EMERGENCY GENERATOR:

What is emergency generator?

 Separate generator which supplies the electric power for emergency load in the event of main power supply
failure. 

 It is located outside the main and auxiliary machinery space and not forward of the collusion bulkhead. 

 It has own switchboard near vicinity.    

 It is provided with independent means of automatically starting (by air or battery) to ensure immediate run
up following a main power failure and repeated starts of at least 3 times, and further attempt can be made
within the 30 minutes.

 ship is upright and when inclined at any angle of list up to 22.5 or when inclined up to 10 either in the fore or
aft direction, or is in any combination of angles within those limits.

 Adequate and independent supply of fuel with a flash point of not less than 43 °C

 Must be able to be started in cold condition up to zero (0 °C)

 For cold weather, JCW system must be treated with anti-freeze agent, and heating arrangement provided.

What are the emergency generator maintenance?

1. Every Saturday, emergency generator must test run

2. Air bottle pressed up or starter battery fully charged, at all-time

3. Changeover the selector switch to local position before starting

4. Make sure breaker switch at ‘off’ position before starting (an interlock between E/R Main switchboard
breaker and emergency switchboard breaker is provided to prevent simultaneous closure of both breaker)

5. During testing, check frequency, voltage and ampere

6. Fuel tank, always checked to ensure adequate level

7. Air filter of generator, regularly cleaned

8. Required tools and spares kept in a container

9. Emergency light for this room should be always checked

What is emergency switch board?

 It is a switchboard which distributes emergency load that power is supplied from emergency generator during
the main power source failure.

 It has two sections- one for 440V and another is 220V.

  Under normal condition, 440 V supply is taken from E/R Main Switchboard, through a Circuit Breaker

 When main power is lost, this Circuit breaker is tripped (opened)

 Emergency generator comes into action, and supplies power through another circuit breaker

 An interlock is provided, to prevent simultaneous closing of both breaker (both main and emergency
generator may be running, simultaneously)

Emergency Switchboard Distribution

 Emergency Bilge pump (440 V)

 Sprinkler system (440 V)

 One of the steering gears (440 V)

 Navigation Equipment (220 V)

 Radio Communication (220 V)

 Transformed and rectified supply to Battery systems (220 V)

 Transitional Emergency Power Battery (Emergency lights for 30 minutes)

 Low power DC system Battery (Alarms and control system)

What are the equipment which get supply from emergency generator?

 It is called emergency load

 Emergency lightening to alley way /boat deck / engine room.

 Navigation system

 Steering gear

 Emergency fire pump

 Emergency air compressor

 Battery charging

 Fire detecting and alarming system

 Radio equipments (Communication equipment)

 Daylight signaling lamp and ship’s whistle

 Navigation Aids

 General Alarm

 Manual fire alarm

 Watertight doors
What are the requirements / regulations for emergency power sources on ships ?

 All passenger and cargo vessels shall be provided with emergency sources of electrical power, for essential
services under emergency conditions.

 Emergency source may be generator or batteries, but must be complied with the rules

 Emergency sources must be installed in position such that they are unlikely to be damaged or affected by any
incident, which has caused to main power.

 Emergency source of power should be capable of operating with a list of up to 22 ½ ° and a trim of up to 10 °

 Emergency generator with its switchboard, is located in a compartment which is outside and away from main
and auxiliary machinery space, above the uppermost continuous deck, and not forward of collision bulkhead

 For batteries, the above same rules applied, nut must not be fitted in the same place as emergency
switchboard.

Rules and Regulations for Emergency Power Sources

Cargo Ship

 Emergency generator shall be automatically started and connected within 45 sec

 Emergency power source, Emergency generator must be sufficient to operate certain essential services at
least for the period of 18 hours .

1)   Emergency lightening (at alley way, stairways and exits, muster and embarkation stations, machinery space,
control room, main and emergency switchboard, firemen’s outfits storage positions, steering gear room)

2)   Fire detecting and alarming system

3)   Internal communication equipment

4)   Daylight signaling lamp and ship’s whistle

5)   Navigation equipment

6)   Navigation lights

7)   Radio installations, (VHF, MF, MF/HF)

8)   One of the fire pumps, emergency bilge pump

Rules and Regulations for Batteries

 Where emergency source of electrical power is an accumulator battery, it shall be capable of carrying loads
without recharging and battery voltage throughout discharge period must be maintained within 12% above or
below its nominal voltage.

 Battery system is automatically connected upon loss of main power.

 Batteries are required as transitional power source for  30 min  for following items:
1)   Fire detecting and fire alarm

2)   Emergency lightening

3)   Navigation lights

4)   Internal communication equipment

Procedure for starting emergency generator when black out occurs ?

1. Normally emergency generator cut in automatically when main power fails

2. Starting is initiated by start up relay

3. Falling of frequency or voltage of Main power, cause the start up relay to operate generator starting
equipment

4. If this system fails, after switching the MODE selector to Manual (Local) position, generator can be started
manually by means of Back up starting equipment within 30 minutes of transitional emergency power battery
lighting.

What are the emergency light maintenance ?

 Every Saturday, routine testing of emergency lights is carried out.

 Ensure that batteries are fully charged and ready for use.

 Burnt out bulbs replaced at once.

Which all places are provided with emergency lighting ?

 Engine room lighting

 Bridge lighting

 Passage way lighting

 Embarkation light

What are the requirements for navigation light panel ?

 Navigation light should be connected to a distribution board, which does not supply other services

 There should be a changeover switch, so that it can be transferred to another source or power supply

 Visual and audible alarms required for individual Navigation Light failure (duel bulb system for change over)

 Fuse protection provided

Navigation Lights

1. Fore Mast   (No. 1 & 2 or Up, Down)

2. Main or Aft Mast  (No. 1 & 2 or Up, Down)

 3. Stern light   (No. 1 & 2 or Up, Down)

4. Port light    (No. 1 & 2 or Up, Down)

5. Starboard light   (No. 1 & 2 or Up, Down)

How electricity produced

Excitation

CIRCUIT FAULT:

 Open circuit fault

o One or more phase left open due to insulation failure

 Short circuit fault

o One or more phase short together due to insulation failure

 Ground fault

o One or more phase contact ground due to insulation failure

MOTOR STARTER:

 DOL Starter

 Star delta starter

 Auto transformer starter

Welding transformer:

It is a type of step down transformer to convert high voltage into low voltage supply(60-90 v) and a high current
between 55 to 590 amperes according to the current setting in the transformer.

Soft starter

Soft starting, as the name indicates, is a smooth starting of a motor without any moving contactors. It employs a
electronic circuit for starting having thyristors on a common circuit board which supplies gradually increasing
voltage to the motor during starting to avoid high starting current.

Current transformer

Current transformers perform the following functions:

 Current transformers supply the protective relays with currents of magnitude proportional to those of power
circuit but sufficiently reduced in magnitude.

 The measuring devices cannot be directly connected to the high magnitude supplies. Hence current
transformers are used to supply those devices with currents of magnitude proportional to those of power.
  A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from high voltage circuits.

Alternator specification

Output = 937.5 kva, rating – contentious, voltage -450, current – 1203 A, no.of phase-3 phase, frequency – 60
Hz, no.of pole – 8, speed-900, P.F-0.8, insulation – F, Ambient temp – 45, enclosure – IP-22, cooling-IC-01,
Excitation-Brushless, Excitation volts- About DC 190, Rotor Type- Salient pole type

Insulation

Type A – 105 C Winding temperature

Type B – 130 C Winding temperature

Type F – 155 C Winding temperature

Type H – 180 C Winding temperature

Normal Surface temperature is 30 C less then winding temperature = 155-30 => 125 C its safe

Enclosure – IP-22 (ingress protection): (IP 20, IP 22, IP 54, IP 65)

First digit for solid - Protected from touch by fingers or similar object and objects greater than 12.5 mm.

