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Welcome………. Thanks for participating in the workshop Explosion Incidents: The
Company Officers Role.
The purpose of this workshop is to provide the company officer with a basic understanding of
explosions and then to look at those safety related issues concerning the initial response.

1 EXPLOSION INCIDENTS: THE COMPANY OFFICERS

ROLE

2 INTRODUCTION
Fortunately, as a company officer, we are not faced with an explosion scene very often. Just
the mention of an explosion sends differing thoughts to each of us. Thoughts such as……..
What was the cause?
Was it a terroristic incident?
Was it a bombing?
How many are injured or dead?
What is the extent of damage?
and hopefully many others, such as …..
What are the hazards that we will have to face?
How can I keep myself and the other members of my crew safe?
How safe is the structure?
How can we care for the injured and still operate in a safe manner?
What resources will be needed?
and, in some instances that as the company officer, the potential of responding to an
explosion incident is about zero.
Well, all of those thoughts have merits. But, in reality, we are likely to respond to an
explosion. Key here is that the term "Explosion" does not necessarily mean "Explosives" or
"Terroristic" events. The term "Explosion" covers a wide variety of events that can be as a
result of the initiation of explosives, fuel gases, dusts, and BLEVE’s.
Also, not all explosion incidents are criminal acts or accidents. Regardless of the fuel or item
involved explosions pose many unique conditions and require that the company officer as
well as all within the command structure plan and evaluate every action.
It should be noted that the theme of this presentation is to make the company officer aware of
the issues that can be present as a result of an explosion and to assist in making the response
to the incident as safe as possible. Safety, your own and that of the other responders is
essential and this program will attempt to provide you with the information needed to make
correct decisions.
Whenever responding to an explosion, the following basic safety issues should be considered.
1. Do not handle explosive materials, unless you are trained and equipped to do so.
2. In the event that an explosive device is suspected, there is always the possibility of second
or additional devices. The area should be checked and cleared by a Bomb Technician.
3. Do not handle suspected explosive devices, evacuate the area to a safe distance and await
technical assistance.
4. If the explosion was the result of a fuel gas, the leaking fuel should be shut-off. Other
utilities should also be evaluated.
5. Evaluate structural conditions and reinforce as needed.
6. Evaluate surrounding hazards, i.e. Chemicals, Tanks and Storage Vessels.
7. Consider and evaluate biohazards, use appropriate personal protective equipment.
8. Complete the essential tasks to control the emergency and also limit contamination of the
scene.
Following these basic rules in addition to the "normal" scene operations should go a long way
to limiting additional injuries and also maintaining a scene for investigation.

2.1.1 Links of Interest

National Association of Fire Investigators (NAFI)
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
Fire and Safety Engineering Technology, Eastern Kentucky University
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms Explosives Incident Report and related ATF
bombing information.
3 A. GENERAL THEORY, DEFINITIONS
3.1 1. EXPLOSION

There are a variety of definitions that have been applied to the term explosion and while each
of them are correct, they are based on the community that uses the term.
a. Explosion. The sudden and rapid production and escape of gases from a confined
space accompanied by heat, shock & a noise.
b. Explosion. The sudden conversion of potential energy (chemical or mechanical) into
kinetic energy with the production and release of gases under pressure, or the release
of gas under pressure. These high-pressure gases then do mechanical work such as
moving, changing, or shattering nearby materials. (NFPA-921, 1998 Edition)
c. Explosion. An explosion is a large-scale, noisy, rapid expansion of matter into a
volume much greater than its original volume. This can be achieved by
(1.) bursting a vessel containing a pressurized fluid;
(2.) rapid heating of air and plasma by an electric arc;
(3.) a very fast burning reaction; or
(4.)detonating an explosive material.
(Introduction to the Technology of Explosives; Cooper, Paul W. and Kurowski, Stanley R.)
d. Explosion. Under the fire and explosion investigation definition, an
explosion is a physical reaction characterized by the presence of four major
elements or criteria:
(1.) Rapid Increase in Gas Pressure (Gas Dynamic)
(2.) Confinement of the Pressure
(3.) Rapid release of that Pressure
(4.) Damage or Change to the confining structure of the vessel
"Noise is not an element"
"Explosion Investigation and Analysis, Kennedy on Explosions"; Kennedy, Patrick M. and Kennedy, John P15-
16
While this definition is more of an analysis of the results it does provide the user with an
understanding of the key components of an explosion and it is useful in both response
considerations and investigation.
 e. e. Explosion. A chemical or mechanical action resulting in a sudden bursting
accompanied by a loud noise.
f. f. Explosion. A rapid expansion of gases.
g. g. Explosion. Simply, a loud boom and a sudden going away of things from
where they have just been!

3.2 2. EXPLOSIVES

As with the term "explosion" there are a variety of definitions used for explosives, one would
only need to look at the bibliography to have the opportunity to review the definitions used
by the technical literature.
a. Explosives. A mixture of solids or solids and liquids which upon initiation cause a
rapid and violent decomposition, and produce large volumes of gas. (Condensed
Phase)
b. Explosives. The term explosives generally is used in reference to a wide range of
energetic materials that can react chemically to produce heat, light, and gas.
"In general, an explosive has three basic characteristics:
(1.) It is an unstable chemical compound or mixture ignited by heat, shock, impact, friction ,
or a combination of these conditions;
(2.) Upon ignition it decomposes very rapidly in a detonation (as opposed to a deflagration,
which is a slower decomposition as with ignition of gunpowder);
and
(3.) Upon detonation there is a "rapid release of heat and large quantities of high-pressure
gases, which expand rapidly with sufficient force to overcome confining forces, e.g., the
confining forces of surrounding rock formation."
Blaster’s Handbook, 16th Edition; pg. 31
4 EXPLOSIVES. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
(DOT) DEFINITION
Explosives: An Explosive is any chemical compound, mixture, or device which is designed
to function by explosion, that is substantially instantaneous with the release of gas and heat.
Exception—such compound, mixture, or device which is otherwise specifically classified in
Parts 171-180. (See 49 CFR 173.50)
Current Classification System
DOT Hazard Classification for explosives.

Class 1 – Explosives
Division 1.1 Explosives with a mass explosion hazard
Division 1.2 Explosives with a projection hazard
Division 1.3 Explosives with predominantly a fire hazard
Division 1.4 Explosives with no significant blast hazard
Division 1.5 Very insensitive explosives; blasting agents
Division 1.6 Extremely insensitive detonating articles
Old Classification System (Provided for reference only)
CLASS A Detonating. Maximum Hazard. The nine types of Class A explosives are defined
in 49 CFR 173.53.
CLASS B Flammable Hazard. In general, functions by rapid combustion rather than
detonation. Included are explosive devices such as special fireworks, flash powders, etc. (49
CFR 173.88)
CLASS C Minimum hazard. Small arms ammunition, certain types of fireworks and
various types of manufactured articles containing restricted quantities of Class A and/or Class
11 explosives as components. Included are common fireworks and various types of small
arms ammunition manufactured articles which contain restricted quantities of Class A or
Class B explosives. (49 CFR 173.100)
BLASTING AGENT. A material designed for blasting which has been tested in accordance
with 49 CFR 173.114(a)(b). It must be so insensitive that there is very little probability of: (1)
accidental explosion or (2) going from burning to detonation. (49 CFR 173.114a(a))

5 LOW EXPLOSIVES
Low Explosives deflagrate (burn) rather than detonate, they burn progressively, and the
reaction is sub-sonic. The low explosives exert more of a pushing or heaving effect (when
confined), and are generally used as propellant powders.
Low explosives are sensitive to heat, friction, and shock.
Examples of Low Explosives include: Black Powder, Smokeless Powder, and Flash Powder.

6 HIGH EXPLOSIVES
High Explosives detonate, and the detonation process is progressive. These explosives have a
fast rate of reaction and range in sensitivity from sensitive (Primary) to insensitive (Blasting
Agents)
High explosives are divided into three main categories,
Primary (or Initiating) High Explosives, Secondary High
Explosives, Boosters and Secondary High Explosives, Main
Charge.

7 COMBUSTION EXPLOSION
The initiation fuels (A material that yields heat through
combustion,) and resultant rapid combustion of the fuel in a confined area. Several fuels
when ignited and confined may result in combustion explosion. (Diffuse Fuels)
As with many of the terms associated with explosions, there is also other terms that describe
combustion explosions, "Deflagration Explosion". (See Deflagration) The use of either of
these descriptors is correct. 
a. Fuel Gases
Natural gas, manufactured gas, LP Gas, and similar gases
commonly used for commercial or residential purposes, i.e.,
heating, cooling, or cooking.
b. Industrial Gases
A wide variety of products could be included in this list.
c. Dust
It should be noted that a wide variety of materials, even those not generally considered
combustible will when in suspension and in the presence of a suitable ignition source will
react violently.
d. Smoke
Byproducts of combustion, under the proper conditions can react violently and form a
combustion explosion.

