as 'back-
benchers'.
Members of Parliament have not always been paid for their duties although they have received some
form of payment from the thirteenth century. They first received an official salary in 1911. Today
MP’s are paid very well when compared to the average wage earner in the UK (see table). These high
salaries are considered necessary to attract talented people into the parliament. The Prime Minister
earns much less than many executives in large companies in the UK.
Each day in the chamber begins with Question time, lasting approximately an hour. MPs are able to
ask ministers or other MPs questions on important matters of state. Questions must be provided 48
hours before Question Time, to allow ministers to prepare an answer. The government and Opposition
MPs use Question time to criticize each other's policies and actions. On two afternoons each week the
Prime Minister will answer questions on general policy matters. After Question time, the main debate
of the day takes place. Most of this time is used to scrutinise government spending and debating new
bills the government or others wishes to introduce. The system of debate is much the Lords. It
originates in a 'motion' (a proposal) that is 'moved' (proposed) by a minister or other MP. The Speaker
then proposes the question as a subject of debate.
7.4. The House of Lords
The House of Lords is referred to as "the Lords" and is also known as the upper house of the
parliament. In ancient times, the Lords was made up of the monarch’s advisors. They were chosen
from noble class and senior clergy of the Britain. In the present day, there are several types of
members in the Lords. They are now chosen by the House of Commons. Life peers are appointed
due to their political or public contribution to the nation. Hereditary peers are appointed by their
birthright due to their aristocratic background. Members of the clergy are called the ‘Lords
Spiritual’ and are senior bishops and archbishops selected from the Church of England.
In 1996 there were 1197 peers of whom 750 were hereditary peers. But following reforms to the
House of Lords, it now consists almost entirely of peers appointed by the Commons. In 2009, the
House of Lords had 742 members consisting of 624 life peers, 92 hereditary peers and 26 Lords
spiritual.
The main function of the House is to review laws passed in the lower house (the House of
Commons) and to request amendments of Bills. The Lords can delay the passing of laws but cannot
stop them.
The only real remaining power of the Lords is to prevent the House of Commonsfrom continuing a
term of Parliament for greater than five years. Peers do not receive a salary but are paid for their
living expenses when attending the Lords. In 2008, the average expense for a peer was
approximately £25,000. Future reforms to the ‘Lords’’ are to change its name to the ‘Senate’ and a
third of members will be elected for a 12-15 year term at each general election. By these reforms,
heredity peers and the clergy will be expelled from this institution.
7.5. The Government
The Government is made up of a majority of members of the Commons. A few government members
may be peers. These peers do not usually have a critical role in the government, as a government
needs most of its members in the Commons where all important matters of state are debated with the
opposition. The Government is almost always from one political party but may also be made up of a
coalition of political parties or independent MP’s. A coalition government is formed by a combination
of the MP's of two or more political parties in the Commons. This has occurred very rarely in the UK,
for example, the National Government of 1931-1935 which consisted of MP's from the Labour
Conservative, and Liberal parties. After a general election, the Queen in her ceremonial role invites the
leader of the party or the coalition that has a majority of MPs to form a government. The leader of this
party becomes the Prime Minister and is also known as the PM. The PM is the head of the
government and the political leader of the United Kingdom. The prime minister has therefore got to
act with strong leadership on behalf of the British government.

The Prime Minister forms a government by appointing Ministers. A British government can have
approximately one hundred ministers and they govern ministries such as the Ministry of Agriculture,
Fisheries and Food, the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of Sport and Tourism. About twenty
senior ministers and the prime minister form a cabinet. The cabinet is the supreme body of the
government and has the executive power to implement all its important policies. The cabinet meets
privately each week to discuss matters of state and political strategies with the prime minister. While a
cabinet minister is entitled to persuade the prime minister to agree to his or her proposal, the cabinet
minister must ultimately obey the prime minister or resign from the cabinet if they cannot follow the
prime minister’s directive.
 The British Prime Gordon Brown welcomes
Vietnam’s Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung to
Downing Street.

The most important cabinet minister is the Chancellor of

Exchequer, who is responsible for all financial and economic
matters of the United Kingdom. The rest of the cabinet ministers
are called Cabinet Secretaries and are given important positions
such as the Secretary of State for Health, Secretary of State for
Justice and Secretary of State for Defence. The cabinet ministers
sit with the prime minister on the front benches in the House
of Commons. Most Government offices are located in Whitehall,
London. The term ‘Whitehall’ is often used to refer to the
government. The Prime Minister’s official residence is at 10
Downing Street in Whitehall. It is popularly referred to as 'Downing Street'. The prime minister
formally receives all visiting heads of state at Downing Street.