Second digit is for liquid - Protected from water spray up to 15 degrees from vertical.

cooling-IC-01:

cooling air blown through the alternator by fan mounted on the shaft

Exciter specification:

21 kva, 80.9 a, 3phase, 135Hz, 18 pole, 0.9 P.F, 150 volts, 900rpm, Exc – About DC 105, enclosure IP22.

Ambient temperature

Ambient temperature is nothing but surrounding temperature which is used to select the insulation class and
temperature of winding. Max temperature rise (45+100 for class f)=145 c. hence max. allowable temperature is
145 for class f insulation.

Motor specification

Output-37 kw, no. of pole-4, 440v, 3phase,60Hz, current-60 a, speed – 1755, insulation F, continuous rating,

Motor came from shore after overhaul, what ll check

 Insulation to be checked

 Free movement of shaft to be checked

 Ideal running test to be carried out

 Ideal current taken to be checked

 Checked for vibration and noise

Reverse power trip

 A aluminum disc is placed between potential coil and current coil.

 The two magnetic fields which are out of phase, produces eddy current in the aluminum disc, and this
creates a torque that tries to rotate the disc when normal power flows

 If a reverse power starts to flow, the disc rotates in the opposite direction, moves away from the stop
and towards the trip contacts that activates the trip circuit.

How many voltages onboard

440AC, 220 or 110AC, 24 DC. (8000V in boiler and incinerator)

Earthling system onboard

Insulated system:

 An insulated system is one that is totally electrically insulated from earth (ship’s hull).

 a single earth fault " A" occurring on one line of an insulated distribution system will not cause any
protective trip to operate and the system would continue to function normally.

 An insulated distribution system therefore requires two earth faults on two different lines to cause an
earth fault current to flow.

 Fault finding of earthed equipment is difficulty.

Earthed neutral system:

 An earthed system has the supply neutral point connected to earth.

 Fault finding of earthed equipment is easy as respective unit fuse will blown or trip might be activated.

HIGH VOLTAGE:

Reasons for Using High Voltage Systems On board Ships:

1. Power = √3* V*I*cosф

As per the above formula,

 Current carrying for the same power will be less in high voltage system

 So protection device rating can be reduced.

 Conductor size is reduced due to low current flow. Hence size of the machinery and installation space
also reduced.

2. Losses is reduced

Copper loss = I2 * R

As per above formula,

  Thus power loss varies square of the current carried by the conductor. So increase flow of current lead
to power loss.

3. Other advantages:

 Electrical propulsion can be used

Hazards of high voltage:

1. Electric shock:

Accidental contact with high voltage supplying sufficient energy may result in severe injury or death.

2. Arcing:

An unintentional electric arc occurs during opening of a breaker, contactor or switch.

Arc Flash: Temperature at the arc terminals can reach or exceed 20000 degree Celsius. The heat and intense
light at the point of arc is called the arc flash.

Arc Blast: Air surrounding the arc is instantly heated and the conductors are vaporized causing a pressure wave
termed as arc blast.

Due to this arc flash and blast, the following hazards will happen,

 Serious injuries to crews

 Equipment suffer permanent damage

 Nearby inflammable liquid will ignite and lead to secondary fire

3. Short circuit

High voltage earthing

The earth neutral system is used in high voltage system. It has Neutral earthing resister in earthing line.

Precautions:

 Approved safety clothes, footwear, hand gloves, eye protection and helmet to be used against arc, hot surface
and electric shock.

 Always rubber mat used in front of the high voltage panel.

 When access to high voltage area, proper permit to work, standard isolation procedure, live line test and proper
earthing down carried out.

Safeties in High voltage system:

 Special circuit breaker for arc quenching (Vacuum, SF6, air blast)

 Short circuit protection relays

  Integrated earthing down arrangement during maintenance

 Earthing of bus bar and circuit breaker with neutral earthing resister

 Insulated dead front panel

 High strength insulation materials(epoxy resin)

 High voltage IR test equipments (Polarization index (PI) test)

 Earth stick

 High voltage warning lights

 Rubber mat in front of all HV panel

Importance of Insulation Resistance (IR) in high voltage:

The high voltage system consist of generators, cables for power distribution, transformers, switch gear, and consumers.
Here, consumers are large electric motors for propulsion, air conditioning compressors, bow thrusters, etc. Insulation
resistance is the key parameter which gives the general condition of an electrical equipment. First of all, make sure IR
values are to be checked between phases and between phases and earth periodically. In addition, these IR values are
recorded for future references. Also, high voltage equipments are normally designed for a useful insulation life of 20 years
and more. Hence proper operation within rated power, temperature and timely maintenance ensure prolonged life of the
equipment.

In high voltage system, insulation resistance is measured using a 5000 volt DC megger, for voltages upto 6.6 kV.
Furthermore, insulation resistance is measured under following conditions.

 Routines test as per planned maintenance system (PMS)

 After a major repair of the equipment, and

 Troubleshooting purposes

What is the procedure / precautions for measuring insulation resistance of a high voltage equipment ?

 First of all, disconnect the power supply to the high voltage (HV) equipment by opening circuit breaker and
opening isolator.

 In addition, confirm that all the phases are dead using an approved live line tester. Also make sure to check the
live line tester for proper functioning using the testing tool provided along with the same.

 Close the earthing switch now and make sure all the conductors are earthed.

 Now connect the insulation resistance (IR) tester to the conductor, with safety earth connection ON. This is to
ensure that the operator is not in contact with any unearthed conductor during insulation resistance (IR)
measurement.

 After connecting insulation resistance (IR) tester to the circuit, safety earth is to be disconnected.
  Now insulation resistance (IR) test is applied and recorded.

 After completion of the testing, safety earth is to be reconnected.

 Now disconnect the insulation resistance (IR) tester from the circuit.

 This safety measure to be followed for each separate IR test.

Why normal insulation resistance (IR) values are unreliable for high voltage machinery ?

 R values taken for a machinery at different temperatures are unreliable, especially when the temperature
difference is more than 10 °C.

 Also for high voltage system, it takes to stabilize the IR values. So instantaneous readings may lead to false
interpretations.

What is meant by Polarization Index (PI)?

 Polarization Index (PI) value is the ratio between the insulation resistance (IR) value measured after the
application of the test voltage continuously for 10 minutes to the IR value measured after 1 minute of application.

 PI = (IR value after 10 minutes) / (IR value after 1 minute)

 PI readings are less sensitive to changes in temperatures.

 It will take some time for leakage currents while IR testing to attain saturation, hence reading is taken after 10
minutes.

 PI value of 2 or more is considered as satisfactory. If the PI value is less than 1.5, equipment to be used only after
improving PI value.

 An electronic merger tester is essential for PI test. Because hand driven merger testers will not be able to give the
steady test voltage for long time.

Why it is necessary to measure bolted bus bar joint resistance ?

 High current flows through the bus bar. Any resistance in the bus bar cause resistive heating (I²R heating).

 Same situation is applicable for any joints in the circuit.

 This resistive heating produces hot spots or over heated areas. It is unsafe and may gradually reduce useful life
time of the equipment.

How to measure bolted bus bar joint resistance?

  A normal ohm meter only drives small milli ampere (mA) current through the circuit. So it is not desired for
measuring bolted busbar joint resistance.

 Special low resistance micro ohm meter (also known as ducter) is normally used for measurement.

 A calibrated current is allowed to pass through the circuit (say 10 Amps). Also the voltage drop across the circuit
is measured. Hence resistance can be measured from the formula, R = V / I

 For a healthy bus bar, joint resistance is about few milli ohms (mΩ).