8 DETONATION
Instantaneous combustion or conversion of a solid, liquid or gas into larger quantities of
expanding gases accompanied by heat, shock and a noise.
Detonation is a violent chemical reaction within a chemical compound or mechanical mixture
evolving heat and pressure. Detonation is a reaction which proceeds through the reacted
material toward the un-reacted material at a supersonic velocity. The result of the chemical
reaction is exertion of extremely high pressure on the surrounding medium forming a
propagating shock wave that originally is of supersonic velocity. A detonation, when the
material is located on or near the surface of the ground, is characterized normally by a crater.
a. Detonation Wave
A detonation wave is a shock wave in a reacting
(explosive) material where the chemical reaction is
carried out in the shock front.
b. Velocity of Detonation
The rate at which the detonation/combustion wave
travels through the explosive product. The speed or
how fast the chemical reaction occurs or the rate of the
reaction. Only High Explosives have a Velocity of
Detonation (VOD). The reaction speed is measured in
feet/second or meters/second. Velocity of Detonation
(VOD)-of a high explosive shock wave will usually
vary from 6500 feet/second (2,000 m/second) to 26,000
feet/second (8,000 m/second), the speed of sound being
1085 feet/second (331 m/second) in air. 1 foot = .3048
meters
c. Velocity of Explosion
The rate at which the detonation/combustion wave travels through the explosive product. The
speed or how fast the chemical reaction occurs or the rate of the reaction. Velocity of
Explosion (VOE) refers to both High and Low Explosives. The reaction speed is measured in
feet/second or meters/second
d. Brisance
Brisance is the destructive fragmentation effect of a charge on its immediate vicinity. The
relevant parameters in this connection are the detonation rate and loading density (how
compact the explosives are) and the heat of explosion and gas yield.
Brisance also describes the shattering effect of an explosive which is a combination of power
and velocity. The higher the power and the higher the velocity of detonation, the greater the
brisance and shattering effect. High-brisant explosives are used for blasting hard rock and
low-brisant explosives are used for blasting where a more pushing or heaving than shattering
effect is required.

9 DETONATOR
In an explosive train, that component which, when detonated by the primer, in turn detonates
a less sensitive but larger high explosive (usually the booster); or when containing its own
primer initiates the detonation.
A Detonator is any device containing a detonating charge that is used for initiating detonation
in an explosive. The term includes, but is not limited to, electric blasting caps of
instantaneous and delay types, non-electric blasting caps used with safety fuse, and
detonating cord delay connectors.
Blasting cap (Electric or Non-Electric) is often used to denote a detonator. 

10 DEFLAGRATION
Rapid burning
Deflagration is a rapid chemical reaction in which the output of heat is enough to enable the
reaction to proceed and be accelerated without input of heat from another source.
Deflagration is a surface phenomenon with the reaction products flowing away from the un-
reacted material along the surface at subsonic velocity. The effect of a true deflagration under
confinement is an explosion. Confinement of the reaction increases pressure, rate of reaction
and temperature, and may cause transition into a detonation.
a. Deflagration to Detonation Transition (DDT)
In detonators where primary explosives are initiated by heat of flame, but are transformed
into a detonation.

11 SEATED EXPLOSION
The seat of the explosion is defined as the "crater" or "area of greatest damage" that is caused
by the explosion. This area is also called the "epicenter" and is the point of origin of the
explosion. Initiation of explosives or the area where a mechanical explosion occurs will leave
a visible area to indicate the location of the "epicenter". However, often as a result of
structural damage, collapse, and similar damage the area of the "epicenter" may be somewhat
masked. However, with careful analysis this area can often be detected.
a. Characteristics
Crater
High Pressures
Rapid rates of pressure rise
Detonations - supersonic explosive velocity
b. Fuels or Products Involved
(1.) Explosives
(2.) Steam Boilers
(3.) BLEVE
(4.) Tightly confined Gases or Liquid Vapors

12 NON-SEATED EXPLOSION
Those explosions where there is no physical evidence of a single location where the
explosion originated. Non-Seated explosions are generally as a result of the ignition of
diffuse fuels such as gases (i.e. Natural Gas, LPG, Sewer Gases, Industrial Gases), vapors of
pooled liquids (i.e. gasoline vapors, lacquer thinner, MEK), and dusts.
It should be noted, however, that by careful analysis of the scene often there is a definite
overpressure direction that can be detected even though there is no crater formation. Also, the
epicenter is where the source of ignition is and not the location of the fuel gas leak.
a. Characteristics
No Crater
Wide spread fuels
Moderate rates of pressure rise
Deflagrations, subsonic
b. Fuels
(1.) Fuel Gases
A general category of combustion explosions that occur as a result of the ignition of diffuse
fuels such as gases (i.e. Natural Gas, LPG, Sewer Gases, Industrial Gases), vapors of pooled
liquids (i.e. gasoline vapors, lacquer thinner, MEK).
(2.) Dusts
Finely divided solid materials such as dusts and fines, when in suspension and ignited, can
produce violent and destructive explosions. It should be noted that even materials generally
not considered combustible can produce an explosion when burned in suspension.
In that the combustion reaction is a surface reaction, the rates of pressure rise generated by
combustion are largely dependent on the surface area of the dispersed dust particles. The
finer the dust, the more violent the reaction.
(3.) Pooled Flammable/Combustible Liquids
(4.) Backdraft Smoke

13 TYPES OF EXPLOSIONS

There are 4 general types of explosions;

Mechanical, 
Chemical, 
Nuclear and 
Electrical. 
However, there are only two types of explosions that the first responder or
investigator will generally encounter, Mechanical and chemical and several subtypes within
these categories. The types of explosions are generally differentiated by the source or
mechanism by which explosive pressures are produced. 

13.1 MECHANICAL
Mechanical explosions are those in which a high pressure gas produces a physical reaction,
vessel failure or rupture of the container. If the material that is stored in the container, is
flammable, then in many instances a resultant fire occurs as long as there is an ignition source
or the temperature of the product is above its autogenious ignition temperature. Key to the
resultant fire is the mixing of the fuel with air or an oxygen source.
Nature of the Fuel does not change
a. Damage to the vessel
BLEVE, Boiler Failure
 Photographs from Detroit Free
Press 

13.2 CHEMICAL
The generation of high pressure gas is the result of an exothermic reaction resulting from the
initiation of chemical explosives or fuel gases. The rate of reaction will vary, and when
explosives are present, an outside oxidizer is not required.
Nature of fuel changes
a. Combustion
Flammable Gases
Vapors of Flammable and Combustible Liquids
Dusts or Fines
Backdraft (Smoke)
Carbon Monoxide and Carbon
Explosives

Natural Gas 
Explosives
LPGas Explosion Explosion
Sewer Gas
Explosion

Fuel Gas Explosion Dust Explosion Explosives

13.3 NUCLEAR
High quantities of heat and gas are produced as a result of the fusion or fission process.

    Photograph from CNN

13.4 ELECTRICAL EXPLOSIONS
High energy electrical arcs may generate sufficient heat to cause an explosion. The resultant
heating of the surrounding gases results in a mechanical explosion. A common example is
found in residential occupancies (and others) is that the cover of the electrical panel box has
been violently dislodged from the remaining box. Often this has been caused by a lightning
strike or other high energy arc. This reaction may or may not result in subsequent fire.

14 EFFECTS OF EXPLOSIONS

An explosion is a gas dynamic phenomenon there are a variety of effects of the spherically
expanding heat and pressure wave. These effects assist the investigator in understanding the
dynamics of the explosion and the sequence of events that took place during the explosion.

14.1 BLAST PRESSURE FRONT EFFECT

The initiation of chemical explosives and fuel gases result in the generation of quantities of
gases. These gases expand at a high speed and move outward equally in all directions until an
obstruction is encountered.
a. Positive Pressure Phase

The positive pressure phase is when the blast pressure front is moving away from the point of
origin. The positive pressure phase is stronger than the negative and is responsible for most of
the damage.
(1.) Spherical shape of the Pressure Wave
Under ideal conditions the shape of the blast front from an explosion is spherical in nature,
moving outward from the origin equally in all directions. However, obstructions or vents will
change the configuration of the blast front.
(2.) Rate of Pressure Rise vs. Maximum Pressure
The damage caused as a result of the blast pressure front of an explosion is a result of two
items. The maximum pressure and the rate of pressure rise. If the rate of pressure rise is rapid,
then the containing vessel will not have sufficient time to resist the forces.
For information concerning pressures, see NFPA-921 (1998) p921-92 Table 13-13.3.1(b),
NFPA 68, Guide for Venting of Deflagrations, and Explosion Investigation and Analysis,
Investigations Institute, Chicago, IL.
Pressure Damage Chart

Restricting Element Typical Failure Pressure (PSI)

Light partition walls dislodged

(Dry wall on Wooden Studs) 0.3 - 0.7
 
Glass windows  
(Broken or Dislodged)  0.3 – 1.0
 

Vehicles Overturned 6.0 – 8.0

Chart from Explosion Investigation and Analysis pg.45

b. Negative Pressure Phase

As a result of the movement outward from the origin of the positive pressure phase, a low
pressure area is created. This low pressure area allows the movement back towards the origin
of the surrounding air. The negative pressure phase causes additional or secondary damage,
and it is common to find the debris moving towards the point of origin or in opposite
directions from the positive pressure phase.

14.2 FRAGMENTATION (SHRAPNEL) EFFECT

Containers, structures, or vessels that contain or restrict the movement of the positive
pressure fronts may rupture and produce pieces of debris that may travel long distances and
cause considerable damage or injury. The distance that they may travel depends on a variety
of factors, including the types of fuels involved, the strength of the container, type of
initiation, and venting that may be present.
a. Fragmentation
Debris from the container, for example the structure.
b. Shrapnel
Debris that was placed in the area of a device, in order to inflict harm to those in the area.
14.3 THERMAL (INCENDIARY) EFFECT
Combustion explosions release quantities of energy that may heat light solid combustibles or
gases present to their ignition temperature. Often diffuse fuels (vapors or gases) or high
surface to mass solids (example flexible urethane foam cushions or vehicle interiors) are
more likely to be ignited as a result of the thermal effects of an explosion. Dense solid fuels
are not as likely to be ignited due to the duration of the heating that takes place.
a. Heat/Thermal
High Temperature Gas
Often sufficient to ignite diffuse fuels or lightweight fuels.

