O Level Biology

Riverside Secondary School
Sec 3 E Biology
Note: Chapter 2: Cells

Name:__________________________________ Class:__________ Date:__________
Note: Some organelles/ structures are only visible under electron microscope: mitochondria, ribosomes, RER, SER,
Golgi apparatus.
1
1 State the functions of the organelles below. (more details)
organelles/
functions
structures
Property: partially permeable
Cell surface
membrane Function: control the movement of substance into or out of the cell.
Cytoplasm Jelly-like substance that allows chemical reactions to take place.
Control cell activities inside the cell. (e.g. for growth and repair worn-out
Nucleus (s) cells); responsible cell reproduction/ cell division.
Nuclei (p)
Carry genetic material. (chromosomes are found inside the cell)
Carry out aerobic respiration (chemical reaction)

Mitochondrion (s)
Mitochondria (p) Function: to break down glucose to release energy
To synthesis (produce) proteins such as enzymes and hormones for the

Ribosomes
cells.
• In animal cell: small, numerous and temporary.
In plant cell: large and in the center of the cell, hence called
large central vacuole.
Function of vacuole, in general:

Vacuole • Stores dissolved substances (e.g. glucose and mineral salts) within the cell;
Functions for large central vacuole in plant cell:

• maintain water potential for absorption of water; [for plant cell only]
• exert (turgor) pressure to keep cells firm/ turgid. [for plant cell only]
Property: fully permeable (allows ALL substance to pass through the cell.)
Functions:
cellulose cell wall
It protects the cell from injuries and prevents the cell from bursting
It supports and gives a fixed/ regular shape to the cell.
Chloroplasts Carry out photosynthesis to make food (glucose).
2 Compare the structure of typical animal and plant cells.
Note: Students can be asked to give similarity and/or differences between animal and plant cells.
Complete and clear comparison should be given, for example:
CORRECT: Plant cells have cell wall but animal cells do not have cell wall.
REJECT this answer: Plant cells have cell wall but not in animal cells.
2
3 Relationship between cell function and cell structure.
Note: Adaptation refers to structure + function, the function must match the structure
mentioned.
(a) Red blood cell:

Function: Transport oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body.
Shape/ structure function
binds with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin and

contain
haemoglobin transport it from the lungs to all parts of the body.
to increase surface area to volume ratio

circular, biconcave shape
It can take in and release oxygen at a faster rate.
Enables the cell to store more haemoglobin for transport of

Lacks of nucleus
more oxygen
(b) Xylem vessel

TWO main functions of xylem vessels:
• To transport water and mineral salts from roots to all parts of the plant;
• To provide mechanical support to the plant.
• Long and narrow extending from

the roots to the leaves; Allows water and mineral salts to move through the
lumen easily from root to leaves.
• hollow tube where it does not have
cross-walls and protoplasm
Strengthen the wall of xylem and prevent collapse of
• walls are thickened with lignin the vessel.
Hence provide mechanical support to the plant.
(c) Root hair cell

Function: For absorption of water and mineral salts from the soil.
• Has long and narrow

to increases surface area to volume ratio to absorb water and
extension
mineral salts (ions) from the soil at a faster rate. (reject: more)
3
4 Differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system
Least complex most complex
cell tissue organ organ system
Refer to textbook page 27 for examples.

Note: Usually students are asked to identify the label parts as cell/ tissue/ organ.
4
Sec 3 Biology
Note: Chapter 3: Movement of Substances

Name:__________________________________( ) Class:__________ Date:__________
Diffusion Osmosis
Definition: Definition:
Diffusion is the net movement of particles/ Osmosis if the net movement of water
molecules from a region of higher molecules from a region of higher water
concentration to a region of lower potential to a region of lower water potential
concentration. through a partially permeable membrane.
OR OR
It is the net movement of molecules down It is the net movement of water molecules
the concentration gradient. down the water potential gradient.
Refers to the movement of any molecules. Refers to movement of water molecules only.
Takes place with or without partially permeable Movement is always through a partially
membrane permeable membrane.
Both diffusion and osmosis do not require energy to take place. Both are passive process.
1
Sec 3 Biology
Examples of questions on diffusion:
Key points required in such questions:

1. Name the molecules that move
2. Describe the direction of movement and name the process
3. Explain why the molecules move
4. Effect on the solution/ cell (e.g. change in colour)
1 A student put a drop of blue ink solution into a glass of water. After one hour, the whole
solution turned blue. Explain this observation.
1. Blue dye molecules
2. spread out to all parts of the water by diffusion .
water 3. because there is a higher concentration of blue dye

molecules at the bottom of the beaker than the other
parts.
blue ink
4. The entire solution turns blue.
2 An experiment was carried out to study diffusion process. Glucose molecules were
found outside the Visking tubing. Explain this observation.
1. Glucose molecules
2. move out from the Visking tubing by diffusion.

water
3. because there is a higher concentration of glucose
molecules inside the Visking tubing than outside.
4. Hence, glucose molecules are found outside the Viksing

glucose solution tubing.
2
Sec 3 Biology
3 An experiment was carried out to investigate the size of the molecules. After one hour,
the starch solution inside the Visking tubing turned blue-black. Explain this observation.
1. Iodine molecules
iodine solution 2. move into the Visking tubing by diffusion.
3. because there is a higher concentration of iodine

molecules outside the Visking tubing than inside.
starch solution
4. Hence, iodine molecules react with starch
molecules and turn the starch solution to blue-
black.
Visking tubing
5. Iodine molecule is small enough to pass through
the partially permeable membrane while starch
molecule is too large to pass through.
1 Which of the following molecules can or cannot pass through the partially permeable membrane?
glucose starch sucrose water iodine amino acids
Molecules that are small enough to pass Molecules that are too large to pass through
through the partially permeable membrane the partially permeable membrane
(can pass through) (cannot pass through)
Glucose Starch
Water Sucrose
Iodine
Amino acids
2 Examples of diffusion on living cells.

• Oxygen molecules diffuse from the lungs into the red blood cell.
• Carbon dioxide diffuses out from the cells.
• Digested food molecules (e.g. glucose, amino acids) diffuse into the cell.
3 What is solution?
In a sugar solution, it is made up of water molecules and sugar molecules.
In a salt solution, it is made up of salt molecules and water molecules.
In a concentrated sugar solution, it contains more sugar molecules and less water molecules;
In a dilute sugar solution, it contains less sugar molecules and more water molecules.
3
Sec 3 Biology
Examples of questions on osmosis:
Key points required in such questions:

1. Name the molecules that move
2. Describe the direction of movement and name the process
3. Explain why the molecules move
4. Effect on the solution/ cell (e.g. change in height/ mass)
1. Water molecules
2. move into the visking tubing by osmosis.

sucrose 3. Water has higher water potential than sucrose solution.
solution
4. Causing the liquid level in the tube to rise.
concentrated salt solution

dilute salt solution
1. Water molecules
2. move to region A by osmosis.
3. Dilute salt solution has higher water potential than concentrated salt solution.
4. Causing the liquid level in region A to rise while the liquid level at region B to
drop.
4
Sec 3 Biology
Effects of osmosis on plant and animal cell.
Plant cell Animal cell
Water potential of
surrounding
cell enlarges and becomes turgid cell expands and bursts
higher
the same no change in size and shape
cell undergoes plasmolysis cell shrinks in size

where the cytoplasm shrinks away and becomes crenated
from cell wall; cell becomes flaccid
lower
Changes in plant cell when it is placed in the solution of highest water potential to a solution of lowest
water potential.
Distilled water concentrated salt/sugar solution

5
Sec 3 Biology
1. Turgor plays an important role in maintaining the shape of soft tissues in plants.
- Most leaves and young stems are able to remain erect due to the turgor pressure within their
cells.
- Loss of turgidity causes the plant to eventually wilt.
2. Cells will be killed if they remain plasmolysed for too long.
Surface Area to Volume Ratio
1. A small cell has a larger surface area to volume ratio than a large cell of the same shape.
2. Cells that are adapted to absorb materials have long protrusions or folds in their membranes that
increase their surface area to volume ratio.
- Root hair cells have long and narrow protrusions

- Epithelial cells in the small intestine have microvilli [Chapter 6: Nutrition in human]
- Red blood cells have a flattened biconcave shape
3. The greater the surface area to volume ratio, the faster the rate of diffusion.
Prepared by Mrs Tio-Fung Eng Chu

Sec 3E Biology
Note: Chapter 4: Nutrients

Name:_____________________________( ) Class:_________ Date:__________
State the roles/ functions of water in living organisms.
1 In humans, water:
(a) is the solvent in which chemical reactions take place
(b) is an essential component of cells, tissues, digestive juices and blood.
(c) helps to control body temperature through sweating (water from sweat evaporate to remove
latent heat of vaporisation)
(d) helps to transport dissolved substances around the body
2 In plants, water is important for:
(a) photosynthesis
(b) keeps the plant cells turgid and plants upright
(c) transport of mineral salts (dissolved in water to form ion) up the xylem
(d) transport of food substances from the leaves to all parts of the plant,
through phloem.
(e) To cool down the plant when water outside the mesophyll cells evaporate, remove latent
heat of vaporisation.
3 The amount of water a person needs depends on:

(a) how active a person is
(b) how healthy a person is
(c) the environmental conditions
Prepared by Mrs Tio-Fung EC

Sec 3E Biology
Biological molecules
Carbohydrates Fats (lipids) Proteins
Made up of Made up of Made up of

• carbon, • carbon, • carbon,
• hydrogen and • hydrogen and • hydrogen,
Composition • oxygen. • oxygen. • oxygen and
• nitrogen
(chemical (C, H and O) (C, H and O)
elements (C, H, O and N)
which make
up…) general formula for proportions of the elements Other element, sulfur
carbohydrates is C n H 2m O m in fats are not fixed, but may be present, depends
E.g. glucose is C 6 H 12 O 6 unlike carbohydrate, fats on the R-group in amino
contain much less oxygen acids
in proportion to hydrogen.
• *A source and store

• *As a source of energy
of energy
• *Synthesis of new
• To form supportive protoplasm, for
• Insulating material
structure (cell wall in plant) growth and repair of
prevents excessive heat
Uses/ • Can be converted to amino worn-out body cells.
loss
acids and fats
functions • A solvent for fat-soluble
• For the formation of nuleic • Synthesis of enzymes
vitamins and hormones
acids (DNA) and some hormones
• A essential part for
• To synthesise lubricants • Formation of
protoplasm
(mucus) antibodies
• To reduce water loss
• Synthesis nectar in flower
from the skin surface
Smaller Glucose (basic unit for Fatty acids and

Amino acids
basic units glycogen and starch) glycerol
Carbohydrates
There are three main groups of carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates
Single sugars Double sugars Complex carbohydrates
• *glucose • *maltose • *starch (stored in plant)

• fructose • lactose • *cellulose (cell wall)
• galactose • sucrose • *glycogen (stored in animal)
*Carbohydrates that you need to take note.