7.6. The Opposition

The MP’s in the House of Commons who are opposed to the rule of the Government are called the
opposition.
The opposition does not have the majority of MP’s in
the House of Commons and therefore cannot stop the
government from passing laws. However, the
opposition has a very important role in the
Westminster system.
Their job is to keep the government accountable by
 scrutiny of the government activities. They do this by
trying to expose bad policies, mistakes and wasteful expenditure of public money. They will also try
to expose any corrupt practices by government members and can force a government member to
resign or bring the government down. Like the Government, opposition MP’s are members of one or
several political parties and independent MP’s in the
David Cameron, the Conservative
Commons. The Leader of the opposition is the Prime opposition leader, speaking at Question
Minister's main opponent. time in the Commons.

7.7 The Party Political System

Most members of the Commons and Lords belong to a

political party. Since the nineteenth century, the United Kingdom has had a two-party system. This
means that MP's from one political party has been the government of the day while the opposition
has been made up of MP's of another party. In the twentieth century, this two-party contest has been
between the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Differences between the Labour party and
Conservatives have become less pronounced in recent times but their political origins are distinct.

Labour Party campaign poster for the 1957

general election which Labour won after 8
years in opposition
 The Labour party was founded in the early 1900's by members of the trade unions and socialist
parties of the nineteenth century. It therefore had a strong commitment to the working class people of
Britain. Labour are against the exercise of unfair privilege and many party members therefore are
not in favour the British Monarchy and would like to see this institution abolished. However, more
recently the Labour party has also tried to attract the middle class voters of Britain by policies that
favour the wealthy. This was influenced by their long years as the opposition party in the Parliament
between 1979 and 1997. The Labour party has ruled the United Kingdom for approximately 30
years between 1900 and 2009.
The Conservative party has ruled the United Kingdom for the majority of this period. They are
referred to as the Conservatives or Tories as they have descended from Tory Party founded in 1678.
The Conservatives are the traditionalist political party of the United Kingdom and have received
strong support from the English aristocracy, business and wealthy classes in the UK. The
Conservatives have usually opposed claims for wage increases by workers while favouring tax cuts
for businesses and the wealthy.
They have also generally opposed or neglected government spending in areas such as public health,
housing and education which are necessary for the poor and working classes of the UK. They have
therefore been the natural enemies of the trade union movement and workers of the UK. Other recent
examples of their traditionalist policies are the opposition to the devolving of power to the Scottish
Parliament, and the assemblies of Wales and Northern Ireland. More recently, they also opposed a
strong association with the European Union and were against adopting the Euro as the currency of the
UK.
Since 1988 the British voter has had a three-party system by the founding of a political party known as
Liberal Democrats. They are the third largest political party in the UK and also referred to as the
Lib-Dems. Their political philosophy is in-between that of the Labour and the Conservatives. They
are not affiliated with the trade union movement but favour government spending on health, education
and welfare for the poor. They also are pro-EU, and have a strong commitment to the environmental
movement. Their policies strongly promote the use of renewable energy and deep cuts to greenhouse
gas emissions. Unlike Labour and the Conservative parties the Lib-Dems were opposed to Britain's
participation in the invasion of Iraq in 2003.
 Liberal Democrats campaign poster against
the invasion and war in Iraq

Lord Frederick Woolton, Conservative Party

Chief (1883–1964) posing in front of
Conservative campaign posters in 1949.

The political system of Britain is called the Westminster System which is governed by a Constitutional
Monarchy. This means that the British Monarch is the head of the British Parliament. However, the
United Kingdom is ruled by the Government in the Parliament who are elected by British voters. The
Parliament
is made-up of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The House of Commons is often
referred to as the Commons while the House of Lords is referred to as the Lords. Members of the
House of Commons are called MPs. They are elected by the people of the United Kingdom. The
UK is divided into Constituencies and the people in each one elects a member to represent them in
the House of Commons Members of the House of Lords are elected by the Prime Minister and the
Queen of England. The House of Lords consists of Life peers, Hereditary peers, and the Lords
Spiritual. Both Houses of Parliament create and pass Laws called Bills which are important for
governing the country and for collecting revenue for government expenditure by taxation. Some of
the most important bills are Money and Supply bills.
Usually, a political party that has the most number of elected members in the Commons will become
the Government of the United Kingdom after a general election. The three main political parties in
Britain are the Labour Party, the Conservative Party and the Liberal Democrats. Approximately 20
senior ministers of a British government belong to the Cabinet where all important decisions of
Government are discussed and implemented with the consent of the Prime Minister who is the head
of the Cabinet. Its members are called Cabinet secretaries and are assisted by senior civil servants.
The Civil Service administers the policies of Government Ministers. The government’s activities
are scrutinised by an opposition who make sure that the government is accountable to the people of
United Kingdom.
 8. EDUCATION