14.4 SECONDARY BLAST PRESSURE OR ANCILLARY EFFECTS

a. Reflection
Reflection is caused when the blast pressure front contacts an object and as a result the front
moves in a different direction. This "reflection" often causes damage in other directions or
locations.
Refraction is often caused by different temperature layers. Blast focusing can be caused as a
result of reflection and refraction. The key is that the damage can be amplified as a result of
the movement of the blast pressure front in one direction. Often in cities this damage can be
increased as a result of the configuration of the street and surrounding structures.
b. Seismic
As the blast pressure wave expands, and damaged portions of buildings collapse, significant
localized seismic waves may be transmitted throughout the ground. Velocity of the wave and
the affect of the wave will vary depending on soil conditions.
c. Water
As water is basically a non-compressible product. A shock wave will transmit through water
or other with limited reduction in strength for long distances.
d. Ceiling
A low ceiling can have a dramatic effect on reflection of the blast front and resultant damage
to the surrounding area. Given similar types of materials and the quantity present, with only a
change in the ceiling there will be a noticeable change in the blast front.

15 FACTORS CONTROLLING EXPLOSION EFFECTS

There are a number of factors that effect explosion effects. The nature of these factors and
their various combinations in any one explosion incident can produce a wide variety of
physical effects that the investigator may encounter. Factors including the following:

15.1 NATURE OF THE FUEL

The type of fuel, mixture with air by volume, location of the fuel in the containing vessel, and
method of initiation may have an effect on the condition of the scene and evidence found. In
addition, depending on the fuel present, subsequent explosions may occur and continue to
alter the scene.
a. Dust
b. Gas
c. Liquid Vapor
d. Explosive

15.2 QUANTITY OF THE FUEL PRESENT

While it is simple to think about the damage that might be caused by 10 sticks of dynamite
vs. 1 stick in a building, consider the damage as a result of the formation of gasoline vapors
in a structure from 1 gallon vs. the effects of 10 gallons.

15.3 CONFIGURATION OF THE FUEL

Homogeneous mixture of vapors or gases in a compartment or structure, may produce greater
overall damage to the structure. Dust particle size will also have a bearing on the rate of
reaction as well as others.

15.4 CONTAINMENT VESSEL

Considerable information can be provided concerning the effects of the containment vessel
and its effect on the explosion and resultant damage. Basic containment vessels can include
the wrapping of the explosive material; paper, wax impregnated Kraft paper, thin plastic
coverings used on "Tovex", metal coverings of Detonators, rooms, buildings, configuration
of dust collection systems and explosion venting of facilities. The amount of damage and
resultant evidence of the explosion is dependent on the following items:
a. Size and volume
b. Shape
c. Construction
(1.) Materials
(2.) Design
(3.) Venting
Venting is a term used to describe the release of pressure as a result of structural failure of the
confining vessel or the operation of specifically designed "vents". Venting of the containing
vessel can have a dramatic effect on the resultant explosion scene. When evaluating
explosion scenes it should be remembered that the rate of pressure rise is more important than
the maximum pressure attained. Consider slow and fast rates of pressure rise and damage.
The maximum pressure attained by any explosion is limited by the venting capabilities.
a. Size of the Vents
b. Location of the Vents
Rate of Pressure rise more important than the maximum pressure
16 PART III:  FUEL GAS AND DUST EXPLOSIONS

Gas/Vapor Explosions (Diffuse Fuels)

Dusts (Diffuse Fuels
A. Combustion Explosion

The most common of the chemical explosions are those that are a result of the ignition of a
hydrocarbon fuel, industrial gases, smoke, and dusts. In combustion explosions elevated
pressures are as a result of the ignition of the fuels in the presence of air which results in a
propagating through the fuel air mixture.
The Company officer is more likely to be required to respond to a fuel gas explosion, than
any other type of explosion.

17 CHARACTERIZATION OF EXPLOSION DAMAGE

Damage at the scene of a fuel gas explosion can often indicate the rate of reaction during the
explosion. And, in the case of fuel gases indicate the relative relationship of the fuel to air
relationship. The following indicators should assist the investigator in determining the rate of
reaction and the fuel to air relationship. One modifier that should be considered when using
this information is the effect of venting, especially if the building or vessel was designed with
explosion vents as a "normal" component.

17.1 HIGH ORDER DAMAGE

a. Characteristics
Small pulverized, splintered debris
Long Missile Distances
High Rate of Pressure Rise
Negative Pressure Phase is powerful
b. Fuel - Air Relationship
Optimum Mixture
Near or just above stoichiometric
Most efficient burning
Little following fire

17.2 LOW ORDER DAMAGE

17.2.1 Characteristics
Large debris pieces
Short Missile Distances
Slower Rate of Pressure Rise
Pushing or Heaving

17.2.2 Fuel - Air Relationship

Near LEL or UEL
Inefficient burning
Near LEL, little following fire
Near UEL, greater potential for following fire
18 VAPOUR DENSITY OF FUEL
18.1 1. RELATIONSHIP OF VAPOR DENSITY TO DAMAGE
A common misconception concerning fuel gas explosions is that lighter than air gases (VD =
-1) will cause the vessel (often a structure) to fail near the ceiling and heavier than air gases
and vapors (VD = +1) to fail closer to the floor. This concept is not true. Many of the older
texts and reference materials support this concept. Consideration must be given to the
location of the ignition source, flammable range, and the construction of the vessel instead of
making generalizations.
Location of damage is not indicative of the vapor density, a common misconception, damage
is
More a function of wall strength or,
Height of explosive range

18.2 LIGHTER-THAN-AIR GASES

Collect in upper areas
Pocketing at ceilings
Migrates through openings

18.3 HEAVIER-THAN-AIR GASES

Collect in lower areas
Burns at high levels when ignited
Low pocketing is unusual

19 IGNITION SOURCE
19.1 GAS/VAPOUR EXPLOSIONS
a. Minimum Ignition Energy
Most easily ignitable fuels
Ignition Temperatures 700 - 1100 F
Ignition Energies 0.20 - 0.25 millijoules
b. Location of the Ignition Source
May not be the same location as the fuel source
Will have an effect on the strength of the reaction
20 UNDERGROUND MIGRATION
20.1 FUEL GASES
The underground migration of fuels and the effect of that migration can be misunderstood.
The following list provides some basic information concerning the underground migration of
gases.
a. Underground migration is common
b. Both lighter and heavier than air fuels
c. Follow exterior of underground pipes
d. May enter sewers, drain tiles, etc.
e. Odorant "Scrubbing"
f. May pass harmlessly into air unless obstructed by pavement, rain, snow, ice, etc.

g. May pass through concrete walls

h. Migrations of hundreds of feet is not unknown in underground conduits. (Pipes)

i. Vegetation Survey, looking for dying or dead vegetation can be completed to determine the
area where the leak is or where the gas is migrating underground.

21 MULTIPLE ("CASCADE") EXPLOSIONS

As a result of migration and pocketing, multiple or cascade explosions often occur. Generally
the subsequent explosions are called secondary explosions.
1. Multiple pockets of gas
2. "Cascade" from room to room or floor to floor
3. Aeration of pockets over the UEL
4. Multiple explosions are very common

22 DUST EXPLOSIONS

Finely divided solid materials (dusts and fines) when suspended in air and when provided a
suitable ignition source and produce a violent reaction. Many associate this reaction with
grains and similar products. However, a wide variety of products are susceptible to this
reaction. There is a lower explosive limit associated with dusts. As a general "rule of thumb"
the product is within the explosive range if the dust can be seen. Also, with dusts, secondary
or multiple explosions are common, as the initial explosion puts additional fuel into the air.
1. Finely divided solids as fuels
a. Suspended or
b. Layered

22.1 WIDE VARIETY OF MATERIALS

Combustible and Non-Combustible
a. Agricultural Products-Grain dust, Sawdust, etc.
b. Carbonaceous Materials-Coal, Charcoal
c. Chemicals-Aspirin, Ascorbic Acid, etc.
d.) Dyes and Pigments-Paint, etc
e. Metals-Aluminium, Magnesium, etc.
f. Plastics and Resins-Synthetic Rubber, etc.
g. Explosives and Propellants, Gunpowder, explosive manufacturing by products

22.2 PARTICLE SIZE

a. Rates of combustion related to surface area
b. Violence of explosion is inversely proportional to particle size
c. 840 microns (0.033") diameter or less for explosion hazard

22.3 CONCENTRATION
a. Profound effect upon ignitability and violence of blast pressure wave
b. Minimum concentrations exist for specific materials
c. Minimum concentrations for most materials are from 0.015 to 2.0 oz./cu.ft.
d. Most common concentrations are less than 1.0 oz./cu.ft.
e. Generally no upper concentration limit
f. Reaction more controlled by surface area to air ration than by a maximum concentration
g. Rate of pressure rise and maximum pressures increase with concentration to stoichiometric
and decrease in higher concentrations

22.4 TURBULENCE
a. Turbulence increases rate of combustion
b. Shape and size of vessel effects turbulence (i.e. pouring grain from a great height into an
empty bin)

22.5 MOISTURE
a. In dust itself, affects minimum ignition energy
b. In surrounding air, has little effect

22.6 MINIMUM IGNITION ENERGY

a. Ignition temperatures generally 572-1112 F
b. Layered dusts have lower ignition temperatures than the same dusts in suspension
c. Minimum ignition energies are higher than for gases and vapors
d. 10-40 millijoules

22.7 PROGRESSION OF DUST EXPLOSIONS

a. Usually occur in series
b. Initial explosions usually less violent than subsequent
c. Subsequent explosions are fuelled by additional dust put into suspension

22.8 BACKDRAFT (SMOKE OR HEAT) EXPLOSIONS

Backdraft of smoke explosions can be a violent reaction. They are a result of a fire in post
flashover conditions with limited oxygen supplies. Contained in the smoke are both
combustion gases and carbon. Backdraft or smoke explosions often result in the introduction
of a "fresh air" supply and the increase in the burning rate of the gases and solids in
suspension and above their ignition temperature. This rapid increase in combustion rate
causes an over-pressurization of the compartment.
1. Ventilation controlled fires
2. Fuels generated by incomplete combustion
a. Smoke
b. Airborne Particles
c. Carbon Monoxide
d. Flammable gases (products of combustion)
3. Introduction of oxygen creates rapid combustion

23 PART IV: RESPONDING TO EXPLOSION INCIDENTS

This section is intended to provide a basic information concerning the response to an
explosion incident. This section will not address all of the tasks that are normally completed
when responding to a fire, hazardous materials, motor vehicle accident, or rescue situation.
Those tasks, that are common to all emergencies such as size-up techniques, the
establishment of an incident command system and command post,  mutual aid planning and
response, and many others are already known by the company officer. What has been done is
to provide some specifics that will be useful. Lastly, it should be noted that as with any
emergency, the amount of response required will be based solely on the conditions found at
the time of the incident.