All single sugar (monosaccharides) and double sugars (disaccharides) are reducing sugars,
except sucrose.

Sec 3E Biology
Large molecules are synthesised from smaller basic units
• cannot be further
digested;
• Can pass through cell
surface membrane and
absorbed into the cells
smaller molecules small molecule large molecules
glucose maltose starch / glycogen
smaller molecules large molecules
glycerol three fatty acid 1 fat molecule

molecules
smaller molecules small molecule large molecules
amino acids polypeptides protein
Movement of molecules across Visking tubing / cell surface membrane:

Sec 3E Biology
Food tests
Food type Test carried out Results of test Conclusion

tested for (observation)
turns from yellow to starch is present

Add iodine solution. blue-black/ black [positive result]
starch
Reject: add iodine Remains brown/ starch is absent
yellow [negative result]
Reducing turns from blue to

brick-red/ yellow/ reducing sugar
sugar Add equal volume of food orange/ green is present
(e.g. glucose/ with Benedict’s solution in precipitate
maltose) test tube; shake and heat
in hot water bath for 2 to 3
*note: sucrose in reducing sugar
NOT reducing
minutes.
remains blue
sugar is absent
Shake food with sodium

hydroxide solution, turns from blue to
protein is present
Protein followed by copper sulfate purple/ violet
(e.g. egg white/ solution, drop by drop.
enzyme/ OR
hormone)
shake food with biuret remains blue protein is absent
solution.
from clear solution to

fats is present
cloudy white emulsion
Fats (lipid)
Shake food with alcohol
(e.g. oil/ and pour liquid to water
butter)
Solution remains clear fats is absent
If the result positive, it means that the nutrient is present;

If the result is negative, it means that the nutrient is absent.

RIVERSIDE SECONDARY SCHOOL
SECONDARY 3 BIOLOGY
Name: ………………………………. ( ) Date: …………………

Class: ……………….
Chapter 6: Nutrition in Humans
6.1 Nutrition and the Human Digestive System
1 Name the following processes:
processes descriptions
Ingestion
food is taken into the body
Chemical digestion
large food molecules is broken down into smaller, soluble
molecules that can be absorbed into the body cells
Absorption
digested food molecules are absorbed into the body cells
Assimilation
Some of the absorbed food molecules are converted into new
protoplasm / or used to provide energy
egestion
removal of undigested food from the body
2 Refer to the textbook for the functions of main regions of the alimentary canal and the associated
organs shown below:
main regions of the alimentary canal associated organs
• mouth (contains salivary glands) • pancreas
• oesophagus • gall bladder
• stomach • liver
• duodenum (part of small intestine): mainly for digestion
• ileum (part of small intestine: mainly for absorption
• colon (part of large intestine)
• rectum (part of large intestine)
• anus (part of large intestine)
Peristalsis
• rhythmic wave-like contractions of the (circular and longitudinal) muscles
• to mix and propel the contents of the alimentary canal.
1
SECONDARY 3 BIOLOGY
6.2 Chemical digestion in Humans
Starch Digestion along the Alimentary Canal
1. Starch is firstly digested in the mouth by the enzyme called salivary amylase. Starch is
digested into maltose.
starch salivary amylase

maltose
in mouth
2. There is no starch digestion in the oesophagus and stomach.
3. In the small intestine, it contains pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. Starch that is not
digested in the mouth will be digested into maltose by amylase. Maltose will be further
digested into glucose by enzyme maltase.
starch amylase (in pancreatic juice)

maltose
released into duodenum
(small intestine)
maltase (in intestinal juice)

maltose glucose
released into duodenum
(small intestine)
2
SECONDARY 3 BIOLOGY
Protein Digestion along the Alimentary Canal
1. There is no protein digestion in the mouth.
2. Protein is firstly digested in the stomach by the enzyme called pepsin. Protein is digested
into polypeptide.
protein protease (pepsin) polypeptides
in stomach
3. In the small intestine, it contains pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. Both juices contain
enzyme protease. Protein that is not digested in the stomach will be digested into
polypeptide by protease. Polypeptide will be further digested into amino acids by enzyme
proteases.
protein protease polypeptides
in small intestine
polypeptides amino acids

protease
In small intestine
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SECONDARY 3 BIOLOGY
Fats Digestion along the Alimentary Canal
1. There is no fats digestion in the mouth and stomach.
2. Fat is firstly digested in the small intestine .
3. Liver produces bile, which is stored in gall bladder. Bile helps to emulsify/ break-up the big
fat droplets/ globules into small fat droplets/ globules. This helps to speed up the fat
molecules digestion by enzyme lipase .
Note:
It is wrong to say that
bile breaks up fat
bile molecule.
4. In the small intestine, it contains pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. Both juices contain
enzyme lipase. Fat molecules in tiny fat droplets will be digested into fatty acids and
glycerol by lipase.
lipase
fat molecule 3 fatty acids + 1 glycerol
In duodenum
(small intestine)
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SECONDARY 3 BIOLOGY
6.3 Absorption in small intestine
1 How is small intestine adapted for absorption? Inner wall of small intestine is highly folded,
to increase surface area for absorption.
2 Describe the structure of a villus and its role, including the role of capillaries and lacteals in
absorption) Note: villus (s); villi (p)
Describe structure Explain (function)
Epithelial cells of villi have This increases the surface area to volume ratio for faster
numerous microvilli. absorption of digested food molecules.
reduces the distance travelled by the digested food

Wall of villus is only one-
molecules from small intestine to the bloodstream by
cell-thick.
diffusion/ active transport.
• Lacteal transports fats while

• blood capillaries transport glucose and amino acids away
Contain lacteal and blood
from the small intestine,
capillaries
• maintaining the concentration gradient for the absorption of
digested food molecules.
5
SECONDARY 3 BIOLOGY
6.4 Transport and Assimilation of Absorbed Nutrients
1 Digested food is made up of small, soluble molecules.

2 These molecules (glucose, amino acids) diffuse through the walls of the small intestine into the
numerous blood vessels in the walls.
3 They are then carried away by the blood to the liver, heart and the rest of the body.
liver
Hepatic portal vein
Small intestine / ileum
4 Hepatic portal vein transports the absorbed food molecules from the small intestine to the liver.
5 Roles of liver:
• In carbohydrate metabolism – to keep the blood glucose constant (will learn more in Chapter
15 :hormone)
o insulin (hormone produced by pancreas) stimulates the liver to convert excess glucose
to glycogen.
o glucagon (hormone produced by pancreas) stimulate the liver to convert glycogen back
to glucose.
• Deaminate excess amino acids to form urea. (process: deamination)
• Break down alcohol to form harmless substances.
• Produce bile to help speed up the fat digestion

.
• Breakdown of haemoglobin produces iron which is stored in the liver and used in the synthesis
of new red blood cells; Breakdown of haemoglobin also produces bile pigments.
• liver uses amino acids to synthesise blood plasma proteins such as prothrombin and fibrinogen
(for blood clotting).
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SECONDARY 3 BIOLOGY
Summary of Food Digestion
region of
source secretion enzyme action
digestion
mouth salivary gland saliva salivary amylase starch maltose
protein polypeptide
stomach gastric glands gastric juice pepsin (protease)
emulsify / break-up big fat droplets into

smaller fat droplets/ globules.
liver (produces) Bile
- (increase surface area to volume ratio of
(bile is not
gall bladder (stores) enzyme) the fat droplet, so that fat molecules can
be digested by lipase (enzyme) faster)
small intestine
amylase
pancreatic
pancreas protease
juice starch maltose glucose
lipase
protein polypeptide amino acids
maltase
fats fatty acids + glycerol
intestinal glands intestinal juice protease
lipase
Prepared by Mrs Tio-Fung Eng Chu

7
SECONDARY 3 BIOLOGY
Identify one disease that is related to nutrition in human and explain how the
disease affects the person’s lifestyle.
Name of disease: …………………………………………
How does it affect the person’s lifestyle?
8
Name:__________________________________ Class:__________ Date:__________
Note: Chapter 8: Transport in Humans

1 Diagram below shows some cells seen under a microscope.
A
For defense/ protective
function
For transport function
Blood components:
component (part) function
1. Damaged tissue & platelet release thrombokinase;
Platelet 2. Thrombokinase & calcium ion convert (inactive) prothrombin to
(active) thrombin;
3. thrombin converts (soluble) fibrinogen to (insoluble) fibrin thread;
A (structure: no nucleus, 4. to trap blood cells, forms blood clot.
it’s a fragment of cell)
• seals the wound, prevents the entry of bacteria and further loss of
blood.
• engulf and ingest foreign particles/ bacteria, process is called
phagocytosis;
white blood cells • Produces antibodies that are used to:
o antibodies bind to bacteria & cause their cell surface
membranes rupture;
B (there are two types: o to cause bacteria to clump together;
circular nucleus/ lobed o to neutralise toxins produced by bacteria.
nucleus)
Negative effect: may cause tissue rejection if the patient had organ/
tissue transport.
• transports of blood cells and dissolved substances: soluble plasma
Plasma
proteins (e.g. prothrombin, fibrinogen), dissolved food molecules
C (e.g. glucose, amino acids), metabolic waste products (e.g. urea),
(yellowish liquid in the dissolved CO 2 in the form of hydrogencarbonate ion (HCO 3 -); ions,
blood) vitamins and hormones (e.g. insulin).
• oxygen binds with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin and

D Red blood cell transport oxygen from the lungs to all cells in the body.
Prepared by Mrs Tio-Fung EC Page 1

List the different ABO blood groups.
[NOTE: the concepts of antigens and antibodies are not required, students are only
expected to list all the possible combinations for the donor and recipient in blood
transfusions.
Donor blood group Recipients’ blood group