Education has a long history in the United

Kingdom. In early times, Christian churches influenced
the teaching and development of education. Since the
nineteenth century, successive governments of the UK Clergymen and laypeople learning
have had increasing control and influence on education, to read Latin in an English
particularly in school education. This chapter mainly grammar school
focuses on the development and curriculum of education
in England. Many developments in education in England
are similar, and in some instances identical, to those of
the education systems in Wales, Scotland and Northern
Ireland.8.1. Early Education
Schools were in existence in England during the Middle
Ages, between the fifth and sixteenth century. Teaching
was dominated by Christian churches. In this period,
Christian teachings and religious songs called hymns were
written in Latin as it was the official language of
Christianity. Trainee monks, priests and laypeople were
taught to read Christian teachings and hymns in Latin in
schools attached to Cathedrals or monasteries. These
schools were known as grammar schools, but the learning
of grammar as we know it in the present day was not
taught in these schools. Students were only taught how to
pronounce and read Christian religious texts aloud in
Latin. The reading of Latin hymns was also taught in the
same way, so that they could be sung in a church choir.
The schools in this historical period were
referred to as grammar and song schools. They are also known as cathedral schools and chantries.
The earliest cathedral schools; Kings School in Canterbury and Kings School in Rochester, were
founded in the sixth century.
English bakery.
Young apprentice bakers in a medieval

An apprenticeship was another form of
education that was in existence in the
medieval period. Students were called
apprentices and undertook practical training
that was taught by a master craftsman in a trade
such as a bakery or a blacksmith. The apprentice
or protégé lived and worked with the master
craftsmen, usually for seven years, while learning
their trade. Apprentices were mainly boys but
girls could also become apprentices in trades such
as embroidery. The apprentice system was
supervised and controlled by organisations of the
master craftsmen called trade guilds or by town
councils.
By about the ninth century the curriculum in many Cathedral schools also included basic studies of
mathematics, astronomy, law, poetry, natural history and music. The purpose of study in these
disciplines was to support church activities. For example, mathematics and astronomy were used to
develop or maintain the Church calendar while knowledge of law was necessary for the
administration of a Church. The study of these disciplines together with Latin was modernised by
the twelfth century and became known as liberal arts studies.
By the twelfth century, the first universities were established for liberal arts studies, first at Oxford
and later at Cambridge. Students from grammar schools were the main entrants to these
universities. The control and influence of education by the Christian churches began to weaken
from this time. The universities at Oxford and Cambridge also developed curricula in philosophy,
medicine and law. The Church was excluded from the control and supervision of these disciplines.
The development of grammar schools that were 'independent' of the Christian churches also
occurred shortly after this period. An independent grammar school called Eton College was
founded in 1440 and Bridgenorth Grammar School was founded in 1503. The latter school was
established by the Bridgenorth Town Council and forbad the teaching of pupils by the local clergy.
More independent grammar schools continued to be established after the fifteenth century by the
endowments of noblemen, wealthy merchants, guilds and town councils.

Questions
1. Why was it important to study Latin in the medieval schools of Britain?