As can be seen, the section is divided into two specific sections:

23.1 EXPLOSION RESPONSE DECISION TREE

Fortunately, not all explosion scenes are equal to those that were encountered in Oklahoma
City and at the World Trade Center in New York City. However, given the resources, smaller
scenes, such as a fuel gas explosion that levels a residential structure or a small explosive
device that kills a person, can be just as difficult for the small community. The following
guide to responding to explosions is only provided to be a working model that hopefully will
assist the first in company officer, wherever they may live. 

Normally, dispatch provides us with notification of an emergency and provides us with many
of the essential items required to make initial response decisions. And, for this discussion, we
will work forward from that point. It should be noted, however, that the amount of initial
information may not be sufficient to get a clear and concise mental picture of what we will
face upon arrival.

23.1.1 A. First Responder

23.2 1. INCIDENT SIZE - UP

As with all emergencies size-up starts with the receipt of the call and continues throughout
the emergency. Observations and reports of the sector officers are an important part of the
success.  In that the intent of this particular section is to assist in the determination of the type
of incident and not to teach Size - Up, all of the steps will not be included. If you are
unfamiliar with the requirements of size - up, then additional research will be required. 
23.3 2. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY RESPONSIBILITIES

a. Size of the scene/incident

As indicated, the size of the incident will dictate the level of response. As the first in
company officer to a major incident, you will need to call for additional response
immediately. 

b. Victims

Good Triage operations will be of assistance in patient treatment. Triage, as is already

known, will provide the greatest care to those that we can impact. For those that we are not
able to help, it is best that they be left where they are. In the event of an explosion, especially
one that involves an explosive, there may be valuable evidence contained on the clothing or
around the body. 

23.4 3. SUSPECTS

While the primary role is not in the apprehension of suspects, the company officer should be
observant of the crowd upon arrival. This would be especially true if an injured person is
attempting to leave the scene without treatment. Leaving the scene and not seeking medical
treatment is not grounds for declaring someone guilty, but it would be worth detaining the
individual until help arrives. 

23.5 4. SAFETY

Safety will not be addressed in detail in this section. There is an additional section of this
presentation that covers a listing of the safety issues. SAFETY 
23.6 5. INITIAL INCIDENT ASSESSMENT

The initial incident assessment that is normally followed, is designed to assist the Company
Officer in controlling the emergency. The model that follows is intended to assist the
Company Officer in determining the type of incident that they may be faced with. Again, and
I can not stress enough that the normal incident procedures be followed concerning the
control of the incident. 

Determine the Incident Type

Based upon conditions observed upon arrival at the scene, the company officer can make
some analysis of the type of incident that they are faced with. When completing the
observation, care should be taken to look at both the gross effects as well as the subtle
effects. 

a. Identify Explosion or Fire

Burning or Heat Treatment:

Burning and heat treatment could indicate that it is only a fire scene. 

However, consider the fuel gas explosion, that type of event may also have signs of burning
present. 

So, in looking at what would be considered a normal fire scene we would have to look for
any signs of overpressure.  

Fire:

As there have been no indications of overpressure, it would be safe to classify this incident as
a fire. This incident would continue based upon the conditions observed and normal
departmental procedures. Priorities would be established to provide the appropriate care for
injured, property preservation and protection, and also for the completion of any required
investigation to determine the cause of the event. 

However, if during the initial scene assessment or if information is provided that the incident
involves an explosion, then several additional considerations will be made. 

Overpressure:

Are there any signs of overpressure?

Windows not intact.

Walls bowed or out. 

Condition of furnishings.

Condition of victims.

Debris in the yard.

Fire or Explosion?
b. Explosion Scene Priorities
Safety of Responders

Remove Injured

Leave Dead

Control Emergency

c. Explosion Scene Safety

Structural Integrity

Hazardous Chemicals

Bloodborne Pathogens

Fuel Leak

Secondary Devices, if an explosive is involved.

Type of Fuel?

Now that it has been decided that the incident is an explosion, the next step in the process is
to determine the fuel that most likely was the cause of the event. 

To do this, we would need to quickly examine the scene to determine if the explosion was
seated or non-seated. 
Seated: Condensed Phase Fuels

As indicated in the Explosion Theory section, a seated explosion is one that has a definite
center or crater. Again, the use of the term "crater" does not necessarily mean that there is a
hole in the ground. It is used to designate that area that the event started. With seated
explosions, the more fuel present the larger the crater or hole. 

Explosives

Liquid Fuels

Mechanical Explosions
Starting from the top left hand corner: 

The scene shown is a seated explosion. Careful examination of the table in the photograph
indicates an area of greater damage. Given a residential occupancy and the lack of signs of a
mechanical explosion (BLEVE) it would be reasonable to consider a scene where an
explosive was the primary fuel. At this scene care must be taken to determine that the scene is
safe, especially as a result of a secondary device. Assistance should be obtained from a Bomb
Technician to check the scene in addition to the other safety concerns. 

The scene shown in the top right photograph, also indicates a seated explosion. But, this time,
an explosive material was not utilized. As the scene can be identified as a railway incident
and it involved a BLEVE of a railcar. 

The scene shown in the lower left of the series, also indicates a seated explosion. Now, given
this scene, what do you think is the most likely fuel involved. Looking closely at the car and
considering fuel types, it would most likely be an explosive material. 

The scene shown in the lower right of the series, is difficult to call. Based on the information
provided, there is a center shown, but that is the building itself. 
As a response priority and issue, if there is a belief that a seated explosion is as a result of the
initiation of explosive materials, then consideration must be given to the notification of a
responding Bomb Squad and also to the appropriate Federal Agencies. Additional care must
also be given to the scene and evidence preservation. 
If the explosion is as a result of a BLEVE, than there are a number of other issues that will
have to be taken care of. Issues dealing with the type of fuel that was in the tank, additional
tanks that could also be ready to BLEVE or have been damaged as a result of the original
incident, structural conditions, and others. 

Non-Seated: Diffuse Fuels

As indicated in the Explosion Theory section, a non-seated explosion is one that does not
have a definite center or crater. There may not be an area of greatest damage, only a direction
of force indication on materials. 
Fuel Gases

Dusts and Fines

The scenes shown are all non-seated explosions and were a result of a natural gas leak and
subsequent fuel gas explosion. In each of the scenes selected, there was extensive damage
and with that much damage if it was a seated explosion the seat should be very evident.

In each of these events, the first responding company officer has to consider additional
explosions, especially if the fuel is still leaking. Prior to entry into the area, shut off the
source of fuel.
Conclusion and Summary

The intent of this section was to assist the company officer in understanding the importance
of first recognizing an explosion incident and then to look at some basic procedures that can
be used to determine the type of fuel that most likely was involved. After the basic fuel is
identified, it will be easier for the company officer to work towards a safer conclusion of the
incident.
23.7 EXPLOSION SCENE SAFETY

There is a considerable amount that could and should be said about scene safety in general
and specifically at the scene of an explosion. All of the scene safety related training that we
have all had will be useful at the scene of an explosion. In fact, all of the training that we
have completed in all areas will also be useful when responding to an explosion related
incident. And, as a company officer we need to be able to apply that information to a given
situation and then solve the problem accordingly. 
However, here are a few reminders. 
23.8 1. ESTABLISH COMMAND

As scenes are generally larger and the extent of damage greater than at most scenes early
command and control of the scene will limit freelancing and the potential of responders
becoming part of the problem. 

23.9 2. RESOURCES
 No one can tell you exactly what or how much will be needed to handle the incident, that
information is obtained at the scene. However, good pre-emergency plans will be very useful
in controlling an incident that involves an explosion. In many instances the plans are in place,
i.e. Hazardous Materials Response Plans, and from those plans resources can be identified
and utilized. 

23.10 3. SAFETY ISSUES

a. Structural Conditions
Building structural capabilities should always be questioned after an explosion. Even a small
explosion can have an adverse affect on residential construction.
b. Hazardous Chemicals
Again, it is impossible to identify the types and level of chemicals that may be present after
an explosion. Key here, is to look at the type of activity that occurs in the specific occupancy.
Anytime that there is an explosion, damage may occur to containers or processes that will
allow the release of hazardous materials. Generally speaking no occupancy is exempt from
the release of hazardous materials and we need to keep that in mind when entering the scene. 
c. Bloodborne Pathogens
Frequently, as a result of an explosion, there are multiple injuries or fatalities. Those entering
the scene should follow departmental procedures for protection against bloodborne
pathogens. 
d. Utilities
In some instances the explosion may have been as a result of a fuel gas leak. However, after
the explosion, those entering the scene should do so only after they are sure that the
remaining utilities and equipment attached to those utilities are in a safe condition. The force
of the explosion may have damaged severely electrical distribution systems, fuel gas lines,
water and sprinkler systems, as well as process products. If fuel gas leaks are not controlled,
additional explosions may occur. 
e. Secondary Devices
Lastly, if it has been determined that the incident is a result of the initiation of an explosive
device then the company officer will need to handle all of the previous items and also the
potential of a secondary device. 
Remember, if you do not know what it is........... do not touch it, move it, or poke it with a
stick!
The company officer will need to obtain the assistance of the responding bomb squad to
check the area for additional devices. 
In closing, the safety section may not be as lengthy as one might expect. However, any
emergency scene has safety issues that must be identified and controlled prior to entry into
the immediate scene. As a company officer and responders, those safety related concerns
have been identified and potential controls put in place. We need to use those same controls
and procedures and then match additional controls and procedures with the conditions that
are found at the scene. 
1. Do not handle explosive materials, unless you are trained and equipped to do so.
2. In the event that an explosive device is suspected, there is always the possibility of second
or additional devices. The area should be checked and cleared by a Bomb Technician.
3. Do not handle suspected explosive devices, evacuate the area to a safe distance and await
technical assistance.
4. If the explosion was the result of a fuel gas, the leaking fuel should be shut-off. Other
utilities should also be evaluated.
5. Evaluate structural conditions and reinforce as needed.
6. Evaluate surrounding hazards, i.e. Chemicals, Tanks and Storage Vessels.
7. Consider and evaluate biohazards, use appropriate personal protective equipment.
8. Complete the essential tasks to control the emergency and also limit contamination of the
scene.
Maintaining safety on the scene is everyone's responsibility, pay attention to the scene and
changing conditions and put controls in place to limit the exposure potential.