A A, AB
B B, AB
AB AB
O A, B, AB, O
In short, blood group O (universal donor) can donate to everyone, and blood group AB can
only donate to AB; and blood group AB can receive blood from all blood groups.
8.5 The Circulatory System
Coronary artery
vein
artery
blood flowing blood flowing from

back to the heart the heart
venule
arteriole
capillary
21
There are three main types of blood vessels:
Feature Arteries Capillaries Veins
Main Transport blood Allows exchange of Transport blood

Functions away from the dissolved towards the
heart to other parts substances between heart.
of the body. blood and tissue
Blood Blood flows in Blood flows in low Blood flows in

pressures high pressure. pressure lowest pressure

Adaptations (structure + function) of three main types of blood vessels:
Type of blood structure function

vessels
• Have thick, muscular and **to withstand the high blood

elastic walls pressure.
artery • Have small lumen relative to
diameter Muscles contract and relax to
• Valve is absent cause constriction and dilation
of the artery respectively.
• Have relatively thin walls with As flow of blood is slower and
less muscle and elastic tissue hence blood pressure is lower
• Have large lumen relative to compared to arteries
Vein diameter
• Have semi-lunar valves
Valve closes to prevent
backflow of blood.
• The wall of capillary is one-cell- faster rate of exchange of

thick and the wall is partially substances between blood and
permeable. tissue cells.
capillary
• Capillary network provides
large surface area
Describe the transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluids.
*Site of exchange of Types of dissolved substances/ materials process/ type

materials of movement
Around muscle cells From capillaries to the muscle cells: oxygen, by diffusion
glucose, amino acids
From muscle cells to capillaries:

CO 2 , lactic acids (if anaerobic respiration
occurred)
In the lungs (between From alveolus to capillary: oxygen by diffusion
alveolus and capillaries) From capillary to alveolus: CO 2
*varies depends on the site of exchange. Sometimes students are expected to describe fully where
diffuse through the wall of capillary, diffuse into the blood plasma/ tissue fluid is required.
from heart
arteriole
capillary
tissue fluid
tissue cell
venule
to heart

8.5 Double Circulation in Mammals
1. The circulatory system in mammals is a double circulation because blood
passes the heart twice in one complete circuit.
Structure of the heart
Q R T
T
R S
R Q
A C
S
Q C
Z
A X
Z
X
Y W B D Y
D
W
B
A Right atrium
B Right ventricle
Heart chambers
C Left atrium
D Left ventricle
Q Vena cava
R Pulmonary artery
Blood vessels
S Pulmonary vein
T Aorta
W Tricuspid valve
X Semi-lunar valve
Valves
Y Bicuspid valve
Z Semi-lunar valve

The cardiac cycle
Valves Blood pressure Valves open or close?
AV valves/ When the atria muscles Valves open to allow blood

contract (atrial systole), flows from atria to ventricles.
atrio-ventricular valves/
pressure in the atria becomes
tricuspid valve/ higher than ventricles.
bicuspid (mitral) valve
When the ventricles muscles Valves close to prevent
contract (ventricular systole), backflow of blood from
pressure in the ventricles ventricles to atria.
become higher than atria.
‘Lub’ sound is produced
Semi-lunar valves/ When the ventricles muscles Valves open to allow blood
contract (ventricular systole), flows from ventricles to
pulmonary valve/
pressure in the ventricles pulmonary artery and aorta.
aortic valve becomes higher than (right ventricle pulmonary artery)
pulmonary artery and aorta.
(left ventricle aorta)
When the ventricles muscles Valves close to prevent

relax (ventricular diastole), backflow of blood from
pressure in the ventricles pulmonary artery and aorta to
becomes lower than pulmonary ventricles.
artery and aorta. (pulmonary artery right ventricle)
(aorta left ventricle)
‘Dub’ sound is produced

The cardiac cycle – pressure changes in the left side of the heart.
Duration of one cardiac cycle ( in one heartbeat) :0.8 s (Note: varies from person to person)
time state of atrium & ventricle effects

0.0 s Left atrium muscle contracts. Blood pressure in atrium increases, tricuspid
valve opens, and blood is forced into left
Left ventricle muscle relaxes. ventricle.
Blood pressure in ventricle increases slightly
because blood enters it.
0.1 s Left ventricle muscles begin to Blood pressure in ventricle begins to increase
contract. sharply, when the blood pressure is higher than
the left atrium, tricuspid valve closes to prevent
backflow of blood. When the blood pressure is
higher than aorta, semi-lunar valve opens and
blood is forced out of the heart through aorta.
Blood pressure in atrium increases because

Left atrium muscles relax. blood enters it from the pulmonary vein.
0.35 s Left ventricle muscles begin to relax Blood pressure in ventricle drops drastically.
Semi-lunar valve closes when the blood
pressure in the ventricle becomes lower than
aorta.
0.5 – 0.8 s Both left atrium and ventricle muscles relax, Blood pressure in ventricle increases slightly
diastole. because some blood enters it from the atrium.
Blood pressure increased slightly in the atrium

because blood enters the atrium from the
pulmonary vein.
Prepared by Ms Tang WY, modified by Mrs Tio

The main arteries and veins in the body
Note: artery transports blood away from heart; vein transports blood to the heart.
Use the heart as the reference when you name the blood vessels.
head & neck
forearms
lungs
pulmonary artery pulmonary vein
aorta
vena cava As the oxygenated blood
is transported further
away from the heart, the
O2 concentration in blood
↓; while CO2 ↑, due to
aerobic respiration.
hepatic vein liver hepatic artery
*hepatic portal vein

*concentration of glucose
stomach & and amino acids are the
intestines highest here, as all
absorbed food molecules
will be transported to liver.
renal vein
kidneys renal artery
hind limbs

Coronary Heart Disease
1 Describe coronary heart disease.
• The build up of saturated fat/ cholesterol on the inner surfaces of coronary

arteries, trapping blood clot in artery, narrow the lumen of arteries and;
• When blood flow to the heart muscle is reduced, less oxygen and glucose are
transported to heart muscles.
• rate of (aerobic) respiration decreases and no energy is released, hence

heart muscle cells die which could lead to a heart attack.
2 Three factors that could cause coronary heart disease are

• A high-fat diet rich in cholesterol and saturated animal fats
• Emotional stress
• Long term smoking
• Sedentary lifestyle/ lack of exercise
3 Some preventive measures against coronary heart disease include

• Healthy diet: reduced intake of animal fats and increase intake of fruits and
vegetables;
• Manage stress in an appropriate way
• Avoid smoking (tobacco smoke contains nicotine and carbon monoxide)
• Exercise regularly (strengthen heart muscle and maintains elasticity of arterial
walls.

SECONDARY 3E BIOLOGY
Note: Chapter 7: Nutrition in Plants

Name: ………………………………. ( ) Class: ……… Date: ……………..
7.1 Photosynthesis
It is a process where producers produce their own food;

Chlorophyll absorbs light energy and converts it into chemical energy;
where the chemical energy is stored in the form of glucose (carbohydrate/ food);
with the used of carbon dioxide and water as raw materials;
and oxygen is released as product.
Subsequent uses of the products of photosynthesis:
Products Uses
oxygen • Used by the plant cells for respiration, to release energy;
• diffuses out through the stomata of the leaf, to be used by other
organisms for respiration;
glucose In plant:
• In the leaf, to be used by the leaf cells (e.g. mesophyll and epidermal
cells) :
o for respiration, to release energy;
o to synthesises/ produce cellulose cell wall;
o to react with nitrates and mineral salts (e.g. K+ , Fe2+) to form
#
amino acids to synthesis new protoplasm in the leaf.
• Excess glucose
o to be stored as starch in the leaves;
o to be transported away by phloem from leaf to other parts of the
plant (process: translocation) in the form of:
*sucrose
#
amino acids
For other organism:

• Glucose in the plant serve as food for other organisms in a food chain as
chemical energy is stored in the glucose/ starch.
*sucrose is not a reducing sugar, and it is easier to be transported in plant since it is less
soluble than glucose
#
amino acid has the chemical elements of C, H, O and N. The N (nitrogen) is obtained from
the soils by root hair cells, in the form of nitrate ions (a form of mineral salts), transported by
xylem.
1
How can we study photosynthesis?

To do photosynthetic experiments, the following basic knowledge is required:
1 Glucose is first formed from carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.
2 Presence of starch in the leaves suggests that photosynthesis has taken place.
- When glucose is formed more quickly than it is used up, the excess glucose is stored
as starch.
- Test for starch using the iodine test.
3 Destarching must be carried out on the plants before the experiments.

- This ensures that starch is absent in the leaves prior to the experiments.
- Put the plants in the dark for two days to stop photosynthesis and change starch to
sucrose, which is used up by the plant.
Word and chemical equations for photosynthesis:
State the word equation of photosynthesis.

light
carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
chlorophyll
State the chemical equation of photosynthesis.
light
6CO 2 + 6H 2 O C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2
chlorophyll
[Note:
• Photosynthesis is an enzyme-controlled reaction;
• The details of light dependent (light stage)and light-independent (dark stage) are
NOT required
• Equations must be written in one line, with raw materials, conditions and products]
2
Raw materials:
raw material source (where do they how are they taken into the plant
come from)
diffuses into the leaves

carbon dioxide Atmosphere
through the stomata
absorbs through the root hair cells

water Soil solution
of the plant by osmosis
Conditions:
1. Describe the conditions needed for photosynthesis process:
(a) Light energy:

The higher the light intensity, the greater the rate of photosynthesis.
(b) Chlorophyll:
It is a green pigment that is found in chloroplast. It absorbs light energy and converts it into
chemical energy (in the form of glucose)
Some plants have variegated leaves, which have green and non-green parts. The non-green
parts do not contain chlorophyll and do not photosynthesise.
Products:
2. Products of photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen.
Glucose is converted to sucrose and amino acids and are transported by phloem from the leaves
to all other parts of the plant.
3
Identify the cellular and tissue structure of a dicotyledonous leaf, as seen in cross-section under
the microscope and state their functions:
Leaf is an organ. Label the following cells/ tissues/ structures on the diagram below:
Note: Draw label lines with pencil and ruler; write names in pen
cuticle epidermal cell vascular bundle palisade mesophyll cell

spongy mesophyll cell (cellular) air space xylem phloem guard cell
cuticle epidermal cell
upper epidermis
(tissue)
Palisade
mesophyll
cell palisade mesophyll
(tissue)
spongy
mesophyll xylem
cell
phloem
spongy mesophyll
(tissue)
Air space
lower epidermis
(tissue)
guard cell stoma thin film of water/ moisture
(a) (i) Name three cells that can carry out photosynthesis. Hint: contain chloroplast.
Palisade mesophyll cell, spongy mesophyll cell, guard cell
(ii) Arrange the cells named in (a) that contain the highest to lowest number of chloroplast.
Palisade mesophyll spongy mesophyll guard cell

cell cell
4
(b) Describe the functions of the following structures of the leaf
structure function
Property: waterproof (waxy) and transparent

cuticle
Function: to prevent excessive water loss & allows sunlight to pass through.
• Layers of closely packed cells containing numerous chloroplasts for

palisade
photosynthesis.
mesophyll
• Layers of loosely packed cells with (intercellular) air spaces to allow for
spongy rapid gaseous exchange.
mesophyll • Contains chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
For transport.
Contains xylem and phloem.
Function of xylem: transports water and mineral salts/ions from roots to all
vascular parts of the plant.
bundle
Function of phloem: transports food (in the form of sucrose and amino
acids) from the leaf to all parts of the plant.
(reject: transport ‘glucose’/ ‘starch’)
• A pore the size of which is controlled by turgidity of the guard cells.

stomata (p) • Allows gaseous exchange.
stoma (s)
*guard cells contain chloroplast.
Appearance of stomata at day or at night:

day night
surface view of guard cells surface view of guard cells
Guard cells turgid, stoma open Guard cells flaccid, stoma closed
5
Factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis: (e.g. in submerged aquatic plants)
• Light intensity
• Carbon dioxide concentration [atmospheric [CO 2 ] in air: 0.03%]
• temperature
Graphs show the effect of the respective factors on the rate of photosynthesis.
temperature
To study the effects of various factors

on the rate of photosynthesis in aquatic
plant, we observe:
The rate of bubbles released/ number of

bubbles released per minute;
The bubbles contain the oxygen (X)

produced from photosynthesis.
6
Limiting factor
A factor that directly affects/ limits a process if its quantity/ concentration is changed is called a limiting
factor.
E.g.
Briefly explain why most forms of life are completely dependent on photosynthesis.
(reasons why photosynthesis is a very important process)
• Plants (producers) convert light energy to chemical energy during photosynthesis. It

makes chemical energy available to animals and other organisms;
• Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the air and provides oxygen. Oxygen
released is used by living organisms.
• Energy is stored in fossil fuels through photosynthesis. Burning of fossil fuels

releases energy, which can be used in our daily life.
7
Outline the intake of carbon dioxide by plants.
1 Carbon dioxide diffuses from the

atmosphere into the (intercellular) air
spaces in the leaf.
2 Carbon dioxide dissolves into the thin

film of water/ moisture surrounding the
mesophyll cells.
3 Then, dissolved carbon dioxide

diffuses into the mesophyll cells.
Outline the intake of water by plants.
• How does water enter the root?
Process: by osmosis
♠ water molecules move from the soil into the root hair cells by osmosis
♠ once in the root hair cells, water molecules move into inner root cells
by osmosis until they enter the xylem vessels
Continued:
In the xylem vessel, water molecules are pulled up by transpiration pull to the leaf;
In the leaf, water molecules move out from xylem to mesophyll cells by osmosis;
Water molecules move out the spongy mesophyll by osmosis, forming thin film of moisture;
Water evaporates to form water vapour, diffuses to the (intercellular) air space;
Water vapour diffuse out through the stomata of the leaf.
8
Name: ……………………………….. ( ) Date: …………….

Class: 3/……
Note: Chapter 9: Transport in Plants
9.1 The Transport Structures of Flowering Plants

1 Identify the positions of xylem vessels and phloem in a typical dicotyledonous stem
and leaf.
(Note: Label lines must be straight and done in pencil; names are labelled in ink)
Phloem (o: outside the ring)
xylem
(o: at the bottom of

vascular bundle in the leaf)
State the functions of xylem vessels and phloem.
Methods of transporting/
Vascular
structure functions conducting the substances/
bundle molecules
• Long and narrow • Allows water and
extending from the roots mineral salts to move
to the leaves; through the lumen by a pulling force called
easily from root to transpiration pull, that pulls
• hollow tube where it leaves. the water & mineral salts
does not have cross-walls from root to leaves.
and protoplasm
Xylem
vessels
Strengthen the wall of
xylem and prevent
collapse of the vessel.
• walls are thickened with
Hence provide -
lignin
mechanical support to
the plant, when bundled
together.
Made up of sieve tube cells, By translocation along the
Phloem sieve tube plate and phloem, energy is needed.
companion cells Transport food (in the form
of sucrose and amino Companion cells’
Reject: Companion cells are narrow, acids) produced by leaf to mitochondria release energy
phloem tube/ thin-walled cell with all parts of plant. to transport food from
vessel cytoplasm and numerous mesophyll cells into the sieve
mitochondria. tube cells by active transport.
9.2 Studying the Movement of Substances in Plants (refer to textbook: Self-Study)
1
9.3 Entry of Water into a Plant
Root hair cell

Function: For absorption of water and mineral salts from the soil.
to increases surface area to volume ratio to absorb water and

mineral salts (ions) from the soil at a faster rate. (reject: more)
• Has long and narrow
extension • Water is absorbed by osmosis;
• mineral salt is absorbed by diffusion/ active transport, depends
on the concentration of mineral ions between the root hair cells
and soil solution.
Describe and explain the movement of water molecules from the soil into the xylem in the root.
• Describe: Water molecules enter the root hair cells by osmosis;

• Explain: water potential in the soil solution is higher than the root hair cells;
• Describe: Then water molecules continue to move into the inner root cells by osmosis, until the xylem.
Note: When students are asked to explain, students are expected to explain in terms of the water potential
between two regions, and name the process, which is osmosis in this case.
9.4 Moving Water against Gravity
State what is transpiration.
It is the loss of water vapour from the aerial parts of the plant, especially through the stomata of the
leaves. (Reject: loss of water.)
What is transpiration pull?
It is the suction force created by transpiration which results in water & mineral salts to move up the xylem
from root to leaf.
Measuring the rate of transpiration.
Rate of transpiration can be calculated by determining the rate of change in mass of water remaining in the
test tube in set-up (1), or the rate of movement of an air bubble within the potometer in set-up (2).
2
Outline the pathway by which water is transported from the roots to the leaves through the xylem vessels.
4,5,6 (can refer to textbook page 162 for details)
1. Water molecules enter the root hair cells by
osmosis.
2. Then pass through the inner root cells, enter

the xylem vessels by osmosis.
7,8,9
3. In xylem, water is pulled up from the root to
the leaf by transpiration pull.
4. In the leaf, water molecules leave the xylem,

and enter the spongy/ palisade mesophyll
cells by osmosis.
3
5. Water molecules leave the spongy mesophyll
cells by osmosis,
6. Forming a thin film of moisture outside the

surface of spongy mesophyll cells.
7. The water on the surface of mesophyll cells

evaporate to form water vapour.
1,2
8. Water vapour diffuses into the (intercellular)
air space.
9. Then, water vapour diffuses out the leaf

through the stomata.
Describe and explain the effects of variation of the following factors on rate of transpiration.
Describe the
(condition)
effect on rate of Explain (give reasons)
factor
transpiration
• When the atmospheric air has high humidity and the

intercellular air space is saturated with water vapour;
(high) humidity
lower • it reduces the water vapour concentration gradient and hence,
of air
• rate of water vapour diffuses out through the stomata of the leaf
decreases.
• high wind speed removes water vapour near the surface of the
leaf;
(high) wind or • creating a steep water vapour concentration gradient between
higher
air movement the air space in the leaf and outside the leaf;
• hence, water vapour diffuses out through the stomata of the leaf
at the faster rate.
• high temperature increases the rate of evaporation of water
(high) from the surface of mesophyll cells, hence more water vapour
temperature of higher diffuse into the air space;
air • hence, more water vapour diffuses out through the stomata of
the leaf
(high) light • higher light intensity increases the size of the stomata, hence,
higher
intensity more water vapour diffuses out through the stomata of the leaf
Describe how wilting occurs.

Wilting occurs when there is an excessive transpiration (the rate of water vapour loss exceeds the rate of
water absorption)
3
Name:__________________________________ Class:__________ Date:__________
Note: Chapter 10: Respiration

10.1 Why Do Living Things Respire?
Anaerobic Respiration
Aerobic Respiration
(in human muscles)
Definition Definition
The oxidation (breaks down) of glucose in the presence of oxygen; The oxidation (breaks down) of glucose in the absence of
oxygen;
Results in the release of a large amount of energy by giving off carbon
dioxide and water as waste products Releases less amount of energy, produce lactic acids as
waste products.
word equation for aerobic respiration word equation for anaerobic respiration in human muscles cell
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + large amount of energy
glucose lactic acid + small amount of energy
symbol (chemical) equation
Note: anaerobic respiration in yeast is not in syllabus
site of reaction (which part of the cell?) site of reaction
mitochondria* cytoplasm
Note: All living cells contain mitochondria as the cells need energy to survive and function.
1
Energy conversion in muscle cells
• During vigorous muscle contractions, muscle cells first carry out aerobic respiration to
release large amount of energy.
• When the rate oxygen intake has reached it maximum and there is insufficient oxygen to
meet the demand of high amount of energy, anaerobic respiration takes place.
• **Higher amount of energy is supplied by anaerobic respiration than aerobic respiration

in short distance race (sprint) as high amount of energy is required at a short period of
time.
Use the graph below to guide you in completing the table on “What happen during and after
vigorous exercise?”.
What happen during and after vigorous exercise?
during vigorous exercise after vigorous exercise

(from time 5 to 15 mins) (from time 15 to 20 mins)
rate of oxygen uptake/ rate Increases. Remains high.

of breathing/ depth of
breathing/
pulse rate/rate of heartbeats Increases. Remains high.
WHY? More energy is required during exercise; • To repay oxygen debt;

More oxygen and glucose are transported
Explanation to the muscle cells; • Lactic acids in the muscle is transported
For higher rate of aerobic respiration; to the liver;
When oxygen is insufficient, anaerobic • In liver, lactic acid (toxic) is broken down
respiration occurs, lactic acid is produced. to release energy.
Note: Lactic acid is toxic and it causes

muscular pain and fatigue.
2
10.2 Studying Respiration [self-study textbook page 198 to 199]
Read investigations in Science Bites and investigation 10.2. [Note: Investigation 10.1 is not in
syllabus.]
• White precipitate is formed in lime water (turns chalky) when carbon dioxide is present.
• Hydroxide solution (e.g. potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide) is used to remove carbon
dioxide.
• Germinating seeds carry out aerobic respiration and heat is produced during respiration.
10.3 Gas Exchange in Humans: The human respiratory system
nasal cavity C-shaped

ring of
cartilage
pharynx
gland cell
(a)
mucus
(b)
(c)
cilia epithelial
cell
(d) (e)
cluster of (f)
Label structures (a) to (f).
(a) larynx (d) bronchus (s) bronchi (p)
(b) trachea (e) bronchiole (s) bronchioles (p)
(c) lung (f) alveoli (p) alveolus (s)
3
region features
trachea • C-shaped rings of cartilage support the trachea.