2. Why were these schools called grammar and song schools?

3. What was the 'grammar' that was learned by the students grammar schools?

4. Is there a difference between grammar and song schools compared to cathedral schools and
chantries?

5. Compare and contrast study in cathedral schools and by a master craftsmen.

6. What are liberal arts studies? Why were they called 'liberal'?

7. What were the initial factors that started the decline of influence of the Christian
Churches in education?
 8.2. Early Modern Education
By the nineteenth century there were approximately 800 grammar schools in Britain. This century
marked the beginning of the involvement of British governments in school education. Government
control of education became a decisive factor in its development and this continues up to the
present day. About twenty laws have been passed in the House of Commons between 1841 and
2009 on the supervision, ownership, funding, and curriculum of schools. The involvement of
British governments in all areas of education caused a further decline in the influence of the
Christian churches in education.
Up to this time, education was usually affordable by the privileged classes in Britain. Poor
students were only able to enter education through endowments. This inequality was first
addressed by the British parliament in 1833 when it voted to provide funds each year for the
construction of schools for poor children. In 1840, the Grammar Schools Act broadened the
curriculum of grammar schools to include English, European and Ancient languages as well as the
science, history, geography and mathematics.
Earlier, in 1830, entrance examinations for admission to a university were introduced to improve
academic standards in grammar schools and Universities.
\ A series of Elementary Education Acts between 1870 and 1902 enabled the gradual implementation
of compulsory education for all children between 5-12 years of age. These acts also created methods
for the funding of schools. For example, the Act of 1870 enabled the creation of school boards who
were empowered to obtain the cost of children's schooling from the local community. The duties of
the school boards were replaced by Local Education
Authorities (LEA's) through the Education Act of 1902.
These Acts helped to increase the participation of British
working class children in education. The schools that were
created by these reforms were called elementary schools and
taught a curriculum known as the three R's. This was in
reference to the teaching of reading writing and 'rithmetic (a
popular
Staff and shortened pronunciation
some students of arithmetic)
the Ossett Grammar School, to six levels.
in Mayfair,
At Yorkshire
the sixth level inor1916.
sixth year, a student was expected to
demonstrate these skills. The student had to read with 'fluency and expression', write a short essay
topic, a letter or an easy paraphrase and be able to calculate decimal and common fractions. The
technique of paraphrase is commonly known as sentence transformation in Vietnam. These early Acts
were further improved by Education Act of 1918 which raised the age limit for compulsory education
of children to 14 years.

Questions
 1 . How was education modernised after the nineteenth century in comparison to previous times?
2. Why did the influence of Christian churches on education decrease after the nineteenth
century?
3. Explain why successive British Governments became involved in education.
4 . Which Act or Acts were the most important for the development of education in Britain?
5. If you were poor and lived in Britain before 1944 how would you obtain an education?
6. Why were reading, writing and arithmetic called the three R's?
7. How does study of the 3 R's compare with education in Vietnam in the same period?

8.3. Primary and Secondary Education

The next major reform of education was through the 1944 Education Act which introduced several
major improvements to school education. Firstly, it made education completely free for all
elementary schools by funding from the British government. The Act also restructured elementary
education into primary and secondary education and divided the secondary education system into
grammar schools and secondary modern schools. The age for compulsory education of children
was also increased to 15 years. Further increases to the age limits have occurred since then.
The 1944 Education Act is also known as the Butler Act, in recognition of the Conservative
politician R.A. Butler who was responsible for drafting it. The Act stipulated that children between
5 and 11 years of age should receive a 'primary education'. Schools teaching children in this age
group became known as primary schools. Students in these primary schools were taught reading
and writing in English and a second language such as French or Latin, arithmetic, science, history,
geography, music and religion. These studies
continued to an advanced level during their
secondary schooling.

In their last year of primary schooling, at the age 11-

12 years, students undertook the 11plus examination.
A student's results from this test decided whether he
or she would enter a grammar school or a secondary
modern school. The examination consisted of three parts: a section on problem solving in
arithmetic, an essay writing section on a general topic and another section on problem solving that
tested a student's general knowledge and logical skill. If a student's 11plus results were in the top
25% of results for all primary schools they would be
Primary school students from Newtown, Cheshire,
North West England in their classroom in the 1950's. eligible to enter a grammar school. Grammar schools
had a reputation
for academic excellence and pupils were prepared for university education.
They sat for public exams in the final year of their study to enter into a University. Students who had
scores that were below 75% of all 11plus results had to enter a secondary modern school. The
academic level in these schools was insufficient for students to prepare for public examinations to
enter into Universities.
Instead, secondary modern schools could only provide education necessary for employment in
manual, skilled and clerical jobs.

Students of the privileged classes enrolled their children to fee-paying preparatory schools up to the
age of 11 or 13 for their primary education. Similar examinations were also available for students of
preparatory schools in the last year of their schooling to enter an independent (fee paying) grammar
school. Leading independent grammar schools are also called 'Public schools'. Some examples of
these elite schools are Eton College, Harrow School, Rugby School and Winchester College. These
exclusive public schools were founded in the Middle Ages and have educated children from the
upper class and nobility of Britain to the present day. There were no secondary modern schools
within the independent fee paying institutions.