24 EXPLOSIVE RECOGNITION
http://www.tracefireandsafety.com/VFRE-99/Recognition/General/General.htm

25 A. CHARACTERISTICS
1. An explosive is a chemically unstable material.
2. Initiation produces an explosion or detonation.
3. Changes in pressure accompany this transformation.
4. Contain enough oxidizer to maintain extremely rapid combustion.
B. Requirements to be classified as an explosive material
In order to be classified as an explosive material the product must meet specific criteria,
including

25.1 1. FUEL
Solid or Liquid Fuel.

25.2 2. OXIDIZER
Oxygen balance is the percentage of fuel in relationship to the oxidizer in an explosive and is
important so that the proper reaction occurs.

26 CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS

26.1 LOW EXPLOSIVES

a. An explosive mixture which under any condition cannot support a detonation wave
b. Material is a mixture
c. Initiated by heat.
d. Confinement required for explosion
e. VOE below 3000 ft/sec
Examples: Black powder, smokeless powder

26.2 HIGH EXPLOSIVES

a. Material undergoes detonation without confinement.

b. Material is a compound
c. Initiated by shock or heat
d. No confinement required
e. Supersonic reaction in the product.
f. High brisance, although the brisance will vary between each of the explosives as VOD and
power changes.
g. VOD above 3300 ft/sec
Examples: Dynamite, ANFO, PETN

27 EXPLOSIVES PERFORMANCE
27.1 LOW ORDER DETONATION
Incomplete burning of the explosive material or initiation of the material at less than
maximum velocity. In some instances, the detonation wave will not continue to propagate
through the explosive material and there will be unexploded explosives remaining.
27.2 HIGH ORDER DETONATION
Complete burning of the explosive material or initiation of the material at maximum velocity.

27.3 SAMPLE CAUSES OF LOW ORDER DETONATION

Old or deteriorated explosives
Poor contact
Insufficient fuzing system
Premature failure of the containing device.

28 SENSITIVITY OF EXPLOSIVES
The amount of external force or stimuli required to initiate the chemical reaction in an
energetic material. The term sensitivity is often used loosely to indicate the absolute or
relative ease with which an explosive can be induced to react chemically. It should be noted
that the stimulus to which the explosive is exposed must be included in any reference to the
sensitivity, whether shock, low velocity impact, friction, electrostatic discharge, or other
source of energy.
The shock initiation sensitivity of an explosive is the ease with which it can be induced to
detonate.
Initiation of detonation by transition from deflagration to detonation (DDT) is another
important consideration.
28.1 PRIMARY EXPLOSIVES

a. Those explosives which require a very small quantity of energy to be initiated

b. Extremely sensitive to heat, shock and friction
c. Less power than secondary explosives
d. Classified as High Explosives
e. Used in detonators and initiation systems
Examples: Lead Azide, Mercury Fulminate

28.2 SECONDARY EXPLOSIVES

a. Those explosives which are relatively, in comparison to primary explosives, insensitive to

shock, friction or heat.
b. Cap or booster sensitive
c. Less sensitive than primary explosives
d. Classified as High Explosives
e. More powerful than primary explosives
Examples: Dynamite, ANFO, RDX, PETN

29 EXPLOSIVE OR FIRING TRAINS (INITIATION

SEQUENCE)

An explosive or firing train is a sequence of events which begin with relatively low levels of
energy that causes a chain reaction to initiate the final explosive material or main charge. Can
be a low or high explosives train.

29.1 LOW EXPLOSIVE TRAINS

Example: Small arms ammunition.

Primer and a propellant charge.

Flame/Heat ignites the propellant charge
Gases produced
Drives the bullet through the bore of the weapon

29.2 HIGH EXPLOSIVES TRAINS:

a. Two-Step

Detonator and Dynamite

Step 1 - Initiation of the detonator
Step 2 - The exploding detonator causes the dynamite to be initiated.
b. Three-Step

Detonator, Booster and ANFO

Step 1 – Initiation of the detonator
Step 2 - The exploding detonator causes the booster to be initiated.
Step 3 - The exploding booster causes the ANFO to be initiated.

30 ADDITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPLOSIVES

Explosive force is released at 90 degree angles from the surface of an explosive.
Consequently, if the system is cut or shaped to form 90 degree surfaces along a
predetermined plane the explosive forces can be focused directionally, and will produce a
greater effect than the same explosive employed as a mass. Therefore the following shapes
and configurations have been utilized to increased the effectiveness of high explosives.

30.1 CONICAL (MONROE)

A cone having a metal, glass or plastic liner covered by an explosive. The angle of the
explosive and the stand-off distance direct a jet towards the object.
30.2 LINEAR

This charge has a liner like a conical or cone, explosive charge is covered by a liner, but in
the shape of a flat plane.

30.3 PLATTER (MISZNAY-SCHARDIN)

A solid piece of material, usually metal, with a quantity of explosives placed on only one side
or plane.
31 EXPLOSIVES

Are defined as an explosive mixture which under any condition cannot support a detonation
wave.

Low explosives are also defined as a solid mixture of chemicals which burn in the absence of
air, but which, when confined, can burn to deflagration.

31.1 BLACK POWDER

   

Black Powder is the oldest known explosive, but the exact history is obscure. The first
documented mention of saltpeter (potassium nitrate or "nitre", the basic ingredient of black
powder, is to be found in the 13th century writings of the Arabian author Abd Allah. Even
before then, however, the Chinese are thought to have used saltpeter, perhaps as early as the
10th century. Their early work with saltpeter appears to have been limited to fireworks and
rockets.

The first black powder plant in America was started in 1675, near Boston. The first recorded
use of the material in blasting was at a copper mine at Simsbury, Connecticut in 1773.

Black Powder reigned as the king of explosives for some 600 years. Production in 1860 was
about 27 million pounds, peaked around the turn of the century with nearly 100 million
pounds produced. Black Powder consumption in the U. S. peaked at 277 million pounds in
1917. Today, it is less than 100,000 pounds, primarily used in the powder of safety fuse and
in fireworks.

Black Powder, burns progressively.

a. Uses - Sporting, Blasting, Fireworks, Fuse and Fuzing systems

b. Types

(1.) Sporting:

Granulations: Have an effect on the rate of the reaction.

(2.) "A" Blasting: Potassium Nitrate based

(3.) "B" Blasting: Sodium Nitrate based

(4.) Fireworks:

c. Commercial Fuse:

        

Safety Fuse, A flexible cord containing solid flammable material by which fire or flame is
conveyed at a continuous and uniform rate from the point of ignition to the cut end. A fuse
igniter is usually attached to that end. Safety fuse may be used without a detonator to ignite
low explosives non-electrically.

Identification of safety fuse is completed by examining the central core filler material which
is black powder. The core will be black or gray in color.

The burning rate for safety fuse varies. A section 3 feet long should be test burned and timed.

The burning rate of safety fuse will vary for the following reasons;

Age of the fuse.

Humidity during storage

Altitude, faster burning rates have been observed during underwater burns.

Other contamination

Mishandling

Safety fuse, differing from modeling fuse burns internally and does not completely burn.
Construction: Outer was impregnated coating, black powder core sheathed in jute and cotton
yarns, followed by an asphalt coating. While the asphalt is still hot, it is covered with an
extruded yarn countering and the wax impregnate.

31.2 PHOTOFLASH POWDER

a. Uses - Fireworks, Incendiary, Military Munitions

b. Types - Only one, which varies to the formulation

c. Ignition - The most sensitive low explosive to heat - shock - friction - electrostatic
discharge

d. Formulation: Approximately 100 formulations containing:

Primary Oxidizer

Metal Fuel

Non-Metal Fuel

31.3 PYRODEX

   

Pyrodex, a registered trademark is a Black Powder substitute manufactured by Hodgdon

Powder Company, Shawnee Mission, Kansas. It is designated as a "smokeless propellant" as
required by the US Department of Transportation.
a. Uses - Black Powder substitute

b. Types: As with other low explosives, changes in formulation or grain size varies the rate of
reaction and also the amount of gases produced.

c. Ignition: Sensitive to heat - shock - friction - electrostatic discharge, but less than black
powder

31.4 SMOKELESS POWDER

The propellant which has exclusively been used for a long time in conventional military
weapons is the smokeless (or, more accurately low-smoke) powder.

a. Uses

Sporting/Law Enforcement:

Shotgun

Pistol

Rifle

Industry:

Power Tools

Military:

Firearms

Propellants

b. Types - Over 100 grades available in single, double, and triple base powders
   
32 INITIATION SYSTEMS
32.1 SAFETY FUSE

Uses - To initiate non-electrical detonators

Ingredients: Black Powder

Properties:

Safety fuse is a length of strong, flexible, rope-like product with a black powder core. It is
designed to be initiated with a specialty designed fuse lighter or match, burn its length at a
predetermined rate, and initiate a non-electric detonator. Safety fuse normally burns at a rate
of approximately 35- 45 sec/ft.