• They keep the lumen of the trachea open.
• gland cells
function:
secretes mucus that trap dust particles and bacteria in the air
• ciliated cells
inner walls of the
trachea and function:
bronchi
have cilia that sweep the trapped particles and bacteria up to
the pharynx.
Note: spelling of cilia, only one ‘l’.
*Adaptations of alveoli in gaseous exchange
State the characteristics of, and describe the role of, the exchange surface of the alveoli in
gaseous exchange
structure/ characteristic How does the structure help in its function?
Inner alveolar surface is coated with a thin to allow oxygen to dissolve and diffuse across
film of moisture/ water. the wall.
The wall of each alveolus and its

ensuring faster rate of diffusion
surrounding capillaries are one-cell thick.
Other characteristic of alveoli:
structure/ characteristic How does the structure help in its function?
increase the surface area for gaseous

presence of numerous alveoli in the lungs
exchange
The flow of blood maintains a steep

the wall of alveoli are richly supplied with concentration gradient of gases;
blood capillaries
To allow faster rate of diffusion of gases.
4
Gaseous exchange in the alveoli
(ii) carbon
dioxide
(i)oxygen
1 Draw arrows to show the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air in the
alveolus and blood. [note: MUST indicate question number besides the arrows]
(i) movement of oxygen [from alveolus to red blood cell]

(ii) movement of carbon dioxide [from plasma to alveolus]
2 Gaseous exchange occurs at the alveoli via diffusion.
3 The concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood is higher than the concentration of
carbon dioxide in the alveoli.
4 The concentration of oxygen in the alveoli is lower than the concentration of oxygen in
the blood.
5 Oxygen molecules are transported in the blood by the red blood cells. Oxygen binds to
haemoglobin (Hb) in red blood cells to form oxyhaemoglobin.
+ oxygen molecules
haemoglobin oxyhaemoglobin
- oxygen molecules
This process is reversible and no enzyme is required.
6 Carbon dioxide molecules are transported as hydrogen

carbonate ions (HCO3-)
in the blood plasma, with the help of carbonic anhydrase,
an enzyme found in the red blood cells, the carbon dioxide
molecules in the blood react with water molecules to form
carbonic acids. The carbonic acid is readily converted into
hydrogen carbonate ions that diffuse out of the red blood
cells and into the blood plasma.
5
10.4 How Does Inspired Air Differ from Expired Air?
1 Breathing is part of the gas exchange process. [Note: breathing is not equal to
respiration]
2 It refers to the muscular contractions and movements of the ribs, which result in air
being forced in and out of the lungs.
3 Carbon dioxide is the stimulus for breathing.
The presence of carbon dioxide in high concentration in the blood or alveoli that triggers
breathing. Higher percentage of carbon dioxide in inhaled air increases the breathing
rate and the volume of each breath.
Breathing Mechanism in Humans
Note: MUST follow the sequence of events
Inspiration/ inhalation (breathing in) Expiration/ exhalation (breathing out)
1 Diaphragm contracts and flattens down. 1 Diaphragm relaxes and arches up.
2 External intercostal muscles contract and 2 External intercostal muscles relax and
internal intercostal muscles relax (RICE). internal intercostal muscles .contract
The rib cage is raised upwards and (ERIC). The rib cage moves
outwards. downwards and inwards.
3 Thoracic volume increases, lungs expand 3 Thoracic volume decreases, lungs are
and air pressure in the lungs decreases. compressed and air pressure in the
lungs increases.
4 Atmospheric pressure is higher than the
pressure in the lungs. Hence, atmospheric 4 Air pressure in the lungs is higher than
air is forced into the lungs. atmospheric pressure. Hence,
atmospheric air is forced out of the
lungs.
What happens when the atmospheric air pressure becomes equal to the air pressure in
the lungs? No air movement between the lungs and atmospheric air.
6
Differences in inspired and expired air
component inspired air expired air

*oxygen *about 21% *about 16.4%
*carbon dioxide *about 0.03% *about 4.0%
nitrogen about 78% about 78%
water vapours variable (rarely saturated) saturated
temperature variable about body temperature 37°C
dust particles variable but usually present little, if any
Are you able to explain the differences in inspired and expired air?
10.5 Effects of Tobacco Smoke on Human Health
To answer this type of question, student MUST starts with:

“Tobacco smoke taken into the body contains …….. which causes……”
chemicals
in tobacco properties of the chemicals effects on the body
smoke
• cause the release of hormone
• increases heart rate and blood
adrenaline pressure.
nicotine
(*additive) • increases risk of blood clots in the
• make blood clot easily arteries, leads to increases risk of
coronary heart disease.
• combines with haemoglobin to
form carboxyhaemoglobin • less oxygen is transported to all
[irreversible and CO has higher tissue cells.
affinity than O2]
carbon
monoxide • narrows the lumen of arteries and
• increases the rate of saturated
leads to increase blood pressure.
fats deposits on the inner
Increases risk of coronary heart
arterial wall. (atherosclerosis)
disease.
• causes uncontrolled cell

• increased risk of cancer in lungs
division
tar • dust particles trapped in the

• paralyses cilia lining the air
mucus lining the air passages
passages (irritants found in
cannot be removed, increasing
tobacco smoke can cause
risks of chronic bronchitis and
same effect)
emphysema.
Could you name the two chemicals in tobacco smoke that can increase the
risk of coronary heart diseases? Nicotine and carbon monoxide
7
List down three lung diseases caused by frequent exposure to tobacco smoke.
• chronic bronchitis
• Emphysema
• lung cancer
respiratory disease description
• The epithelium lining the airways is inflamed.
• There is excessive mucus secretion.
• The cilia lining the airways are paralysed. Mucus and

chronic bronchitis dust particles cannot be removed.
• Symptoms include breathing difficulties and

persistent coughing to clear air passage.
• Persistent and violent coughing can lead to

emphysema.
• The partition walls of alveoli break down due to

Emphysema persistent and violent coughs. This results in a lower
surface area for gaseous exchange.
• The lungs lose their elasticity and become inflated

with air.
• Symptoms include breathing difficulties, wheezing

and severe breathlessness result.
• Uncontrolled division of cells producing outgrowths or

lung cancer
lumps of tissues.
Identify which diagram belongs to the air sac of a heavy smoker.
8
yName:__________________________________ Class:__________ Date:__________
Note: Chapter 11: Excretion

11.1 The Need for Excretion
1. Metabolism refers to all the anabolic and catabolic reactions that take place in
the body of an organism. Waste products are produced during these reactions.
If these waste products accumulate, they can harm the body.
2. Define excretion.
Excretion is the process by which metabolic waste products and toxic

materials are removed from the body of an organism.
3. Examples of metabolic (chemical) reactions in cells: [no need to worry about

‘anabolism’ and ‘catabolism’]
• Photosynthesis – synthesis of glucose using carbon dioxide and water
• Formation of glycogen from glucose molecules in muscle and liver.
• Oxidation (break down) of glucose during respiration to form carbon dioxide

and water
• Deamination of excess amino acids to form urea in the liver.
4. Excretion is not the same as egestion. Describe the difference between excretion
and egestion.
excretion egestion
The process by which metabolic Egestion is the removal of
waste products and toxic undigested material (faeces) from the
substances are removed from the alimentary canal.
body.
The undigested material is not formed
within the cell.
Egested material is not a product of

metabolic processes.
1
11.2 Excretion in Humans
1. Waste products and their mode of excretion:
excretory product excretory organ mode of excretion

Carbon dioxide Lungs Gas in expired air
Excess mineral salts; and Kidneys Constituent of urine

Skin Constituent of sweat
nitrogenous waste products
(mainly urea, uric acids &
creatinine)
Excess water Kidneys Main constituent of urine

Skin Main constituent of sweat
Lungs Gas in expired air
(as water vapour)
Bile pigments Liver Constituent of Faeces

(from breakdown of via the intestines
haemoglobin)
2. Label the human urinary system below.

The human urinary system consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureter, a
urinary bladder and the urethra.
to heart
from heart
vena cava aorta
kidney
renal vein
renal artery
ureter
urinary bladder
urethra
2
Structure of a kidney tubule (nephron)
Nephrons are the basic functional units of the kidney.
There are four main parts of a nephron called Bowman’s capsule, proximal
convoluted tubule, loop of Henlé, distal convoluted tubule. Several nephrons
open into the collecting duct.
Nephrons are surrounded by blood vessels that are connected to renal artery and
renal vein.
A Q
B D
E
S
C R
Label the parts of a kidney tubule (nephron).
A: Bowman’s capsule B: Proximal (first) convoluted tubule
C: Loop of Henlé D: Distal (second) convoluted tubule
E: Collecting duct
Label the blood vessels that are connected to the kidney tubule (nephron).
O: arteriole / branch of renal artery P: arteriole
Q: glomerulus R: arteriole/ capillary
S: venule T: venule/ branch of renal vein
11.3 Urine Formation

Urine formation involves two main processes within the kidney tubule:
(a) ultrafiltration, and
(b) selective reabsorption

3
parts of a kidney
processes What is happening?
tubule
A passive process that requires high hydrostatic blood pressure at the

glomerulus. The high pressure forces
ultrafiltration small molecules through the *partially permeable basement
membrane
renal corpuscle of the glomerular capillaries, and into the Bowman’s capsule.
(Bowman’s Name all the molecules that are filtered out from the glomerulus into
capsule and Bowman’s capsule. (molecules that are found in the filtrate)
glomerulus).
Water molecule, glucose, amino acids, mineral salts (ions), urea.
Name the molecules/ cells that are retained in the glomerular capillaries.
Blood cells, platelet and large molecules such as plasma proteins and
red blood cells
Selective reabsorption is the reabsorption of useful substances from the

filtrate. More than 80% of the filtrate is reabsorbed here.
proximal What are the substances being reabsorbed into the bloodstream?
convoluted All glucose and amino acids;
tubule most water and mineral salts.
By what processes are these substances being reabsorbed?