Questions
1. Why did the British government have to make laws so that children would attend schools?
2. If you were poor how did you obtain an education in England after 1944?
3. Would you have had a better education in an elementary school or a primary school?
4. Why was the primary school examination called 11plus?
5. If 10,000 students took the 11plus exam in England in 1955 and 1500 students got a total score
between 100%, and 75%. How many students would enter a secondary modern school the next
year?
6. Compare and contrast the 11 plus examination with exams for Vietnamese students of the same
age.
7 . Why did independent schools not accept or follow the reforms of the 1944 Education Act?
8.4. Comprehensive schools and the National Curriculum

The division of students at the end of their primary schooling into either grammar schools or
secondary modern schools by their results from the 11plus examination was called streaming. The
system of streaming was criticized by many educationalists, local educational authorities (LEA's),
parents and politicians for several reasons. Firstly, the low academic standards provided by
secondary modern schools made it difficult, if not impossible, for students in secondary modern
schools to gain entry and succeed in higher education. Secondly, if students could not enter a
grammar school due to their 11plus score they lost their chance to improve their ability for a higher
academic level when they were older. Therefore, the 11plus
examination was considered an unfair test of a
student's future academic potential. Thirdly, in
some areas of Britain, the local authorities did not
have the resources to create the two separate
types of schools, thus creating problems for
LEA's.
The dissatisfaction with steaming led to the
gradual implementation of comprehensive
(secondary) schools and the discontinuation of
the 11plus examination. These comprehensive
schools were created by the amalgamation of
existing grammar schools and secondary modern
schools. They are also known as
'Comprehensives'. The equivalent of a
Ladywood Comprehensive School, comprehensive in many other parts of the world is a
'high school'. Primary school students did not have to
Birmingham, in1976 showing the growing
pass an examination, such as 11plus, to enter
ethnic diversity of schools in England at
this time.
acomprehensive and all students entering a comprehensive had access to the curriculum and
academic standards of a grammar school. Later, when new government schools were built they were
designed as comprehensive schools. The age limit for compulsory education was raised to 16 years
in 1973 and students had to undertake work experience in the last year of schooling.
By 1975, most of the LEA's in England and Wales had abolished the 11-plus examination and had
adopted the comprehensive system. Comprehensives have enabled millions of school children in
government schools to gain access to higher education after completion of their secondary studies.
This did not happen in the former system of streaming. At the present time, approximately ninety
percent of British students attend Comprehensives. Most of the fee paying exclusive independent
grammar schools of the middle and upper classes of Britain did not join the comprehensive system.
The next significant development of education, since the Butler Act of 1944, was the Education
Reform Act of 1988. This Act introduced a National Curriculum for all primary and secondary
government schools in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. This meant that schools across these
three regions of Britain had to teach their students the same syllabus that was specified in the
National Curriculum (see below).

Key Stage Syllabus of the Current

1 National Curriculum
2 3 4
Approximate age of student 5-7 7-11 11-14 14-16
(years) Curriculum
Mathematics Compulsor Compulsor Compulsor Compulsory
Science Compulsor Compulsor Compulsor Compulsory
Physical Education Compulsor Compulsor Compulsor Compulsory
Information and Communication Compulsor Compulsor Compulsor Compulsory
Music Compulsor Compulsor Compulsor Option A
History Compulsor Compulsor Compulsor Option B
Geography Compulsor Compulsor Compulsor Option B
Art and Design Compulsor Compulsor Compulsor Option A
Design and Technology Compulsor Compulsor Compulsor Options
Modern Foreign Compulso Options
language Citizenship ry Compulso