Construction:

Safety fuse is constructed with various types/quantities of natural and man made fibers and
plastic. Safety fuse can usually be identified by its color, wax finish and other manufacturing
characteristics observed on its exterior. However, with the use of colored plastics as a final
covering, it may be misidentified.
32.2 2. DETONATORS

   

Initiator is a term that is used in the explosive industry to describe any devise that may be
used to start a detonation or deflagration.
Devices that are used to initiate high explosives are called detonators and devises that start
burning or deflagration are called squibs or igniters.
Detonators are used for initiating high explosives and contain small amounts of a sensitive
primary explosive. Although they are manufactured to absorb a reasonable amount of shock
during handling and transportation, they should not be abused.
In general detonators consist of an ignition charge, intermediate charge, and a base charge.
Each charge in the train is selected and used to transition from heat to shock.

a. Non Electrical Detonators

(1.) Uses - To initiate other explosives, detonating cord and shock tube.

(2.) Ingredients:

May include the following:

Lead Azide

Lead Styphnate

PETN

RDX

(3.) Properties:

Non-electrical detonators or fuse caps are thin metal or paper cylindrical shells, open on one
end for the insertion of safety fuse, which contain various types of primary and secondary
explosives. They are sensitive to heat, shock and crushing and are designed to be initiated
with safety fuse or detonating cord. They are normally rated as #8 strength. All detonators of
this type are instantaneous and therefore, do not have a delay elements.
(4.) Construction Characteristics:

(a.) Shell material

Aluminum

Copper

Guilding metal

Paper

(5.) Explosives: Contain approximately .65 grams of high explosives.

(6.) Markings:

Each shell is marked with a high explosive statement which identifies it as a high explosive
and dangerous. Additionally, some of the manufacturers may place their company logo on the
shell. The color of the printing is determined by each manufacturer.

(7.) Length: Approximately 2 3/8 inches

(8.) Diameter: .292 inches

b. Electrical Detonators

(1.) Uses - To initiate other explosives, detonating cord and shock tube.

(2.) Ingredients:

May contain one or more of the following:

RDX PETN

Tetryl Lead Azide

Lead Styphnate DDNP/Diazo (Diazodinitrophenol)

Additional proprietary mixes may be utilized for the ignition charge, match and delay
elements.

(3.) Properties:
Electrical detonators are similar to non-electrical detonators except they are initiated by the
application of electrical current through electrical wires. The current causes a bridge wire or
match elements to heat/function thereby, causing the ignition charge to explode which in
turn, causes a chain reaction to cause the base charge to be initiated. The wires are secured
into the detonator by a closure plug, crimped into the shell, which seals the explosive from
moisture. In addition to sensitivity from heat, shock and crushing, these products are subject
to extraneous electricity due to the presence of electrical wire.

(4.) Types:

(a.) Instantaneous

(b.) Short period delay

(c.) Long period delay

(d.) Seismic

(e.) Electronic delay

c. Shock Tubes

(1.) Uses - To initiate boosters, detonating cord, other lengths of shock tubes and other
explosives. This type of initiation is common to the construction industry, the fire officer will
generally find this type of system stored in construction related magazines.

(2.) Ingredients:

HMX and Aluminum Powder

(3.) Properties:
Shock tube is a small diameter plastic laminate tube coated with a very thin layer of reactive
material at one (1) pound per 100,000 feet of tube. When initiated, shock tube transmits a low
energy signal or propagation wave, at approximately 6,500 ft/sec from one point to another.
This shock wave is similar to a dust explosion and will propagate through most sharp bends,
knots and kinks in the tube. The detonation is sustained by such a small quantity of reactive
material, the outer surface of the tube remains intact during and after functioning. Shock tube
can be initiated by small shotshell-type primers, detonating cord or detonators.

(4.) Types:

Instantaneous

Short period delay

Long period delay

Alternative Types

Connectors

In-line delays

Bunch blocks

Lead in line

(5.) Construction Characteristics

(a.) Shell

Aluminum

Diameter: .29

Length: 2 3/8 to 4 inches

(b.) Tube materials

Construction

Polyethylene

Surylyn

Explosives

HMX

Aluminum powder
Length: 3 to 2500 feet

Diameter: .12 inches

3. Squibs and Igniters

a. Squibs

Squibs are used for the electrical initiation of low explosives.

b. Igniters

Ignitors are used for the initiation of safety fuse. There are two types, the military version and
the commercial version.

Military

Commercial
33 COMMERCIAL HIGH EXPLOSIVES
An explosive which supports a detonation wave.

High explosives are also defined as an explosive substance or mixture which invariably
detonates when initiated, irrespective of the ambient condition of confinement (i.e. in the
open).

High explosives are those materials that undergo detonation without confinement, are
compounds, initiated by shock, the reaction within the product is supersonic, and has a high
brisance.

34 1. PRIMARY EXPLOSIVES

Primary Explosive, a sensitive explosive which nearly always detonates by single ignition
from such means as spark, flame, impact and other primary heat sources of appropriate
magnitude.

Primary explosives can detonate by the action of a relatively weak mechanical shock or by a
spark. If used in the form of blasting caps (detonator), they initiate the main explosive. They
are also filled in percussion caps mixed with friction agents and other components.

An initiating explosive must be highly brisant and must have a high triggering velocity. The
most important primary explosives are mercury fulminate, lead azide, lead trinitroresorcinate,
silver azide, diazodinitrophenol, and tetrazene, which is used as an additive in primers.
Initiating charges must be transported only if they are already pressed into capsules. The
latter are usually made of aluminum, and sometimes of copper, white plastic capsules are
used for special purposes.
Primary explosives, have a low deflagration to detonation transition, and go from burning to
detonation very quickly. They differ as to sensitivity and the shock given off. Primary
explosives are reactive to different materials, care should be taken when handling primary’s
that are in the natural state. Generally speaking, they will not be found in the raw form.

34.1 A. LEAD AZIDE

Uses – Manufacture of detonators.

Properties:

Excellent initiating agent for high explosives, more efficient than mercury fulminate.

Generally covered with Lead Styphnate for sensitivity.

Used as intermediate charge.

Good initiator for sensitive booster charges, RDX, PETN, Tetryl

Reactive to copper in the presence of moisture. Formation of copper azide, which is

extremely sensitive.

Color, white to buff with rounded aggregates.

VOD: 16,745 ft/sec.

34.2 B. LEAD STYPHNATE

Uses – Manufacture of detonators

Properties:

Lead styphnate is a poor initiator, but it is easily ignited by fire or by a static charge.

Used as priming layer which causes lead azide to explode from a flash.

Reddish – Brown crystals.

VOD: 17,000 ft/sec

34.3 C. MERCURY FULMINATE

Mercury Fulminate appears to have been prepared for the first time by Hohann Kunckel von
Lowenstern. (1630 - 1703) The preparation and properties of mercury fulminate were
described in much detail by Edward Howard in 1800 in a paper presented to the Royal
Society of London. Preparation of Mercury Fulminate is carried out by a process essentially
the same as described by Howard.

Uses – Manufacture of detonators

Properties:

Used as a base charge in the past.

Not used extensively

Color is White – Grey or Light Grey with a yellow tint.

VOD: 14,780 ft/sec

34.4 D. OTHER PRIMARY INITIATING

There are a variety of other primary initiating explosives, however, they generally will not be
found in the "raw" form due to the sensitivity of the product. They will, generally, found as
components in blasting caps (detonators)

Other examples include: Lead Salts of Picric Acid, Nitrogen Sulfide, Copper Fulminate,
Chlorates with Red Phosphorus, Tetrazene, and DDNP (Diazodinitrophenol)

35 2. SECONDARY HIGH EXPLOSIVES

Secondary High Explosives are those explosives which are relatively insensitive, in
comparison to primary explosives and are insensitive to shock, friction, or heat. They are,
however cap or booster sensitive and are classified as High Explosives.

It would not be worth taking the time to discuss Secondary High Explosives without spending
some time discussing the history and the impact that Nitroglycerin and Nobel had on the
development of explosives.

35.1 A. NITROGLYCERIN (NG)

Nitroglycerin was first prepared late in the year 1846 or early in 1847 by the Italian chemist
Ascanio Sobrero (1812 – 1888) who was at the time professor of Applied Chemistry at the
University of Torino. Sobrero, was authorized to practice medicine and had studied in Paris
and Giessen, returning to Torino in 1845 where he equipped a laboratory. The earliest printed
account of nitroglycerin appears in a letter which Soberro wrote to Pelouze and which
Pelouze caused to be published in L’Institut of February 15, 1847. In the same month Sobero
presented to the Academy of Torina a paper in which he described nitroglycerin,
nitromannite, and nitrated lactose. Later in the year he presented another paper before the
chemistry section of the Ninth Italian Scientific Congress at Venice.

Sobero found that , if concentrated nitric acid or strong mixed acid is added to glycerin, a
violent reaction ensues and red fumes are evolved, but that, if syrupy glycerin is added to a
mixture of sulfuric acid and nitric acid, with strict controls the results are entirely different.
The glycerin dissolves, and the solution when poured into water gives an oily precipitate of
nitroglycerin.

For many years Sobrero kept in his laboratory and guarded jealously a sample of the original
nitroglycerin which he had prepared in 1847. In 1886 he washed this material with a dilute
solution of sodium bicarbonate and took it to the Nobel-Avigliana factory, of which he was a
consultant, where he gave verbal testimony of its authenticity and where it has since been
stored in one of the magazines.