Water is absorbed by osmosis;
Selective glucose, amino acids & mineral salts by diffusion/ active transport.
reabsorption
What is/are the substance(s) being reabsorbed into the bloodstream?
some water & mineral salts
loop of Henlé By what process(es)?
mineral salts by diffusion/ active transport.
What are the substances being reabsorbed into the bloodstream?

some water & mineral salts
distal
convoluted By what processes are these substances being reabsorbed?
tubule Water is absorbed by osmosis;
mineral salts by diffusion/ active transport.
What is/are the substance(s) being reabsorbed into the bloodstream?

water
[*depends on the concentration of ADH, more ADH means more water is
collecting duct reabsorbed into the bloodstream]
By what process(es)?
4
The remaining fluid that passes out of the collecting duct into the renal pelvis forms
urine. Name the substances found/ remains in the urine.
Excess water, excess mineral salts and nitrogenous waste products (urea).
Composition of urine
Factors affecting the composition of urine:
A protein -rich diet results in more urea present in the urine.
Diet high in water content increases the water potential of the blood, results in
volume of urine excreted become higher and more dilute.
A high intake of salty foods will result in the excess/ more mineral salts found
in urine.
Diseases such as diabetes excretes large amount of glucose.
11.4 Osmoregulation: (an example of homeostasis, Chapter 12)
Osmoregulation is the
1. The water control of
potential ofwater and solute
the blood plasmaconcentrations (level)
depends on the in theof water and
amount
solutes in the plasma.
blood to maintain constant water potential in the body.
2. The antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is produced by the hypothalamus and stored
in the pituitary gland.
3. ADH increases water reabsorption at the colleting duct in kidney tubules
(nephrons).
4. When the water potential in the blood plasma decreases/ increases (stimulus), it
stimulates the hypothalamus in the brain. Then, hypothalamus will stimulate the
pituitary gland to release more/ less ADH into the bloodstream.
5
The mechanism of osmoregulation:
hypothalamus
in the brain stimulates
stimulates
pituitary gland
Water potential in
blood plasma falls secrete
releases releases
less ADH more ADH

stimulates
Loss of water
through sweating
cells in the walls of cells in the walls of
the collecting ducts the collecting ducts
Water potential in blood become less become more
plasma rises (stimulus) permeable to water. permeable to
Less water is water.
reabsorbed from the More water is

Large intake of water collecting ducts into reabsorbed from
through drinking the blood capillary. the collecting ducts
Higher volume of urine produced
Urine produced is more dilute.
Lower volume of urine produced
Urine produced is more concentrated.

Water potential of blood plasma
returns to normal
6
11.5 Kidney Failure
1. Kidneys are excretory organs and osmoregulators.
2. Kidney failure can be treated with a kidney transplant or dialysis. A dialysis

machine mimics the function of a kidney. It helps to clean the patient’s blood from
metabolic waste products and toxins.
Features of a dialysis machine
1 The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of essential substances as healthy
blood.
• Explanation: To ensure essential substances (glucose, amino acids and mineral
salts) do not diffuse out from the blood into the dialysis fluid.
2 The dialysis fluid does not contain metabolic waste products
• Explanation: to set up concentration gradient that allows waste products (urea,
excess water, excess mineral salts) to diffuse out of the tubing into the dialysis fluid.
3 The tubing in the machine is partially permeable, narrow, long and coiled.
• Explanation: to increase the surface area for faster rate of diffusion of waste
substances (urea) from the patient’s blood into the dialysis fluid.
4 The direction of the blood flow is opposite to the flow of the dialysis fluid.
Explanation: to maintain the steep concentration gradient for the removal of waste
products. Hence, allows faster rate of diffusion of waste substances from the blood
into the dialysis fluid.
7
Name:__________________________________ Class:__________ Date:__________
Note: Chapter 12: Homeostasis

12.1 The Need for Homeostasis
1. The internal conditions (temperature, pH level, water potential and blood
glucose concentration) of our body must always be maintained at a constant
level.
Define Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal

environment.
homeostasis
Define [Textbook Page 242]

negative
feedback In homeostatic control, your body reacts to bring about an opposite
effect to the changes detected.
If the system (internal environment) is disturbed, the disturbance sets
in motion a sequence of events that tends to restore the system
(internal environment) to its original state.
Give three • blood glucose concentration; [Chapter 6]

examples of • water potential in blood (osmoregulation); [Chapter 11]
homeostasis • body temperature. [Chapter 12]
1
Regulating blood glucose concentration
1. Homeostasis plays a role in the regulation of blood glucose concentration.
Component When blood glucose concentration rises above the norm

Stimulus • Concentration of blood glucose rises above the norm.
Receptor • Islets of Langerhans in pancreas is stimulated.
Corrective • Islets of Langerhans secrete more insulin which is

mechanism transported by blood to liver and muscles.
• Permeability of cell surface membrane to glucose
increases.
• Insulin stimulates liver and muscles to convert excess
glucose to glycogen.
• Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles.
Effects • Concentration of blood glucose decreases and insulin
production falls.
• Concentration of blood glucose returns to the norm.
Component When blood glucose concentration falls below the norm

Stimulus • Concentration of blood glucose falls below the norm.
Receptor • Islets of Langerhans in pancreas is stimulated.
Corrective • Islets of Langerhans secrete more glucagon which is

mechanism transported by blood to liver and muscles.
• Glucagon stimulates the liver to convert glycogen back to
to glucose.
• Liver releases the glucose into the bloodstream.
Effects • Concentration of blood glucose increases and glucagon

production falls.
• Concentration of blood glucose returns to the norm.
Regulating water potential in blood (refer to textbook page 246)
2
12.2 Structure of the Human Skin
The skin is the largest organ in the human body.
(a) capillary (b) arteriole
(c) sweat duct (d) sweat gland
(e) sweat pore (f) nerve endings/ thermoreceptor
(g) hair (h) hair erector muscle
(i) adipose cell/ tissue
3
The skin is composed of two parts: epidermis and dermis.
part contains Functions in the regulation of body

temperature
Hair erector muscles contract and cause
hairs to stand, the hairs trap a layer of still air ,
hairs provides insulation against heat loss.
epidermis
[not effective in human; only effective in animals
with fur and feathers]
Arterioles carry out vasoconstriction and

vasodilation, controlled by nerve.
When arterioles dilate, more blood flows to

the capillaries in the skin surface, increases
heat lost by convection, radiation and
Blood vessels conduction. Appearance: blushing
• Arterioles [not effective way of heat loss if the external
temperature is higher than body temperature]
• Capillaries
When arterioles constrict, less blood flows to

the capillaries in skin surface, reduces heat
lost by convection, radiation and conduction.
Appearance: look pale
dermis
Sweat secretion is continuous.

During hot day, sweat glands become more
sweat glands
active, more sweat is produced.
sweat duct
More water in the sweat evaporates, to
sweat pore remove latent heat of vaporisation.
[most effective way of heat loss]
Sensory receptors: Sensory receptor detects stimuli (changes)

• *thermoreceptor in the environment.
• pain receptor Thermoreceptor in the skin detects external
• pressure receptor temperature changes.
• touch receptor
• The fat in these cells serves as an

insulating layer, reducing heat loss
Subcutaneous • store fats
Adipose tissue
fat
4
12.3 Temperature Regulation
1. The maintenance of a stable body temperature is one of the most important
examples of homeostasis.
2. The body temperature in humans is maintained at around 37°C.
Ways of heat is gained
Change in internal environment
• Increased metabolic activities in liver
• Increased cellular respiration (especially in muscle and liver)
• intake of hot food/ drink
Change in external environment
• warm air on hot day
• take hot shower for long period of time
Ways of heat is lost
1 From the skin surface via convection, radiation and conduction.
2 Evaporation of *water in sweat from the skin surface.
3 Expired air from lungs.
4 Faeces and urine.
Which is the most effective way to lose body heat? 2__
5
6
Note
Chapter 11 The Nervous System
Name : ………………………………………………. ( ) Class: ………………. Date: ………………..
Learning outcomes:
• state the relationship between receptors, the central nervous system and the
effectors;
• outline the functions of sensory neurones, relay neurones and motor neurones
1 What do you need to know about neurones?

• Identify the neurones
• What is the function of each neurone?
• Outline the direction of nerve impulses
(a) Identify and name the neurones in Fig. 1.1 and Fig. 1.2.
Fig. 1.1 X Fig. 1.2

Y
Motor neurone sensory neurone
(b) On Fig 1.1 and Fig 1.2, draw an arrow each to indicate the direction of the nerve
impulses.
(c) Describe the function of each neurone.
Fig 1.1 motor neurone transmits nerve impulses from the central nervous system
(brain/ spinal cord) to the effector (e.g. muscle)
Fig 1.2 sensory neurone transmits nerve impulses from the receptor/ sense organ to
the central nervous system (brain/ spinal cord).
(d) What does X and Y represent?
X : effector (e.g. muscle)
Y: receptor / sense organ
Prepared by Ms Tang WY Page 1

Note
2 Fig. 2.1 shows portions of the nervous system, which comprises of the brain, spinal cord
and nerves with neurones.
brain
relay neurone
spinal cord
sensory neurone
receptor
sensory neurone
motor neurone
effector
motor neurone
relay neurone
Fig. 2.1
On Fig. 2.1,
(a) Label a named example of

(i) a receptor
(ii) an effector
(b) Label the

(i) brain
(ii) spinal cord
(c) Label
(i) two sensory neurones
(ii) two motor neurones
Note: Use a pencil and a ruler to draw the label lines. Write the name in ink.