 How the hot spots in the bus bars or surrounding area are checked?
  It is necessary to keep the system running live to analyse any hot spots.

 A recording infra red camera can take thermal images of different parts of the system from a safe distance.

 These thermal images are processed in a computer program to display hot spots and temperature variations.

What is earth lamp ?  How will you know when earth fault occur and how to trace it ?

 It is a set of lamps, which show the presence of earth fault in distribution system.

 Each lamp is connected between one phase and common neutral point.

 If earth fault occurs the lamp will show dim light or goes out because potential is zero.

 The location of fault can be traced by switching off the individual branch circuit breaker and check the condition
of earth lamp.

 When the branch circuit with the fault is switched off, the earth lamp will return to normal brightness.

Explain earth lamps of a 3 phase, 3 wire ac system ?

 Each lamp is connected to secondary connections of each single phase step-down transformer, and primary
connections are common to star point, which is earthed to ship structure.

 Normally 3 earth lamps burn with equal brightness if there is not fault

 If phase ‘R’ is earth fault, lamp ‘R’ becomes dark while the other two lamps burn with extra brightness

 Location of fault can be traced, by switching off the branch circuit, one at a time

 When branch circuit with fault is switched off, dark lamp will become normal glow and all 3 lamps burn with
equal brightness.

Why earth lamp is fitted ?

 Earth lamp is fitted to give visual signal when there is an earth fault occurs in the system.

What is earth lamp ?  How will you know when earth fault occur and how to trace it ?

 It is a set of lamps, which show the presence of earth fault in distribution system.

 Each lamp is connected between one phase and common neutral point.

 If earth fault occurs the lamp will show dim light or goes out because potential is zero.

 The location of fault can be traced by switching off the individual branch circuit breaker and check the condition
of earth lamp.

 When the branch circuit with the fault is switched off, the earth lamp will return to normal brightness.
How earth lamp if fitted and testing procedure:

Each lamp is connected to secondary connections of each single phase step-down transformer, and primary connections
are common to star point, which is earthed to ship structure.

When “EARTH LAMP” switch (ELS) on a feeder panel is in OFF position, the neutral of the star connected primaries of
three lamp transformers is disconnected from the earth, and the voltage across the primary is the same for each
transformer regardless whether the ship’s feeder system contains an earth fault or not. Therefore, three indicator lamps
(TLs) connected to the respective transformer secondary are on at the same brightness.

To check the ship’s feeder system’s insulation resistance to earth, put “EARTH LAMP” switch (ELS) to TEST (this
earths the neutral of the star connected primaries of lamp transformers). If there is an earth fault in phase R, for example,
the lamp R would be less bright than other two; or if it is a complete earth fault, the lamp R would be off. Where there is
no earth fault, switching of the ELS from OFF to TEST gives no change in lamps’ brightness.

What is megger insulation test ?

 The instrument used for measuring high resistance in million of ohms. It is used for  measuring the insulation
resistance of cables, electrical equipment wiring insulation.

Why megger reading is taken ?

 To verify insulation resistance 

 To detect insulation fault

Write a note on meggar testing ?

 Megger tester [generally a 500V set] is used for measuring high resistance, like insulation resistance of cable,
electrical equipment and wire installation in mega ohms.

 The test voltage is produce either by an internal hand driven generator or by a battery and  electronic voltage
changer.
  A measurement of the insulation resistance gives one of the best guides to the state of health of electrical
equipment.

 The resistance should be measured between insulated conductors and earth, and between conductors.

 To get more accurate results, using the large instrument, it is important that the terminal  marked earth, which is
the + ve pole, shall be connected to the earth.

 For AC machines measurements are done as phase to phase, phase to earth and rotor winding to earth.

 For DC machines measurements are done as pole to pole, each pole to earth, field to earth and armature to earth.

How insulation resistance of a motor is tested ?

1. Switch off power from main switchboard

2. Take out the fuse

3. Tag the label on the switch board, Don’t start

4. Disconnect the connection from starter

5. Test with megger

6. Insulation Resistance is tested while at hot condition because it is minimum at that time

What are switchboard safety devices ?

 Overload trip

 Preferential trip

 Under voltage trip

 Over voltage trip

 Reverse power relay (No voltage trip)

 Reverse current trip

 Fuse 

 A .C .B( Air circuit breaker )

 Earth lamps.

 Low frequency trip

 Meters

 Synchroscope

 Emergency synchronizing lamp

 Ebonite handrail and Rubber footstep

What is switch board survey ?

1. Performed during dry-docking. (G.E black out)

2. Check volt meter, ammeter, watt meter all calibrators and accuracy.

3. Check all trips over current trip, reverse power trip, preferential trip.

4. Synchronizing test. (load sharing test)

5. Switch inside each terminal to be checked for insulation resistance min: 1Mega ohms, all contact must be clean.

6. Tightness of loose joint and connection, bus bar support, fuse holder.

7. Check automatic circuit breaker A.C.B and automatic voltage regulator A.V.R.

8. Earth detecting lamp and alarm system.

What are the meters fitted on main switchboard?

 Ammeter

 Voltmeter

 Wattmeter

 Frequency meter

 Ohm meter

 Synchroscope.

What is essential load ?

 Essential services are those required for the safety of personal and for the safe navigation  and propulsion of the
ship.

 They include certain supplies to navigation aids, machinery spaces, control stations and steering gear.

What is non-essential load ?

 It is a load that has no effects on the safe navigation and main propulsion unit when they are cut off.

 They are air conditioning system, some blower fan except E/R blowers, galley power, refrigerated cargo plant,
deck equipment, purifier, air compressor, cabin power source except lighting

What is dash pot, where fitted ?

 It is a mechanical device which makes time lag of trip with different viscosity of oil.

 It is fitted in overload trip, preferential trip, under voltage release / trip

What is dash pot ?

 Dashpots are fitted for overload trip to get time delay action, so that breaker will not be  opened, due to
momentary current surge
  When load current is in excess, it attracts plunger of the solenoid

 Plunger or piston moves up against the displacement of viscose oil or silicone fluid, through a small hole on the
piston

 Time lag depends upon hole size, and viscosity of oil

 Load current setting for trip is about 25% above maximum, but should not exceed 50%

What is preferential trip ?

 It is a generator protection device which is designed to disconnect nonessential load from the main switchboard in
the event of generator over load or partial failure of the supply.

 Operate after a fixed time delay, causing non-essential loads to be shed

 Usual setting for overload trip is 150% load (50% overload)

 When generator load reaches 110%, preferential Trip comes into operation as follows

First tripping at 5 sec

 Shut down non-essential loads (air-condition, entertainment, accommodation fans, cargo hold fans, amplifiers,
etc.) to reduce the generator load

Second tripping at 10 sec

 Shut down essential loads (service required for running the ship properly, leaving the loads of top priority services
to maintain propulsion and navigation) if generator load is still high

Third tripping at 15 sec

 Shut down the main generator as last action, if the load is still too high, it may be due to  short circuit or insulation
breaking.

What is the purpose of reverse power relay ?

 If prime mover failure occurred, the generator would act as a motor; the reverse power relay detects this fault and
acts to trip the generator circuit breaker.

What is fuse ?

 Fuse is a protecting device in the circuit against damage from excessive current.

 It is fitted in a circuit to protect the circuit from short circuit and over load.

 Once a fuse is blown, it must be replaced.

Difference between Circuit Breaker and Fuse ?

Circuit breaker

1. Has switching actions to close the circuit or to open the circuit, and has a trip circuit if load current exceeds the set
value

2. After tripping, circuit breaker can be reused without replacing any part
Fuse

1. Have only breaking function, and fitted in the circuit to protect the circuit from damaging effect  of high current
flow

2. It breaks the circuit by melting the fuse metal itself

3. After breaking, the blown fuse must be renewed

 What is an intrinsically safe circuit or equipment ?