Nitroglycerin was the first, and is still one of the most widely produced nitrate ester. It is used
in dynamites, nitroglycerine is absorbed in fine wood meal or other powdered absorbent. This
process prevents the microbubbles from forming and stabilizes the liquid. The nitroglycerine
is also thickened or gelantinized by the addition of a small percentage of nitrocellulose. This
process assists in preventing "weeping" (exhuding) or settling out of the absorbent material.
Because settling does occur, boxes of stored nongelled dynamites are turned over at regular
intervals to reverse the settling flow.

Uses: Nitroglycerin is one of the most important and most frequently used components of
explosive materials, together with nitroglycol, it is the major component of gelatinous
industrial explosives. In combination with nitrocellulose and stabilizers, it is the principal
component of powders and solid rocket propellants.

Properties

Odor is not offensively pungent.

Color, clear, as light as possible, darker colors have impurities.

Slightly oily to the touch

Unstable and dangerous to handle.

Very sensitive to shock and when the temperature is increased it is more sensitive.

Flammable, and when heated as a result of fire it will detonate.

Vapors cause a sever and persistent headache.

Used as a Vaso dilator.

VOD: 25,000 ft/sec

35.2 B. DYNAMITE

Nobel, having discovered a way to reliably initiate nitroglycerin, knew that the extreme
sensitivity and difficulty in handling the liquid were very serious problems. Dynamite and the
fulminate blasting cap both resulted from Alfred Nobel’s effort to make nitroglycerin more
safe and more convenient to use.

Having discovered that nitroglycerin is exploded by the explosion of a small firecracker-like

device filled with black powder, he tried the effect of mixing the two materials and in 1863
was granted a patent which covered the use of a liquid explosive, such as nitroglycerin or
methyl or ethyl nitrate, in mixture with gunpowder in order to increase the effectiveness of
the latter. The amount of the liquid was limited by the requirement that the mixtures should
be dry and granular in character. The explosives were supposed to be actuated by fire, like
black powder, but the liquid tended to slow down the rate of burning and they were not
notably successful. The same patent also covered the possibility of substituting a part of the
saltpeter with nitroglycerin. Because this substance is insoluble in water and non-
hygroscopic, it acts as a protective covering for the salt and makes the use of sodium nitrate
possible in the mixtures.

Nobel’s, next patent, granted in 1864, related to improvements in the manufacture of

nitroglycerin and to the exploding of it by heating or by means of a detonating charge. He
continued his experiments and in 1867 was granted a patent for an explosive prepared by
mixing nitroglycerin with a suitable nonexplosive porous absorbent such as charcoal or
siliceous earth. The resulting material was much less sensitive to shock than nitroglycerin and
known as dynamite, and was manufactured and sold under the name "Nobel’s Safety
Powder". The absorbent which was finally chosen as being most satisfactory was
diatomaceous earth or kieselguhr. Nobel believed that dynamite could be exploded by a spark
or by fire if it was contained closely, but preferred to explode it under all conditions by means
of a special exploder or cap containing a strong charge of mercury fulminate, crimped tightly
to the end of the fuse in order that it might detonate with more strength. He stated that the
form of the cap might be varied greatly, but that its action depended upon the sudden
development of an intense pressure or shock.

Prior to the issue of the patent for dynamite, production had begun in the San Francisco area.
Within the next few years numerous plants were built, primarily concentrated in the San
Francisco region in the west and New Jersey in the east. The original manufacturers were
most entrepreneurial businessmen, with no prior connection to the explosives (black powder)
industry. Soon, however, the dynamite industry came under the domination of the DuPont
Company, but this monopoly of explosives manufacturing ended with U. S. Government
ordering its breakup under the federal antitrust laws. The result was the establishment of the
Atlas Powder Company and the Hercules Powder Company as competitors to DuPont.

The dynamite industry flourished until the late 1950’s when the US had 34 operating plants.
At about that time, modern blasting agents came into wide usage and began to replace
packaged high explosives. As of 1996, only one dynamite plant remained in operation on the
North American continent.

Deteriorated Dynamites or Exhuded or Crystalline

The nitroglycerin used in dynamites is also thickened or gelatinized by the addition of a small
percentage of nitrocellulose. This helps prevent the liquid from "weeping" or separating from
the absorbent. Because settling does occur, boxes of stored nongelled dynamites are turned
over at regular intervals to reverse the settling flow. However, old and deteriorated dynamite
may have exhuded allowing the liquid explosive to seep through the wax impregnated kraft
paper.

Uses - Construction, Road Building, Quarrying, Mining, Destruction

Ingredients:

Nitroglycerine (NG), Ethylene Glycol Dinitrate (EGDN), Ammonium Nitrate (AN),

Nitrocellulose (NC), Sodium Nitrate (SN), Carbonaceous Fuel (wood pulp & ground shells),
Sulfur.

Types:

(a.) Straight Dynamite: NG & EGDN

(b.) Ammonia Dynamite: NG, EGDN & AN

(c.) Gelatin Dynamite: NG, EG DN & NC

(d.) Ammonia Gelatin Dynamite: NG, EGDN, AN, & NC

(e.) Permissible Ammonia and Gelatin Dynamites: Added Salt

Properties:

Excellent water resistance, NG & EGDN pulled out by gravity, NG headache, expensive,
easy to initiate, detonator sensitive, shock sensitive.

VOD: 8,000 to 22,000 ft/sec.

Packaging:

(a). Diameter - 7/8" to 3 ½"

(b). Length - 6" to 20"

(c). Weight - 2 to 6 pounds

(d). Packaging Materials:

Spiral Wound Paper Tubes

Spiral Wound Manila Paper Shells

35.3 C. AMMONIUM NITRATE

J. R. Glauber first synthesized ammonium nitrate in 1659 by combining nitric acid and
ammonium carbonate. Ammonium nitrate, which Glauber named "Nitrum Flammans",
occurs in nature only rarely and then in very small amounts. Today this chemical compound
has two widely recognized and diverese uses:

An important fertilizer for the agricultural industry

The basic ingredient of most commercial explosives, where it serves as an oxidizer.

In 1867, two Swedish chemists, C. J. Ohlsson and J. H Norrbin, patented an explosive, called
ammoniakrut, which consisted of ammonium nitrate either alone or in mixture with charcoal,
sawdust, naphthalene, picric acid, nitroglycerin, or nitrobenzene. Theoretical calculations had
shown that large quantities of heat and gas were given off by the explosions of these
mixtures. The proportions of the materials were selected in such a manner that all of the
carbon should be converted to carbon dioxide and all the hydrogen to water. Some of these
explosives were difficult to ignite and to initiate, but the trouble was remedied by including
some nitroglycerin in their compositions and by firing them with fulminate detonators. They
were used to some extent in Sweden. Nobel purchased the invention from his fellow-
countrymen early in the 1870’s, and soon afterwards took out another patent in connection
with it, but still found that the hygroscopicity of the ammonium nitrate created several
problems. He was not able to deal satisfactorily with the problems until after the invention of
gelatin dynamite.

1935, experimentation began on blasting with a mixture of prilled fertilizer grade ammonium
nitrate (FGAN) and carbon black or cold dust at a surface coal mine in Indiana. The mixture
was packaged in large tubes and was primed with 20 pound charges of dynamite. It is
popularly believed that this product was developed because of publicity about the 1947 Texas
City disaster in which two ships laden with ammonium nitrate fertilizer blew up. In actuality,
that explosion occurred with grained AN, not prilled, and in 1947 the time was not correct for
a new blasting material. The success of the Indiana experiments was that prills had become
commonly available (all fertilizer production in the US having converted to prilling by 1948),
and that dry drilling of large diameter blastholes in the surface mines was becoming the
norm. The person responsible for the product was Bob Akre of the Maumee Collieries, and
the product was called Akremite. Within a very short period of time after the May 1955
experiment other mines began using prills mixed with common #2 diesel fuel, and the name
ANFO was soon applied.

Prills: Prills denote the ammonium nitrate pellets obtained by cooling free falling droplets of
the molten salt in so called prill towers. By special processing, they can be porous and
capable of absorbing a certain percentage of liquid hydrocarbons. Under the same name,
"Prills" also the ready made ANFO – explosive marketed.

Uses: Ammonium nitrate is the most important raw material in the manufacture of industrial
explosives. It serves also as constituent in rocket propellants, in the capacity of a totally
gasifiable oxygen carrier.

Properties

Hygroscopic and very soluble in water.

Product shows great tendency to cake.

Marketed as dense prills and as porous prills.

Colorless crystals

35.4 D. ANFO (AMMONIUM NITRATE AND FUEL OIL)

Ammonium nitrate explosives are mixtures of ammonium nitrate with carbon carries such as
wood meal, oils or coal and sensitizers such as nitroglycol or TNT and dintroluene. They also
may contain aluminum powder to improve the strength. Such mixtures can be cap-sensitive.
The non-cap-sensitive’s are classified as blasting agents.

Mixtures of porous ammonium nitrate prills with liquid hydrocarbons, loaded un-cartridged
by free pouring or by means of air loaders, are extensively used under the name NAFO
Blasting Agents.

Uses - Construction, Road Building, Quarrying

Ingredients: Prilled Ammonium Nitrate and Fuel Oil

Properties:

A blasting agent which requires a booster for initiation. Very hygroscopic.

Available in bulk or in bags. Requires simplistic facilities for production and easily
improvised for illegal/terrorist application.

VOD: 12,000 - 15,000 ft/sec.

Packaging: Usually in 50 pound paper/plastic bags.

35.5 E. PETN (PENTAERYTHRITE TETRANITRATE)

1901, PETN is the most stable and least reactive of the explosive nitric esters. It is also one of
the most powerful and brisant explosive, with good stability.

Uses: It is used in high-efficiency detonators, detonating cords, and to produce boosters.

PETN can also be incorporated into gelatinous, industrial explosives.

Properties

White to light gray in color.

May be exploded if subjected to severe shock. A shock from a carpenters hammer on a floor
or other solid object may cause initiation.

Insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol, ether, and benzene, and soluble in acetone
and methyl acetate.