Note
3 Components of the Human Nervous System.

Levels of organisation Components of the Nervous System
(Chapter 2)
Organism Human
Organ System The nervous system which consists of the

• Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
• Peripheral nervous system (nerves and sense
organs)
Organ Brain and spinal cord;
Sense organ (named example: eye)
Tissue Nerves
- Cranial nerves (emerged from the brain)
- Spinal nerves (emerged from the spinal cord)
Cell Nerve cells, also known as neurones
(nerve cells = neurones)
Receptors (such as nerve endings in the skin,

thermoreceptors)
Functions of the Nervous System

1 Controls the activities of the body
2 Controls how the body reacts to the surroundings / stimuli
3 Coordinates and regulates the different parts of the body to perform activities.
What is reflex arc?

A reflex arc is the shortest pathway which nerve impulses travel from the receptor to the
effector in a reflex action.
Discuss the function of the brain and spinal cord in producing a co-ordinated
response as a result of a specific stimulus in a reflex action.
For example, sudden withdrawal of hand from heat.
1. Heat (stimulus) stimulates the receptors in your skin to produce nerve impulses.
2. Nerve impulses are transmitted along the sensory neurone to the spinal cord.
3. In the spinal cord, nerve impulses are transmitted to the relay neurone, and then to the
motor neurone.
4. The motor neurone transmits nerve impulses to the effector.
5. The effector muscle contracts, resulting in the sudden withdrawal of the hand from the
hot object.

Note
Voluntary Action and Involuntary (Reflex) Actions
Similarities
1. Both involve the central nervous system.
2. Neurones are involved to transmit nerve impulses in both actions.
Differences between voluntary and reflex action. (focus on two differences will do)
Voluntary action Involuntary (reflex) action
It is an deliberate action, under an immediate response to a specific

conscious control stimulus without conscious control
Slow response, as the brain needs time to Rapid response, as the brain is not
‘think’ before an action is carried out. ‘deciding’ on the action.
A stimulus may or may not needed for a

A stimulus is needed in a reflex action.
response.
The same stimulus may produce various

The same stimulus always results in the
responses (e.g. When you’re hungry, you
same response (e.g. knee jerk reflex,
may decide to eat or not to eat, or just
pupil reflex)
need to drink water)
Examples:
Examples:
-skeletal muscles (e.g. knee jerk)
If we want to ask a question, we raise our
-smooth muscles (peristalsis)
hands;
-cardiac muscles (e.g. pumping of the
heart)
When a person called your name, you
-hair erector muscles (e.g. making the
decided not to respond.
hair ‘stands’

Name:__________________________________ Class:__________ Date:__________
Note: Chapter 14: The Human Eye

Internal structure of the eye
1 The wall of the eyeball has three layers:

name Structure and function
A sclera • Tough, white outer covering of the eyeball which is
continuous with the cornea
• Protect eyeball from mechanical injury.
B Choroid • Black pigmented middle layer which prevents the internal

reflection of light
• Contains blood vessels that carry oxygen and nutrients
to eyeball and remove metabolic waste products from the
eyeball
C Retina • Light-sensitive layer on which images are formed.

• Contains light-sensitive cells known as photoreceptors.
1
2 Part of internal structures of the human eye that involved in pupil reflex:

D pupil • A hole in the centre of the iris, allowing light to enter the
eye
E Iris • A circular sheet of muscles, consisting of two sets of

involuntary muscles –– circular and radial muscles
control the size of pupil, hence the amount of light entering
the eye.
3 Part of internal structures of the human eye that involved in focusing/ accommodation:

F Lens • Transparent, circular and biconvex structure
• It is elastic and changes its shape or thickness in order to
refract light onto the retina
G Suspensory • A connective tissue that attaches the edge of the lens to

ligament the ciliary body
H Ciliary body • A thicken region at the front end of the choroid.

• Contains ciliary muscles which control the curvature and
thickness of lens
4 Other internal structure of the human eye.

I Cornea • A dome-shaped transparent layer continuous with the
sclera.
• Refracts (bends) light rays into the eye.
• Causes the most of the refraction of light that occurs in
the eye.
J Aqueous • Space between the lens and the cornea.

chamber
• Filled with aqueous humour, a transparent, watery fluid
• Aqueous humour keeps the front of the eyeball firm and
refracts light into the pupil
2
K Vitreous • Space behind the lens
chamber
• Filled with vitreous humour, a transparent jelly-like
substance
• Vitreous humour keeps eyeball firm and refracts light
onto the retina.

L Fovea (yellow • A small yellow depression in the retina where images are
spot) focused
• Enables a person to have detailed colour vision in bright
light
M Blind spot • Region where the optic nerve leaves the eye
• Does not contain photoreceptors, therefore not sensitive to
light
N Optic nerve • Transmits impulses to the brain when photoreceptors in

the retina are stimulated
O rectus muscle • The rectus muscles control eye movement.
• Name the part of the eye which causes the most refraction of light. cornea
How does the iris control the amount of light entering the eye?
1 The iris is controlled by two sets of muscles:
• Circular muscle
• Radial muscle
Complete the table below:
Conditions Circular Radial Size of pupil Results

muscles muscles
In bright light
reducing amount of light
contract relax constricts
entering the eye
In dim light
increasing amount of light
relax contract Dilates
entering the eye
3
Draw and label the diagrams below to show how iris controls the amount of light entering
the eye in two different conditions.
(a) In bright light
pupil
circular muscle
radial muscle
(b) In dim light
pupil
circular muscle
radial muscle
The reflex arc of the pupil reflex:
(stimulus) photoreceptor sensory neurone

(change in light intensity) (in the retina) in optic nerve
effector (iris -circular motor neurone (relay neurone)

& radial muscles) in thebrain
Recall: What is reflex arc?
It is the shortest pathway taken by which nerve impulses travel from the receptor to the
effector in a reflex action.
4
What is focusing?
1 The lens of the eye is adjusted so that clear images of the objects at different
distances are formed on the retina.
2 It is also known as accommodation.
3 In focusing, the curvature or thickness of the lens is adjusted, allowing light rays to be
focused on the retina.
Focusing on nearby objects Focusing on distant objects
1. Ciliary muscles contract, relaxing 1. Ciliary muscles relax, pulling on

their pull on suspensory ligaments. suspensory ligaments.
2. Suspensory ligaments slacken, 2. Suspensory ligaments become

relaxing their pull on the lens. taut, pulling on the edge of the
lens.
3. Lens becomes thicker and more 3. Lens becomes thinner and less
convex, decreasing the focal convex, increasing the focal
length. length.
4. Light rays are sharply focused on the retina, stimulating the photoreceptors.
5. Nerve impulses generated are transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve.
6. The brain interprets the impulses and the person sees the distant object.
5
Name:__________________________________ Class:__________ Date:__________
Note: Chapter 15: Hormones
1. Define hormone.
Hormone is a chemical substance that
- produced in minute (small) quantities by an endocrine gland;
- transported by blood;
- which alters (changes) the activity of one or more specific target organs;
- is then destroyed by the liver, (excreted by kidney).
2. How is the production of hormones controlled?

Secretion of hormones is under nervous or hormonal control.
The hormonal and nervous system work together to coordinate and control secretion of
hormones in the body.
3. Differences between an endocrine and an exocrine gland.
*Endocrine gland Exocrine gland
Ductless glands that **produce hormone Ducts (tubes) Gland produces substance
that is transported via the bloodstream. that is transported by tube to target organs
Examples: Examples:
• adrenal gland, produces adrenaline • sweat gland produces sweat.
• pituitary gland secretes ADH • salivary gland produces saliva that
contains salivary amylase
[ADH is produced by hypothalamus,
secreted by pituitary glands] • pancreas produces pancreatic juice that
contains protease (trypsin), amylase
• pancreas produces insulin and
and lipase.
glucagon.
Note:
Pancreas produces both hormones and enzymes.
Insulin and glucagon (hormones) are secreted directly into the bloodstream by a
special group of cells called the islets of Langerhans while; [Chapter 6 & 12]
pancreatic juice is transported via the pancreatic duct to the duodenum.
[Chapter 6: Nutrition in Humans]
1
4. Fill in the blanks.
Endocrine gland Location Hormone(s) secreted Functions

Adrenal glands (medulla)
On top of each adrenaline
Refer to page 3, Q7
*stimulated by nervous kidney
system
pituitary gland Several types of

hormones. Regulate water potential
[Chapter 11 & 12: excretion &
homeostasis] In the brain (below in the blood
E.g. Antidiuretic (osmoregulation).
hypothalamus)
hormone (ADH)
Islets of Langerhans in the

pancreas
[Chapter 6 & 12: Nutrition in
Regulate blood glucose
Humans & homeostasis] In the pancreas Insulin & glucagon
concentration
Ovaries (female gonad)

[Chapter 18: Reproduction in oestrogen and
Humans] Ovaries
progesterone
Refer to Chapter 18:
Reproduction in Humans
Testes (male gonad) for details
[Chapter 18: Reproduction in
Humans] Testes
Testosterone
5. State the role of the hormone adrenaline in boosting (increasing) blood glucose levels and;
• to prepare the body for states of emergency, situations that require fast response (‘fight
or flight’)
• allows the body to respond quickly to sudden demands for energy
Give examples of situations in which this may occur.
• before a race, competition

• before exam
• before & during a fight
2
Adrenaline
Endocrine gland: Adrenal medulla / gland (located on top of each kidney)
Hormone secreted: Adrenaline
*Stimuli for secretion / cause: fear, anger, anxiety, stress

Give examples of situations where adrenaline is secreted:
• before a race, competition
• before exam
• before & during a fight
Overall effects of adrenaline:

1. Increase blood glucose level
• to prepare the body for states of emergency, situations that require fast response (‘fight
or flight’)
• allows the body to respond quickly to sudden demands for energy.
2. The effects of adrenaline are usually short-lived.