1. An electrical circuit or part of a circuit is intrinsically safe, if any spark or thermal effect  produced normally (e.g.
by breaking or closing the circuit) or accidentally (e.g. by short circuit or earth fault), is incapable of igniting a
prescribed gas mixture, under prescribed test condition.

2. An equipment, which cannot released sufficient electrical or thermal energy, under any condition to ignite a
particular flammable vapour in its vicinity.

BATTERY AND BATTERY ROOM:

Inspection and Maintenance of Battery Room

1. Battery installation and its charging rectifier checked.

2. Battery room environment must be dry and well ventilated.

3. Petroleum jelly applied to connection to prevent corrosion.

4. Electrolyte at proper level

5. Electrolyte has correct value of specific gravity by checking with a hydrometer.

6. Rubber gloves and goggles used when handling electrolyte.

7. Charging equipment checked for dirt, overheating, loose connection and correct functioning of indicators.

8. Good ventilation for both lead acid and alkaline.

9. Hydrogen gas during charging, so no smoking and naked light allowed.

10. Acid proof paint should painted. [For Cad-Ni cell, alkaline resistance paints].

11. Intrinsically safe tools should use.

Battery Room Safety Arrangement

Safety is provided by 

1. Proper ventilation

2. Prevention of heat source for ignition

Ventilation

 Independent exhaust fan provided

  Inlet duct should be below battery level, and outlet at top of the compartment

Prevention of heat source for ignition

 No naked light and no smoking

 Uses of externally fitted light or flameproof light

 Cables of adequate size and they are well connected

 Never place Emergency Switchboard in this room

 Use insulated spanner and plastic jug for distilled water, to prevent short circuit

 Room temperature, maintained at 15 ~ 25 °C

Nickel Cadmium battery [alkaline battery]

 + ve plate is Nickel hydroxide + graphite

 –  ve plate is Cadmium + Iron

 Electrolyte is Potasssium hydroxide solution (strong alkaline)

 Normal specific gravity [1.21] does not change with charging or recharging

 But specific gravity of electrolyte gradually decrease, and electrolyte should be renewed  when specific gravity
becomes [1.160]

 It is a sealed battery, thus no gassing during charging

 Very low open circuit losses, but requires 67% more cells than Lead Acid battery [1.2 V per  cell and when fully
charged 1.7 V per cell]

 Not harmful when overcharged

 Left for long period, either fully charged or fully discharged, without deterioration

 Better mechanical strength and durability than lead acid battery

 High initial cost but longer life

Lead Acid Battery

 + ve plate is Lead Peroxide [chocolate brown]

 – ve plate is Spongy Lead [slate gray colour]

 Electrolyte is H2SO4 , specific gravity 1.8 when fully charged, renew when specific gravity is 1.110.

 1.8 V per cell when fully charged 2 V per cell

 When undercharge, + ve plates are pale brown or yellowish, instead of deep chocolate and very difficult to
convert back to normal form

 Efficiency (watt hour efficiency) is higher than Alkaline Cells

How do you know when the battery is full charge ?

  It can be known by measuring the electrolyte specific gravity by using hydrometer.

 If fully charge it has a specific gravity of about (1.27 – 1.285), hydrometer scale 1270 to 1285

 If fully discharge which fall to a specific gravity of 1.1 (1100)

How can you know battery is over charge ?  Effect of overcharge ?

 When battery is overcharged bubbles will form at the surface, the current flowing into the cell causes breakdown
or electrolysis of water in the electrolyte.

 Both hydrogen and oxygen are evolved and released through cell vent caps into the battery compartment.

 There is an explosion risk if hydrogen is allowed to accumulate. (4% of H2 in air).

What happens when lead acid battery is overcharged ?

 Overheating cause buckling of plates

 Internal short circuit

 Sludge formed at the bottom of cells (lead peroxide)

 Battery may be ruined

 Lower the capacity

What happens when lead acid battery is undercharged ?

 Over discharging

 + ve plates are pale brown or yellowish, instead of deep chocolate

 –  ve plates, almost white colour

 Falling of voltage 1.8 V / cell, and specific gravity of H2SO4  1.15

Depolarisation

 Liberation of hydrogen ions at – ve electrode (cathode) and that will decrease the current flow.

Why AC is popular on board ship ?

1. Smaller, lighter and compact machine size, for a given kW

2. High power and high voltage AC generator can be easily manufactured

3. Voltage can be raised or lowered by transformer

4. AC can be easily converted to DC

Precautions while working on electrical machinery ?

1. Switch off the main switch

2. Out mechanical lock on 

 3. Take out fuse

4. Put a signboard “Man Working on Line”

What is AVR ?

 A.V.R  or Automatic Voltage Regulators are used in conjunction with generator for controlling the terminal
voltage to give a steady voltage under varying load.

 It senses and controls an A.C generator’s output voltage within (+ or -) 1 to 2%.

What are the types of A.V. R ?

 Carbon pile regulator

 Vibrating contact regulator

 Static A.V. R.

 Rotating sector

 Multi contact

 Magnetic amplifier

 Electronic amplifier

Carbon Pile Regulator (AVR)

1. A resistance from a carbon pile (stack), which is varied by pressure changes, controls the current flow through
exciter shunt field 

2. Pressure is applied by springs and relieved by magnetic field strength of electromagnetic coil

3. Current for electromagnetic coil is supplied from alternator output to switchboard

4. AVR is designed such that variations in alternator voltage, due to load change will effect strength of
electromagnetic coil and hence alters carbon pile resistance

5. When alternator voltage is low, spring exerts greater pressure and carbon pile resistance becomes low, so more
currents flow through exciter shunt field and then increase the output voltage

6. When Alternator voltage is high electromagnetic coil relieves pressure on carbon pile and  resistance becomes
high. Less current flows through exciter shunt field and decreases the voltage (Strength of Electromagnetic coil
relieves spring pressure on carbon pile)

What is rectifier ?

 It is an electric device or circuit capable to allow an A.C current to be converted to D.C current.

What is excitation ?

 To supply and control the correct D.C current for the rotor pole winding to produce the required generator A.C
output voltages.

 Production of an electromagnetic field of a generator by supplying exciting current for  magnetizing the field
magnet
  For excitation, DC is used because DC produces constant rate of magnetic flux

 Continually regulated to maintain the generator output voltages as the load demand fluctuates.

Exciters  

 The source, which generates the field current for excitation of field magnets.

Equalizing bar

 Equaliser is a low resistance circuit, connected across armature ends of series coils of  parallel compound
generators, via a special bar in switchboard

 Equaliser is fitted to stabilize parallel operation of compound Dc generators.

Rotary converter

1. A rotating diode to convert AC to DC current for alternator excitation

2. Synchronous motor and generator combined unit

3. Filed and armature coils are similar to DC generator, except that slip rings are located on the end of the shaft
opposite to commutator

4. AC turns the converter (as synchronous motor) and DC is taken from commutator brush

Procedure for alternator overhaul ?

1. Shut down the generator prime mover and lock off the starting system.

2. Lock off the circuit breaker and isolated the alternator electric heater. Tag the label on the switchboard.

3. Inspect the tightness of terminal connection and insulation.

4. Check the bearing oil level and condition.

5. Clean the cooling air intake filter and exhaust opening.

6. Clean the rotor and stator windings by means of vacuum cleaner with rubber hose and nozzle.

7. If the oil is deposited on the surface of winding, open the drain plug and then removed by special degreasing
liquids. (Electro cleaner)

8. Measure the air gap clearance between rotor and stator. (Carefully at lower part)

9. Baking the alternator with lamp. Keep a temp not more than 43°C

10. Disconnect the neutral point from the terminal box.

11. Measure insulation resistance between – rotor to earth, phase to earth, stator to earth, phase to phase

12. It is must at least one mega-ohm, if mega reading has reasonable value, the windings are to be covered with high
quality air drying insulation varnish.