Exclusive fee paying independent schools of the middle and upper classes were exempt from
this Act. The four 'Key Stages', in this curriculum are defined by the age of students. In Key
Stage 4 students have several choices for four subjects (see table above). They have the choice
of one arts subject (from options A), a humanities subject (from options B) and choices from a
design and technology subjects and modern foreign languages. Schools have to also provide
additional non-examinable teaching in religious studies
for students in Key stages 1, 2, 3 and 4. Sex and relationship education known as SRE is also to
be taught to students in stages 3 and 4. Students at stages 3 and 4 also have to undertake careers
education and work experience training. Parents have the choice to allow or disallow their
children from undertaking religious studies and some parts of SRE.
The Education Reform Act of 1988 also introduced National Curriculum assessments for
students. They are called Standard Assessment Tests and are also known as Sats (or SATs). Sats
examinations are held at the end of each academic year, in July. The assessments were introduced
in 1991, 1995 and 1998 for students in Key Stages 1, 2 and 3, respectively. The results of these
assessments are used to compare the performance of schools by the Sats scores of their students
 across England, Wales and Northern Ireland.
Parents were given the choice to select a school for their children based on Sats results. As with
steaming, Sats has also been unpopular with some educationalists as it was claimed that schools
can be given a 'good' or 'bad' reputation based upon Sats results. Usually, this meant schools in
poor areas of Britain, such as in the North where there are social disadvantages would have 'bad'
results. The current British government has proposed that in the future, primary and secondary
schools will be a graded from A to F in a "report card" that will rate each school by their
students' performance in examinations, truancy rates, pupil behaviour and health. Due to
administrative problems, the Sats examination for Key Stage 3 was abolished in 2009.
External examinations and internal assessments during Key Stages 3 and 4 are combined to award
students a
General Certificate of Secondary Education popularly referred to as the GCSE.

Questions
1. Explain in your own words the meaning of streaming. Is it a fair system?
2. Why has the British Government increased the age of compulsory education so many times and
wants increase it in the future?
3. Do students have a better education in Comprehensives compared to a secondary modern
school?
4. Why was the Education Reform Act of 1988 the most important development in education, since
the Butler Act?
5. Name an arts subject, a humanities subject and a modern language subject in the National
Curriculum.
6. Why do students have to undertake work experience in Key Stage 3 and 4?
7. Is the Sats test a good evaluation of a school or would a report card be a better test? Explain
why.

8.5. Further Education and Higher Education

After students finish their compulsory secondary education they have several choices. They can
choose to enter the workforce but finding a permanent job at sixteen has become very rare in
Britain. Therefore, in present times young students after completing their GSCE will choose further
education. Further education refers to education undertaken after GSCE such as an apprenticeship
or what is known as 'sixth form'.
An apprenticeship is classified as vocational training as the apprentice learns a trade by working in
a business such as an automotive repairer, hotel or hairdressing salon. The apprentice has to also
attend a trade school to obtain a National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) for their trade. They earn
a small allowance while undertaking their apprenticeship.
Students who do not undertake apprenticeships can continue their education from Key Stage 4 to
'sixth form' for a further two years. Students currently study 3 subjects in each of sixth form study.
They can choose their subjects from a wide variety of subjects in the sciences, arts, humanities
business and commerce. For each chosen subject they are tested at the Advanced Subsidiary level
(AS level) at the end of the first year of their study. At the end of the second year they sit for a
higher test for the same subject called an A2 examination. The satisfactory completion of AS and
A2 for each of at least three subjects is required to award the student with Advanced Level General
Certificate of Education popularly known as 'A-level' or 'A-levels'. Students who obtain an A-level
can enter university or other higher education institutions.
Their entry is based upon the results of their A-level examinations. A- Levels are undertaken by
students in most Commonwealth countries and are the common entry qualification to enter a
university in these countries.
University education is referred to as 'higher education' where students study for an academic
degree. The first degree offered at British universities is the Bachelor's degree which entails three
years of study.
Students are called undergraduates during this time of study. Graduates with a first degree can
continue their studies by taking a Masters degree, usually for one year or a Doctorate which is
usually three years of study and research. Graduates undertaking a Masters or Doctorate are
referred to as postgraduate students.
The government funds all undergraduate higher education but the cost of tuition fees has to be paid
by
undergraduates. Fees in 2009 were £3,225
per year. Students do not have to pay these
fees while they are undergraduates. The fees
are repayable after graduation when a
graduate is earning more than £15,000 a
year. Postgraduate education is selectively
funded by the government and other
organisations.
Postgraduates pay approximately £3,000 to
£50000 per year in fees depending on their
university. International students pay
between approximately £11,000 and
£23,000 for undergraduate and postgraduate
 courses. Some universities offer scholarships
for undergraduate and postgraduate studies.

Questions

1. What are the differences between a GSCE and an A-level?

2. What are the differences between an apprenticeship and sixth form?
3. What is the difference between compulsory education, further education and higher education?
4. Compare and contrast A-Level study in Britain with studies in a high school in Vietnam.
5. What is the difference between an undergraduate and a postgraduate?