VOD 27,200 ft/sec.

35.6 F. RDX (CLCLOTRIMETHYLENETRINITRAMINE, CYCLONITE)

The name cyclonite was given to this explosive by Clarence J. Bain because of its cyclic
structure and its cyclonic nature. The Germans call it Hexogen, the Italians T4.

Today, Cyclonite is probably the most important high brisance explosive. Its brisant power is
high, owning to its high density and high detonation velocity. It is relatively insensitive as
compared to PETN which has similar strength.

RDX is also used as a medicine, under the name of methenamine, used for the control of
urinary tract infections, also used in the manufacturer of plastics, and as an accelerator for the
vulcanization of rubber.

Uses: Manufacture of boosters, detonating cord, detonators, and placed in a plastic binder.

Properties

White crystalline solid or red depending on use. If used in detonating cord it will be red to
pink.

High brisance

VOD 27,394 ft/sed

35.7 G. PENTOLITE

Pentolite is a mixture of 50% PETN and 50% TNT.

Uses:

Manufacture of cast boosters.

VOD 24,600 ft/sec

35.8 H. BINARY EXPLOSIVES

Binary or two component explosives are blasting explosives that are formed by mixing or
combining two commercially manufactured, prepackaged chemical ingredients, consisting of
oxidizers, flammable liquids or solids, or similar ingredients which individually are not
classified as explosives but which are when mixed or combined, form a detonable mixture.

The unmixed ingredients of this type of explosive are generally not subject to the
transportation requirements applicable to explosives, thus they may be transported in less
than required quantities without a placard.

Generally, this type of explosive is used for intermittent or limited usage due to mixing and
time requirements.

Kine-Pak and Kine-Stick are a mixture of ammonium nitrate and nitro methane.

Uses: Booster, Rock Buster, Demolition

Ingredients: Crushed Ammonium Nitrate and Nitromethane (dyed red)

VOD: 14,000 ft/sec.

Packaging:

2 pound to 1 pound clear & colored plastic tubes & cylindrical containers

Some manufacturers may pre-mix ingredients

Manufacturers

XPLO Corporation Atlas Powder Company

35.9 I. BOOSTERS

The development of non-cap sensitive and insensitive explosives for civilian and military use
created the need for compact high detonation pressure boosters. NG based versions of
boosters were available, but were in less-than-convenient packages and did not fit the overall
trend toward bore holes containing non-nitroglycerin based explosives.

During the 50’s and 60’s there was an availability of low cost military high explosives that
had been released to the commercial market. The availability of these products and the need
for non-NG based boosters prompted the development of the cast booster.

There are several forms of boosters available and they have varying properties and
sensitivities.

Cast Boosters are cap-sensitive explosives that typically contain the high explosive
trintotoluene (TNT) as the casting material. Different molecular explosives are mixed into the
melted TNT and impart additional energy and/or sensitivity to the booster. Molecular
explosives are energetic materials that contain all of the elements for a detonation reaction in
the molecules of the explosives.

Pentolite Boosters

A mixture of PETN and TNT.

Composition B Boosters

Boosters that contain the military explosive composition "B" (RDX), and TNT with wax
added to the mixture. Many of the boosters that are generically given this name are diluted
with additional amounts of TNT.

Torpex Boosters

Mixture of RDX, TNT, and aluminum.

Amatol/Sodatol Booster

Pentolite or Composition "B" boosters that contain amounts of ammonium nitrate or sodium
nitrate. These are called amatol or sodatol, respectively.

Tetryl or Tetrytol

Sensitive mixtures of tetryl or tetryl and TNT.

Cast boosters can be initiated by a detonator or detonating cord.

Uses - To initiate blasting agents

Ingredients:

(1.) TNT

(2.) PETN

(3.) Binary

(4.) Pentolite (TNT & PETN)

Properties:

Used to amplify the effects of a detonator or detonating cord to a degree that it will initiate a
less sensitive explosive, usually a blasting agent.

Three forms are available: Cast, pliable and binary. Normally cylindrical in shape and
designed to be initiated with a detonator or detonating cord.

VOD: 16,000 - 24,000 ft/sec.

Packaging:

(1.) Diameter - 2" to 5"

(2.) Length - 1 2" to over 5"

(3.) Weight - 1 oz. to 2 pounds

Packaging Materials:

Heavy paper tubes of various colors

Plastic tubes of various colors

Slip on boosters, which are pliable, require no packaging

Metal tube

35.10J. DETONATING CORD

Detonating cords, all detonate, with the primary use is as a link.

In nonelectric blasting, detonating cord was developed after safety fuse. A variety of
detonating cord had a military application in Europe in the 1870’s. A civilian application
introduced in 1902 when Cordeau, in Europe, introduced a tin tube filled with picric acid as
an initiation system for mining. A different type of Cordeau, with a lead tube and TNT, was
introduced in the US in 1913. Today’s detonating cord, PETN in a fabric braid was
introduced in 1938.

In electric blasting, the first cords were virtually instantaneous (detonation rate of the cord
and the length provided the delay); delay connectors were introduced in the 1950’s.
Additional delays were developed subsequently.

a. Uses - To link multiple shots, initiate boosters and shock tube, and demolition.

    Det Cord Video

b. Ingredients:

To identify the type of explosive that is used, look at the cross section.

(1.) PETN - White in color

(2.) RDX - Dyed pink

(3.) HMX - Dyed pink in color

c. Properties:

Detonating cord is strong, flexible "cord " with a high explosive core. The strength (explosive
force) is determined by the type/quantity of explosive contained in the core load which is
measured in grains per foot (gn/ft). The core load ranges from 4 gn/ft to 400 gn/ft in well
over 100 different brands/types. Initiated with a detonator, other detonating cord or main
charge explosives.

To positively identify if in fact you have detonating cord or safety fuse, look at the cross
section. If it is white or pink, then it is detonating cord. If it is black or gray, then it is safety
fuse.
d. VOD: 22,000 - 27,000 ft/sec. or about 4 miles/sec.

e. Construction:

Detonating cord is constructed with various types/quantities and colors of natural and man
made fibers and plastic. It can usually be identified as to its manufacturer, brand and core
load from the colors and manufacturing characteristics observed on the exterior of each
length of cord. However, with the use of colored plastics as the final covering, some
detonating cords can be improperly identified.

36 C. MILITARY EXPLOSIVES
36.1 1. TNT DEMOLITION BLOCKS

TNT, was first prepared by Wilbrand in 1863 and on an industrial scale in Germany in 1891.
Beginning in 1901 Germany started to manufacture TNT on a commercial scale, and in about
1902 the German Army adopted it as standard filling for shells. Other countries slowly
followed the German example.

TNT’s stability, which permits melt-pour loading into munitions, stability in storage under all
temperature conditions, and use in other explosive mixtures has made it the most widely used
military explosive.

Uses: Used in all types of military ammunition including aircraft bombs, artillery projectiles,
mines, grenades, etc.

Properties:

a. Light Yellow in color also to light gray.

b. It is one of the least sensitive explosives and in the form of demolition blocks, it is virtually
bullet safe.

c. Not affected by moisture or sea water.

d. When the flame of a match is applied, TNT will burn. It will not normally detonate unless
very large quantities are burned in one pile and at one time.

VOD: 22,637 ft/sec.

Packaging:
a. ¼, ½, and 1 pound blocks.

b. ¼ pound block is cylindrical, within a cardboard tube with metal ends, OD Green with a
single yellow stripe in the middle of the container.

c. ½ pound and 1 pound is rectangular, cardboard wrapped with metal ends, OD Green.

d. Containers come with a predrilled cap well.

36.2 2. COMPOSITION C4

During World War II, the British used a plastic demolition explosive that could be shaped by
hand and had great shattering power. As standardized by the US, it was designated as
composition C and contained 88.3 percent RDX and 11.7 of a nonexplosive oily plasticizer.

Composition C was replaced by C-2, which contained 80 percent RDX and 20 percent
explosive plasticizer. This explosive plasticizer was composed of mononitrotoluene.

C-2 was replaced by C-3, which contains 77% (+/- 2%) RDX and 23% (+/- 2%) explosive
plasticizer.

C-3 has been replaced by C-4 because of its hardening, volatility, and its hygroscopicity. C-4
contains, RDX, Polyisobutylene, Motor Oil, and Di (2-ethylhexyl) sebacate.

Uses: M5A1 Block Demolition Charge as well as other charges (see below)

Properties: Non-odorous white to light brown, putty-like material.

VOD: 26,377 ft/sec.

36.3 3. M112 DEMOLITION BLOCK

Block demolition charge M112 is plastic explosive. This charge is ideally suited for cutting
charges, as the adhesive backing allows the charge to be attached to any relatively flat, dry
surface above freezing (32 degrees F.) The explosive may also be cut and/or removed from
the mylar wrapper and hand formed as desired to suit the target.

Uses: Cutting charge.

Explosive: Composition C4
Packaging
Gray or OD with yellow markings
1 ¼ pound block
Mylar film used for covering.
Adhesive backing

36.4 4. SHEET EXPLOSIVE

Detasheet (DuPont) is a flexible high explosive developed by DuPont. Sheet explosives have
both military and commercial applications. It is composed of integral mixture of PETN and a
binder. This explosive is flexible over a wide range of temperatures It is waterproof and
available in a variety of extruded shapes and in sheets and cords.
Detasheet
Detasheet "A", the commercial form is 85% PETN is red and detonator sensitive.

Flex-X

Flex-X, (Detasheet "B") is the military variety and is colored OD green for identification and
contains 63% PETN. However, it should be noted that some manufacturers will use RDX as
the explosive material.

Use:

Sheet explosives are designed for use as a cutting, breaching, or cratering charge, and
especially for use against steel targets. The sheets of explosives may be quickly applied to
irregular and curved surfaces, and are easily cut to any desired dimension.