 After maintenance work

 Reassemble all necessary parts. 

  Check no load running, the synchronizing and loading.

 On load, practically check for excessive temperature rises and load sharing stability when running in parallel.

What is synchroscope ?

 An instrument fitted at the main switchboard which indicates when two electrical supplies are in synchronism and
can be paralleled.

 An instrument, which indicates that, voltages, frequencies and phase angle of two electrical supplies of running
machine and incoming machine, are in synchronism and can be paralleled.

 Synchroscope should not be left in circuit for more than 20 minutes as it cannot continuously rotate.

 Synchroscope is a small motor with coils on the two poles connected across red and yellow phase of the incoming
machine and the armature winding supplied from the red and yellow switchboard bus bars.

What is the synchronizing ?

 The process of bring the voltage, frequency and phase angle of electrical supplies into line  in order to be
paralleled and share the loads.

Explain Synchronising methods ?

 Synchroscope is the main method

 Back-u

 p methods are: Lamp dark method

 Lamp bright method

 Rotating lamp method or Sequence methods (preferable)

Explain Rotating lamp method or Sequence method ?

1. One of the lamps known as key lamp is connected in one phase

2. Other two lamps are cross-connected

3. If two frequencies differ, lamps will bright up in rotation. Clockwise indicates incoming machine is fast, and
counter-clockwise indicates it is slow

4. Synchronising moment is when key lamp is dark and other two lamps equally bright

5. If phase rotation is wrong, all lamps will become bright and dark together.

6. Remedy is to interchange any two phase connections

How to parallel the two generator with the aid of synchroscope  on ships ?

1. All meters and indicators must have in good working order.

2. Start the incoming generator with the correct staring procedure.

3. Check the working condition by readings pressure gauges, thermometer and audible and visual.
 4. Watch for a minutes until prime mover come to stable.

5. Check the voltage of existing and incoming generator on the switchboard, check trip if have reset.

6. Move the selector switch to incoming generator. At that time, synchroscope pointer will rotate clockwise or
counter clockwise direction.

7. Check the frequency and voltage of existing and incoming.

8. Carry out the adjustment by means of speed adjuster of prime mover to obtain the condition such that
synchroscope pointer rotate in the clockwise direction at a speed of about 4sec/rev.

9. Close the circuit breaker of incoming generator when the pointer reaches just before 12’ O clock position.

10. Made off the selector switch.

11. Made load shearing the two generators by the speed adjuster of generator.

How do you parallel the two generators if synchroscope is out of order ?

1. If synchroscope is out of order, the two generators can be paralleled by emergency synchronizing lamps with
sequence method.

2. The lamps are fitted as triangle forms, one on top and two on bottom.

3. To make parallel, reset if any trip

4. Move the selector switch to incoming generator. At that time, synchronizing lamps will give bright and dark
sequence rotate clockwise or counter clockwise direction.

5. Check the frequency and voltage of existing and incoming.

6. Carry out the adjustment by means of speed adjuster of prime mover to obtain the required frequency.

7. Adjust the speed to meet the slow clockwise direction.

8. Incoming machine breaker is closed by hand when the top lamp (key lamp) dark and the both bottom lamps are
equal brightness.

9. Off the selector switch and make load sharing the two generators by speed adjusting.

How do you monitor the correct instant for synchronizing without the aid of synchroscope or synchronizing
lamps ?

1. It can be synchronized with 500V voltmeter as follow.

2. 500V voltmeter probes across the one phase of the incoming machine circuit breaker and bus bar.

3. Adjust the generator speed until the voltmeter slowly fluctuates from zero to maximum.

4. Close the breaker when the voltmeter passes through zero.

Can you parallel the load of main G/E with emergency G/E and shore supply ?

 It cannot paralleled, circuit breaker interlocks are arranged in this system.

What are the generator safety devices ?

1. Over speed trip

2. L.O low pressure trip and alarm

3. F.O low pressure alarm

4. Jacket water high temperature alarm

5. Jacket water high temperature trip

6. Thermometer

7. Pressure gauge

8. L.O high temperature alarm

9. Dip stick

10. Crankcase relief valve

 Methods of armature reaction compensation ?

 By fitting inter poles between the main poles

 By fitting carbon brush rocker

 By fitting neutralizing winding

What is induction motor ?

 It is a motor which run at a speed below that of the rotating magnetic field.

 Types are squirrel cage induction motor and slip ring induction motor.

Squirrel cage induction motor

 Most widely used of all types of AC motors, due to simplicity, strength of construction and ease of maintenance

 Made up of two main parts, rotor and stator and no direct electrical connection between them.

 No wire winding or slip rings.

 Rotor has a series of plain bars (copper or Al) running in slots the length of the iron core

 Each end of the bar is brazed into 2 heavy copper rings, one at each end. Those bars form a cage, that looks like
squirrel cage

 Stator has 3 separate windings supplied from a 3 phase AC supply

 Phase difference 120 and number of poles 2, 4, 6 or more, depending on speed required

Difference between Synchronous Motor and Induction Motor ?

 Synchronous motor is almost exactly the same as an alternator

  Induction motor cannot run normally at synchronous speed. It has slip.

What are AC motor overloads protections ?

1. Magnetic overload relay

2. Thermal overload relay

3. Built-in protective device

Causes of motor overheat ?

 Motor running at overload

 One phase failure (single phasing)

 Defective cooling fan blades

 Bearing failure

 Poor ventilation 

 Misalignment 

When phase failure occur, A.C motor run or not ?

 When motor is running, the motor keep on running but over load and over heat will occur.

 When motor is starting, the motor cannot run.

What is moving iron instruments ?

 It is an instrument suitable for measuring A.C voltage or current as well as D.C voltage or current.

What is potentiometer ?

 It is an instrument which is used to measure or adjust the potential difference in the circuit.

 What is moving coil instruments ?

 It is an instrument used for D.C only and as voltmeter or ammeter.

 What is Static Electricity ?

 Electricity at rest instead of in motion

 Electric charges may be induced by friction or atmosphere effect

How to prevent Static Electricity hazards in oil tanker ?

1. Earthing device, earth bond across flanges on pipeline

2. Inert gas

What are the causes and effects of Single phasing in motors ?

1. Single phasing occurs when one of the 3 phase circuits is opened, hence the remaining circuits carry excess
current.
 2. One phase of the circuits becomes open, due to blown fuse, faulty contactor, or broken wire.

3. It prevents a motor from starting, but a running motor may continue to run with this fault.

4. For a running motor, it can be detected by overloaded device in supply line, or overheating.

5.  For an idle motor, it cannot be started.

6. Due to single phasing, overheating in a stalled or running motor will cause, burnt out overloaded coil.

What is residual magnetism ?

1. Magnetism remaining in the fields of a generator, after exciting current is cut off.

2. Residual magnetism is essential for initial generation of current, necessary for further build up of shunt field
strength.

3. Generator may fail to excite, if there is loss or reversal of residual magnetism of the pole.

What action, when generator fails to excite ?

1. Pass a current through shunt field coil in correct direction

2. Correct direction means the current will re-magnetise the iron core in the right way

3. Current for restoration can be obtained from another DC generator or from a battery.

4. If battery is used fro re-magnetising: A 12 V battery is connected [exclusively] across shunt field coil with the
machine stopped

5. Current flow in right direction, for a few seconds, only will establish the field.

6. During this time faulty generator must be in stopped position.

What are windlass safety devices ?

 Emergency stop

 Overload trip

 Over speed trip

 Mechanical break

 Slipping clutch for over load, to prevent any undesirable damage such as hull damage due to  anchor and rope
brake out.

What is Slipping Clutch in windlass ?

1. Slipping clutch is commonly fitted between motor and gearing

2. It is incorporated with motor, magnetic brake and drive shaft

3. Set to slip at approximately 133% of full load torque

4. Letting go or dropping speed is controlled by friction brake

5. Hauling speed is 0.15 m/sec

Why Slipping Clutch is fitted in windlass ?

1. In windlass, undue stresses must not be applied to chain cable and machinery

2. Without slipping cultch, excessive stresses could be applied to cable, by armature momentum, by sudden
obstruction when heaving, or when bringing the anchor into hawsepipe. 

3. Fitted also to avoid inertia of prime mover being transmitted to windlass machinery in the event of shock loading
on cable, when anchor is being housed

4. When ship is riding at anchor, bow stopper prevents the strain for windlass

Explain electric breaking system in marine machinery ?

1. When electric deck motor is used for lowering or lifting load, electric brake system is used. All  brakes are failsafe
types.

2. In the event of power failure, brake automatically applied, thus preventing the load running back. A number of
brake pads [free to move] are located in carrier, which is keyed to motor shaft.

3. Armature plate applies pressure to brake pads, by means of a number of springs, to force against friction surface
of back plate, so that it prevents the motor shaft from turning.

4. When energized, armature plate is attached to magnet, thus releasing the thrust pressure and  allowing the shaft to
rotate

Action when an electrical machine is flooded with seawater ?

1. Machine is disconnected from power sources and dismantled

2. All salt deposits washed out with freshwater

3. If deposited with oily bilge water, wash out with Electro Cleaner

4. Should be heated with lamp, and enclosed or covered up to retain the heat

5. Moisture should be escaped, by lifting the cover continuously or periodically

6. Hottest part of the machine shall not exceed 90°C, while heating

7. IR readings and temperatures taken regularly, until constant value reach about 1 mega ohms

8. Then spray the machine with insulation vanish

9. Assemble and out in service with low load, if possible

Why drying out of electrical machine ?

 It is essential, when machine has been exposed to weather, or when accidentally immersed.

Short, open and grounded circuits ?

Short circuit: 
A low resistance path that actually shorten the intended path for the flow of current

Open circuit:

The path for the flow of current is broken. A switch s one method of creating an “open” intentionally

Grounded circuit:

A circuit that has come in contact with the earth, by coming in contact somewhere in itself, or by a conductor which is
connected with the earth

What is shore connection on ships ?

 Shore connection box is provided at convenient position, to receive shore power supply, so that ship’s generators
can be shut down, in port or during Dry Docking.

What are Lloyd’s requirement on shore connection ?

1. Connection box contains a circuit breaker or isolating switch with fuses

2. Provided full information of supply system, normal ship voltage and frequency for AC current

3. Main Switch board must be provided with a link switch or a circuit breaker, voltmeter, ammeter, and an indicator
to show that the cable is energized

4. For 3-phase supply with earth neutral and earthing terminal must be provided, for connecting the hull to shore
side.

5. A phase sequence indicator is necessary to ensure correct connections

6. Means shall be provided for checking polarity, and terminals should be labeled

How will you check the frequency of shore power supply ?

1. Shore power supply connection box shows phase sequence of shore power generator with bright and dark lights

2. Frequency can be check at Main Switchboard, after shore supply is ‘on’ through link switch or circuit breaker.

What are Common faults in DC Generator and Motors ?

1. Sparking at brushes

2. Overheating

3. Failure to excite

Causes of Sparking at Brushes ?

1. Wrong brush position

2. Dirty commutators

3. Brushes not properly bedded

4. Incorrect spring pressure on brushes

5. Wrong grade of brush

 6. Overloading

Causes of Overheating ?

1. Overloading

2. Blocking up of ventilation passages with dirt

Test for over current trip ?

By injecting current with injectors 

Test for Reverse Power Trip ?

By reducing frequency

What is Ward Leonard System ?

1. Used for fine control of shunt motor speed from zero to full in either direction

2. Able to give the motor a robust torque characteristic

3. Can be used for motors of electric steering gears of ships with DC power

4. Used on ships with AC power for deck machinery such as windlass, mooring winch etc.

5. Working motor, which powers the steering gear, windlass or other equipment is a DC machine, because speed
control of these made easy

How Ward Leonard System works ?

1. A DC generator is driven by AC squirrel cage induction motor.

2. Output voltage of DC generator is applied as power supply to armature of working motor.

3. Speed and direction of working motor varies with magnitude and direction of applied voltage

4. Output voltage of DC generator is increased or decreased by Potentiometer, as magnetic  field strength is altered
by changing the field current to field windings of the generator

5. As output voltage of the generator varies, speed of the working motor also varies

6. Change of current flow direction, also by Potentiometer, through the field poles of the generator will cause the
change in direction of generated current, supplied to the working motor and thereby also the running direction of
the motor

How to control speed of AC motor ?

Adjusting number of poles by means of selector switch.

What are motor earthing symptoms ?

 440V, low insulation alarm

  Earth lamp signal

What are the effects of motor earthing ?

 Over heat

 Burn out

 Get the smell

 Noisy

Specifications of fuses on ships ?

 Amperage of the circuit (AC/DC)

 Type of fuse wire (Tin or lead wire)

 Standard Wire Gauge (SWG)

Specifications of battery on ships ?

1. Voltage

2. Ampere/hour

3. Size

4. Type (Lead Acid or Alkaline)

What documents to give to surveyor for switch board survey ?

1. Voltmeter, Wattmeter, Ammeter Calibration test result

2. ACB test result (Survey result)

3. Control Circuit Safeguard test results (Safety trips and Alarm test results)

4. Maintenance reports

5. IR test results of each terminal; all 440 V and 220  V main circuit

Data to be given Surveyor for electrical survey ?

1. Voltmeter, Wattmeter, Ammeter calibration test result

2. ACB test result (Survey result)

3. Control Circuit Safeguard test results (Safety trips and Alarm test results)

4. Maintenance reports

5. IR test results of each terminal : all 440 V and 220 V main circuits

6. IR test results of all motors & their safety factors, such as:

————–> Test date, time, place

————–> Voyage No.

————–> Ambient temperature

————–> Weather condition, hot or humid

————–> Machine is hot or cold

Difference between DC and AC generators ?

 DC generator has commutator and AC generator has slip ring or brush less.

What is drop test ? ( Volt drop test)

 It is a kind of test for exploring the open circuit fault, short-circuit fault of an armature winding  or a set of field
windings

 It is more reliable check than the growler test.

Testing in electric machines ?

1. Insulation test (Meggar test)

2. Continuity test

3. Voltage test 

4. Current test

How many types of motor starter ?

1. Direct on line starter

2. Star delta

3. Auto transformer

What is static electricity ?

 Electricity produced on dissimilar materials through physical contact & separation.

 Out going material negative, remaining material positive. After having high potential spark occur.

 This is occurs in thin oil. Explosion occurs when tank cleaning operation and gas freeing operation.

Protection against accumulation of static charges ?

 Bunker pipes are electrically bonded and from ship earthing arrangement to shore.

 Inert gas maintains above cargo in the tanks.

 C.O.W operation must be start after pumping out 1 m3 to make sure no water remain in the tank.

What is open loop in control system ?

 The loop is open, there is no feedback and the action of the controller has no reference to the result it produces.
  An open loop is a manual process where by information is not feed back to the control system. A man is required
to sight visually or read display information and then make an adjustment.

 Manual control gives satisfactory results. Carelessness of the operator may lead to an end product of result that
fails to meet the requirements.

 The arrangement may then decide to install automatic control. The controller must replace the human brain.

The close loop automatic control system

 In practical automatic control systems, the controlled variable must first be measured.

 This may require both a detecting (sensing) element and a measuring element, or two may be combined in
a single unit; the measured value is then compared with the desired value in the comparison element. 

 The output from the comparator, commonly called the error, causes the amplifier to vary its  output in such a way
as to reduce the error.

What is closed loop in control system ?

 In an automatic process the closed loop is formed by the sensor, which feeds back information of the final
process. This feedback or closed loop, return into a mixing point or comparison point where it compares itself
against reference or set point signal. Any deviation between these two signals will alter or adjust the control
mechanism.

What is data logger ?

 The data logger is capable of producing a printer record of off limit conditions.

 It can also produce a printed log of plant sensors at predetermined intervals or on demand.

What is meant by automation ?

 Any or all of the combined processes used aboard ship that have the ability to control work, notify the operator of
its status and warn of malfunctions.

 This allows less people to control more machinery in a more accurate and efficient manner.

SINGLE PHASING IN THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS – CAUSES AND EFFECTS:

 The loss of current through one phase of a 3 phase supply is described as single phasing in three phase induction
motors.

 During single phasing no current passes through one line while other two lines carry excess current depending on
the load.

 As shown in figure other two lines carry 2.4 times normal line current for the load.
  Also phase current distribution also will be altered.

 Coil ‘B’ and ‘C’ carries 1.3 times normal phase current while coil ‘A’ carries 2.9  times normal phase current.
Reason is clear from the diagram itself ( Since current from one phase finds coil ‘A’ as low resistance path )

Causes of Single Phasing

1. Line fuse blown off

2. Terminal contacts broken due to vibration or ageing

3. Terminal contacts become loose

4. Line wire broken

5. In contactor relay, one of the contactor is not making proper contact

6. Relay contact spring may be damage or weak

7. Contact joints covered with oxidation product, hence not conducting

Effects of Single Phasing

1. Uneven distribution of current in the motor winding which may damage them

2. Motor will keep on running with noise and vibration but once stopped, it will not start

3. Due to uneven distribution of phase current, there will be fluctuation in torque produced

4. Motor will vibrate vigorously

5. Fluctuation in motor rpm

6. Cause humming noise

7. Motor winding may burn out

8. Possibility of electrical fire

9. Winding insulation may melt, causing short circuiting or earthing, results in electric shock and casualty

10. Generator may overload and associated problems.

 1. What is Voltage?

 Charge difference between two point

 An electromotive force or potential difference

 Voltage is the potential energy that makes the electrical current flow in a circuit by pushing the electrons
around

 Unit= volt

2. What is frequency?

 No of cycles per second.

 Hertz / second

 F=1/T (where T is in sec) = PN/120(Where N is in Rpm)

3. Relation between voltage and frequency.

 v/f ration

4. Can we run the 60Hz motor on 50 Hz power supply?

Yes we can run and following changes will occur

 It will turn 20% slower.

 Cooling will drop dramatically.

 The load's horsepower requirements will drop, possibly dramatically.

 V/f will increase possibly causing a large increase in current draw and increase in temperature.

5. Advantage of 60Hz supply over 50 Hz supply:

 Electrical equipment size reduced.

 We use in 50 Hz supply also.

 Can use lower grade steel lamination in 60Hz.

Effect of air gap in induction motor:

Air gap is a very minute gap between stator and rotor, which is maintained as less as possible for achieving
following advantages,

 Better utilization of stator flux which lead to increase the torque of the motor

 Less noise

 Air gap governs the power factor and minimum air gap will increase the power factor and vice versa.
Note:

Synchronous motor’s power factor does not depend on air gap whereas which is depend on excitation current.

MSB Safeties Protection and Maintenance:

 MSB to be installed on a raised platform.

 The location where MSB is installed should have good ventilation, illumination and affected by
minimum vibration.

 No water or oil pipes should pass above the MSB.

 There should be adequate space around allowing comfortable operation ans maintenance.

 The operating floor space in front and behind the MSB should be covered with anti skid, insulated
rubber mats with a minimum thickness of 15 mm.

 Panel doors should be in locked position.

 Door opening mechanism should be interlocked with power supply.

 The enclosure should be drip proof.

 MSB should be dead front type. (i.e. All the live conductor should pass behind MSB)

 Every equipment onboard must be properly earthed. Also MSB must be properly earthed.

 Every incoming and outgoing feed must be protected by a switch fuse or circuit breaker.

 Insulation resistance should not be less than 1 Mega Ohm in any case. Insulation Resistance (IR) to be
checked and records are maintained.

 All meters must be calibrated periodically and records are maintained.

 All the meters, switches, fuses, push button, indicating lamps, etc. should be in 15.working condition
and identified with individual name plate or tag.

 All the interlocks must be in working condition.

 Operating switch gear, tools such as circuit breaker handle, fuse puller, lamp grip, etc. must be readily
available and to be used.

 Red tag / name plate indicating high voltage and danger sign should be fitted

 Appropriate ready to use fire extinguishers should be positioned nearby. (CO2and DCP)

 Charts indicating drill procedures in case of electric shocks must be displayed near MSB.

 Wiring diagram laminated or framed indicating supply system must be displayed nearby.
  All the appropriate spares should be properly preserved and protected, individually packed and
identified, and should be readily available for use.

 Earth fault indication should be fitted and displayed in front panel.

Fuse

Fuse is a type of low resistance resistor that acts as a sacrificial device to provide over current
protection to the circuit.

Types of fuses

1. High voltage fuse

2. Low voltage fuse

3. Resettable fuses (polymeric positive temperature coefficient (PPTC) thermistor)

4. Thermal fuse.

BUS BAR:

It is a thick strip of copper or aluminum that distributes the power supply to the various circuit breakers.

POWER FACTOR:

 Ratio between actual power and reactive power.

 Phase angle between voltage and current which is also known as ‘power factor’.

 It is normally from 0 to 1.

 When the voltage and current are in phase with each other in an AC circuit, the power factor is 1.0 or “unity”.

 The more the voltage falls out of phase with the current the lower the power factor becomes and the less “real
power” or kW.

 Power factor will be "leading" or "lagging" depending on which way the load shifts the current’s phase with
respect to the voltage’s phase.

 Inductive loads cause current to lag behind voltage hence it is called lagging power factor.

 Capacitive loads cause current to lead voltage hence it is called leading power factor.

 If KVA increases, Power factor will be low.

KW VS KVA:
 The difference between kVA and kW really depends on the power factor.

 KVA = volt * Amps

 KW = volt * Amps * PF

ELECTRICAL MOTOR:

Electrical motor is an electric machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

Types:

 AC motor

 DC motor

AC Motor:

Types:

1. Principle of operation

 Synchronous motor

 Induction motor(Asynchronous motor)

2. Type of supply

 Single phase

 Three phase

3. Based on speed
  Constant speed

 Variable speed

 Adjustable speed

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR:

It is rotating at the same speed as the speed of rotation of the stator current. In other words, we can say
these motors don't have slip with respect to the stator current. This motor runs at synchronous speed whatever
the amount of load it may be. The speed of this kind of motor is not dependent on the load.

These kinds of motors are used even in high precision positioning devices like modern robots. They can
also act as stepper motors.

INDUCTION MOTOR:

These motors are unlike synchronous motors, slip when compared to the stator current field. These
motors are very flexible to use and matches the load demand almost for everything. The most widely used
electric car motor Induction Motors are very important for many industries due to their load bearing capacity
and flexibility. They are generally used for various types of pumps, compressors and acts as prime movers for
many types of machinery.

Back EMF:

After motoring action armature starts rotating and the armature conductor cut the main flux. So, there is
a generating action existing in the motor. There is an induced EMF in the rotating armature conductor according
to paradise law of electromagnetic induction. This induced EMF in the armature always acts in the opposite
direction of the supply voltage this is called back EMF.

DC Motor DC Generator AC Motor AC Generator

Excitation given to stator Excitation Given to Rotor

Supply given to rotor Supply given to Stator
Supply taken from rotor Supply taken from stator

Armature winding = Supply taken Field winding = Supply given

Difference between Synchronous and induction motor:

Factors Synchronous motor Induction motor

Speed It is run at synchronous speed(constant or It is run always less than synchronous speed
equal to stator current) irrespective of load because of its slip and its speed depend on
 load since speed decreases with increase in
and which has zero slip
load.

This motor does not have any self starting

torque, so some other auxiliary means This kind of motor has its own self starting
Starting torque
have to be provided for starting the torque.
synchronous machine.

It require DC excitation to be supplied to

It requires only supply to stator winding for
Excitation the rotor windings and AC supply to stator
excitation.
winding.

It can be made to operate at leading power

Induction motor works only under lagging
Power factor factor from lagging power factor just by
power factor.
changing its excitation.

This is comparatively more efficient than

Efficiency It is comparatively less efficient.
induction motor.

Cost This is costly Cost is less.

Difference between single phase and three phase induction motor:

S. No Single phase Three phase

1 It consist of two stator poles in 180o interval It consist of three stator poles in 120o interval

2 It requires single phase supply It requires three phase supply

3 Used for lighter load applications Used for heavy load applications

4 Not efficient High Efficient and smooth operation

GENERATOR:

Field winding = Excitation given to

Armature winding = Current taken from

Transformer:

 It is a static device to transform an electrical energy from one circuit to another without any electrical
circuit and without any changing frequency but reducing or increasing the voltage of an alternating
current.
  Current will be changing in transformer.

 It works in the principle of mutual induction of two inductive coils.

 It is referred in KVA.

Why transformers are rated in KVA not KW

 There are two types of losses in transformer named as

1. Iron losses 2. Copper losses

 Now since Iron losses depend upon the voltage and copper losses on current so we can infer that the
total loss of a transformer is dependent on 2 values that are voltage and current but not on the phase
angle between voltage and current which is also known as ‘power factor’.

 KVA does not include the term power factor in it while KW does. So since the total losses are dependent
only on Voltage and Current values (not on power factor), the ratings of the transformers are also given
in terms of VA or KVA.

Voltage Transformers or potential transformer:

It is used to step down from high voltage to low for the purpose of measuring and protection.

Current Transformer:

This is used for measuring the current in a circuit. When current in circuit too high which we cannot
give directly to measuring devices, so we are using current transformer.

Diode:
 It is also semi conductor with two terminal devices.

 It is allowing the flow of current in only one direction(it is act as a electrical non return valve)

 Diodes are made from semi conductors like silicon; however, germanium is also used.

 Diodes are used in DC circuits.

Applications:

1. Over voltage protection.

2. Temperature measurement.

Transistor:
 It is a three terminal semi conductor, which is used to regulating and amplifying the signal and switching the
circuits.

Function of three terminals:

 Base (B): here, small amount of regulating current to be supplied.

Collector(C): here, power supply voltage to be supplied

Emitter (E): here is the way for out let for supply voltage(C).

Working principle:

 Amount of electricity flowing from C to E is controlled by Amount of electricity applied in B. if applying

more in B; more electricity is flowing from C to E.

 Advantage is by using very less amount of power supply, we can control the high amount of electricity. For
example, we can control the 100mA of current(C) by using 1mA of current (B).

Uses:

 Amplification

 Switch

 Regulator

Types:

1. Unipolar junction transistor(UJT)

It is consisting of three terminals and it always operates in forward bias.

2. Bipolar junction transistor(BJT)

It is used to control only both type(P & N) of charge carriers

 It conduct emitter to collector It conduct collector to emitter

3. Field effect transistor (FET)

It is used to control only one-type(Either P or N) of charge carriers

CAPACITOR:

 A capacitor is an electronic device that is used to store electrical energy and not allow any direct
current flow. They are only used to store the electrons and they are not capable of producing them.
 Unit = Farad

Working:

 A capacitor consists of two metal plates which are separated by a non-conducting substance or dielectric. One
plate accumulates positive charge and the other plate accumulates negative charge.

 According to the size and type of dielectric used, the capacitor can be used for high-voltage as well as low-
voltage applications.

RECTIFIER:

 A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction,
to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction

Symbol:

Types of rectifier:

1. Half wave rectifier

It converts only half of the alternating current (either the positive or the negative charge) into
direct current. So, it is not very efficient.
.
 2. Full wave rectifier

It converts both AC charges(positive & negative) into DC. It is efficient than Half wave rectifier.

3. Bridge rectifier

It is used to convert the 3 phase AC to DC.

SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR) OR THYRISTOR

 It has three terminals and 4 layer solid state current controlling device, made up of semi conductor.

 unidirectional device(passes only in one direction)

 It is one type of thyristor.

 It will never run in reverse bias.

 It is mostly used in DC applications because it is only allow positive current to flow across it.

 This will only conduct current(switch on) if the following two conditions are exist

1. It has a forward biased voltage across its anode and cathode of at least .7 volt. In this condition, anode
is more positive than cathode.

2. When positive voltage is applied on Gate.

Symbol:

Applications:

 Speed control of motor

 Temperature control

 High voltage regulator

 Over voltage protection

DIAC:

 It is two terminal and four layer semi conductor device.

 It will allow current flow in both directions so it is called as Bidirectional Device.

 This is used in AC circuits.

Symbol:
Applications:

 Lamp dimmer

 Triggering device for TRIAC

 Heat control

TRIAC:

 TRI-three terminal ; AC-it controls AC

 The TRIAC is another three-terminal and 4 layer semi conductor ac switch that is triggered into conduction
when a low-energy signal is applied to its gate terminal.

 TRIAC is like a Thyristors but it can conduct current in both directions when the polarity activated.

 The TRIAC is like the DIAC with a gate terminal.

 It is used in AC because it can allow both negative and positive cycles.

Symbol:

Applications:

 Light dimmers

 Speed control of electrical fans

 AC on /off switch.

VARIOUS LAWS IN ELECTRICAL:

Ohm’s Law:

It is state that current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the
potential difference (voltage) across the two points.

V = IR

KIRCHHOFF’S LAW:

1. Kirchhoff’s current law:

 Algebraic sum of the currents meeting at any junction or node is zero.

(OR)

Sum of current flowing towards a junction is equal to the sum of current flowing away from the
junction.

2. Kirchhoff’s voltage or loop or mesh law:

The sum of the currents entering a node must equal the sum of the currents exiting a node

(OR)

Algebraic sum of all the voltage around a closed path or closed loop at any instant is zero.

FARADAY’S LAW:

When any change in magnetic environmental (Magnetic field) of a coil of wire will cause a voltage
to be induced in the coil.

The change could be achieved by,

 change the magnetic field strength

 Moving a magnet towards or away from the coil

 Move the coil towards or away from the magnetic field.

 Rotate the coil relative to the magnet.

COULOMB’S LAW:

 Like charges repels

 Unlike charges attract.

NEWTON’S LAW:

1. First law:

It is state that an object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless any
external forces act on it.

2. Second Law:

Acceleration is produced when a force acts on a mass. The greater the amount of force needed to
accelerate the greater object.

F = MA

3. Third Law:

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE

 It is found that whenever an current carrying conductor is placed inside a magnetic field, a force acts on
the conductor, in a direction perpendicular to both the directions of the current and the magnetic field.

 This is working in motor principle.

FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE

 When holding current carrying conductor in right hand the thumb is pointing the direction of current
parallel to the conductor and curled finger points the direction of magnetic field.

 It is working in Generator principle.