3. Which stimuli of adrenaline cause longer term effect? anxiety and stress
How adrenal gland respond to stimuli?

**Under nervous control
1. Stimuli activate the hypothalamus (receptor) in the brain
2. *Relay neurones transmit nerve impulses down the spinal cord
3. Motor neurones transmit nerve impulses to the adrenal gland (effector)
4. Adrenal gland is stimulated to produce adrenaline into bloodstream (plasma)
5. Adrenaline is carried in blood plasma to target organs
6. Target organs respond to the short-term effect of adrenaline
Action of Adrenaline Effect Purpose

***Adrenaline stimulates liver and muscles to ***Increased blood ***more glucose is
increase conversion of glycogen to glucose glucose concentration available for faster
respiration to release
*Increases metabolic rate More energy released in more energy for
tissue respiration stronger / faster
muscles contraction;
*Increases heart rate and blood pressure Oxygen and glucose
carried to the muscles (to prepare to run/react)
*Increases rate and depth of ventilation faster
Increases rate of blood clotting to prevent excessive loss of blood

Constricts arterioles in the gut and skin Decreases digestive To channel more blood
activities; to the muscles
Causing paleness
Cause pupils to dilate Enhance vision
Contracts hair erector muscles, producing Not significant in human
‘goose bumps’ and causing hair to stand on end.
From the effects, name the target organs of adrenaline: liver, heart muscle, arterioles, iris and erector
muscles.
3
7. (a) Explain how the blood glucose concentration is regulated by insulin as a homeostatic
mechanism.
Stimulus: When the blood glucose concentration increase above normal;
Receptor: Islets of Langerhans in pancreas is stimulated to produce insulin.
Effects of insulin: (mainly 3 ways)
1. Insulin **stimulates the liver and muscle cells to convert excess glucose to glycogen; (target
cells: only liver & muscles)
2. Increasing the permeability of cell membranes to glucose, hence increasing the rate of
glucose uptake by cells; (target cells: tissue cells, liver & muscles)
3. Increasing oxidation of glucose during tissue respiration. (target cells: tissue cells, liver &
muscles)
(b) Explain how the blood glucose concentration is regulated by glucagon as a homeostatic
mechanism.
Stimulus: When the blood glucose concentration decrease below normal;
Receptor: Islets of Langerhans in pancreas is stimulated to produce glucagon.
Effects of glucagon:
Glucagon increases blood glucose concentration by stimulating the liver to convert:
1. *glycogen into glucose
2. fats and amino acids into glucose
3. lactic acid into glucose
Main target organ for glucagon is the liver.
8. Effects of insulin. Fill in the blank and complete the graph when lack of insulin is
produced.
Amount of Effect Graphs of concentration of
insulin insulin and glucose in blood after
secreted meal
normal Converts excess glucose to glycogen in the
liver and muscles.
Refers to Chapter 12: Homeostasis for details.
Lack of Excess glucose cannot be stored/

secretion converted to glycogen;
Leads to a disease called

diabetes mellitus. (type I)
4
9. What is diabetes mellitus?
It is a disease in which the body is unable to control its blood glucose concentration so that
it remains within normal limits.
Signs of diabetes mellitus:

• Constantly high blood glucose concentration
• Presence of glucose in urine after a meal
• Healing of wounds is slow and difficult
Treatments:
control of dietary intake (for type II diabetes)
exercising (for type II diabetes)
treatment by insulin injection
10. Differences between Endocrine and Nervous Controls

Complete the table below.
endocrine (hormonal) control nervous control

Involves hormone (chemical substance) Involves nerve impulses (electrical signals)
Hormones are transported by blood Impulses are transmitted by neurones
Usually slow responses Usually quick responses
Responses may be short-lived (e.g. adrenaline) Responses are short-lived

or long-lived (e.g. growth hormone)
Always involuntary May be voluntary or involuntary
May affect more than one target organ Usually localised
5
Sec 4E Express Biology 5158
Name:__________________________________ Class:__________ Date:__________
Note: Chapter 16: Cell Division (Part 1)
Two types of cell division:
Mitosis Meiosis
Involved in growth and development Involved in sexual reproduction
Produces genetically identical cells Produces genetically varied/ non-identical/

dissimilar cells (gametes)
Reject similar
The Cell Cycle

1 The cell cycle consists of three stages:
(a) Interphase (resting stage)
(b) **Mitosis (nuclear division)
(c) Cell division (cytokinesis — division of the cytoplasm)
(a) Interphase (resting stage)

• Most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase.
• During this stage, the cells absorb nutrients, synthesise new organelles, duplicate
chromosomes and builds up protoplasm.
• DNA replication copies all the information stored in the chromosomes.
(made up of two identical

DNA molecules)
1
(b) **Mitosis (nuclear division)
DNA
replicates mitosis
parent cell
two genetically
identical
DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid daughter cells
How many chromosomes are found in the parent cell? 4
How many chromosomes are found in each daughter cell? 4
The process of mitosis can be divided into four stages:

• Prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. [I’m Pretty Mean And Tough]
Diagram Stage (Description)

[not need to memorise, just need to learn how to
identify the stages from the diagrams]
Name of stage: Prophase
Note: DNA Replication occurs at interphase (before
mitosis occurs)
Early prophase
• In an animal cell, asters form around the centrioles.
• The two pairs of centrioles move apart to opposite
poles of the cell.
• The nucleolus disappears.
• Chromatin threads undergo condensation and
coiling. They shorten to become chromosomes.
• Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids
attached at the centromere.
• Chromosomes appear as X-shaped structures under
the microscope.
Late prophase
• The nuclear envelope disappears.
• A spindle forms with the spindle fibres extending from
one pole of the cell to the other.
2
Name of stage: Metaphase
• Chromosomes line up singly along the equator

of the spindle.
• The spindle fibre attaches to the centromere of
each chromosome.
Name of stage: Anaphase
• Each centromere splits and the spindle fibres

pull the *sister chromatids apart to opposite
poles of the cell.
• Once the sister chromatids are separated, they
are known as daughter chromosomes.
Name of stage: Telophase
• Spindle fibres disintegrate.

• A nuclear envelope forms around each set of
chromosomes.
• Nucleoli form.
• Chromosomes uncoil and lengthen to return to
their original thread-like form.
3
(c) Cell division (cytokinesis — division of the cytoplasm)
Cytokinesis
• It is the division of the cytoplasm.
• In animal cells, furrows form and split the cell into two. *NOT in plant cell.
Mitosis in plants and animals
plants animals
• Centrioles are absent. • Centrioles are present.

• Cleavage of cytoplasm does not • Cleavage of cytoplasm occurs during
occur during cytokinesis. cytokinesis.
• A cell plate forms between two • Furrows form and split the cell into
daughter nuclei by fusion of two.
fluid-filled vesicles.
Importance of mitosis
The production of genetically identical cells is required for:
(a) Growth of an organism

(b) Repair of worn-out parts of tissue, wound healing and replacement of dead cells
(c) Asexual reproduction in plants such as the development of shoots and roots in
storage organs (e.g. rhizomes and bulbs)
4
Name:__________________________________ Class:__________ Date:__________
Note: Chapter 16: Cell Division (Part 2)
16.3 Meiosis
1. Meiosis results in the production of daughter nuclei containing ………………. the
number of chromosomes as the parent cells. This is known as reduction
division.
2. Meiosis takes place in the gonads (e.g. ovaries and testes) to form ……………….
3. Unlike mitosis, meiosis is made up of two main phases – meiosis I and meiosis II.
meiosis II
meiosis I
1 diploid parent cell Replication of

with 2 pairs of chromosomes
chromosomes
Each daughter
(2n = 4)
cell contains 2
chromosomes
(n=2), each
4 haploid
consisting of 2 gametes,
chromatids each
containing 2
chromosomes
(n = 2)
1 State what is meant by homologous pairs of chromosomes.
Homologous chromosomes have the same shape, same genes and same length.
One member of each pair is inherited from each parent. sister chromatids
5
2 Define the following terms.

haploid
Haploid cells have half the number of chromosomes (n) as diploid - i.e. a haploid cell
contains only one complete set of chromosomes.
Cells used in sexual reproduction, sperm and ovum (also known as gametes).
diploid
Diploid cells contain two complete sets (2n) of chromosomes.
Examples: skin, blood, muscle cells (also known as somatic cells)
Meiosis I (separation of homologous chromosomes, 2n n)
Crossing over between Independent

chromatids of homologous assortment at
chromosome may occur at metaphase I
prophase I genetic genetic variation
variation
Meiosis II (separation of sister chromatics)
6
Importance of meiosis in sexual reproduction

1. Produces haploid gametes, which fuse together during fertilisation to produce diploid
cells. This ensures that the number of chromosomes in an organism is maintained
through successive generations.
2. Meiosis gives rise to genetic variation due to:

(a) crossing over between homologous chromosomes at Prophase I
(b) independent assortment of homologous chromosomes at Metaphase I
3. Since fertilisation is random, such variations in gametes produce genetic variations in

the offspring.
4. These variations will increase the chances of survival of the species during changes in
the environment.
Difference between mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
Occurs in all cells Occurs in only reproductive organs (e.g
ovary, testis)
Function: growth of organism and repair of Function: produces gametes for sexual
tissue reproduction
Involves one nuclear division to produce Involves two nuclear divisions to produce
two diploid daughter cells four haploid daughter cells
Daughter cells have the same Daughter cells have half the
number of chromosomes as parent cell number of chromosomes as parent cell
Daughter cells are genetically identical to Genetic variation occurs in the daughter
parent cell and each other cells
Homologous chromosomes do not pair Homologous chromosomes pair up at

up prophase I
No crossing over Crossing over may occur
7
Name:__________________________________ Class:__________ Date:__________
Note: Chapter 17: Reproduction in Plants
14.1 What is Reproduction?
1 Define asexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction is the process resulting in the production of genetically identical

offspring from one parent, without the fusion of gametes.
2 Define sexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction is the process involving the fusion of two gametes to form the
zygote. It produces genetically dissimilar offspring. Involves two parents (except
bisexual flowers)
14.2 Parts of a Flower
stigma petal
style
carpel anther
ovary stamen
filament
ovule
sepal
receptacle pedicel
© 2013 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited 1

Modified by Mrs Tio-Fung Eng Chu
Parts of a flower Functions

Sepal (calyx) Modified leaf that protects the flower in the bud stage.
Petal (corolla) Modified leaf that forms the most obvious part of a flower.
In insect-pollinated flowers, the petal is:

• brightly-coloured to attract insects for pollination.
• a landing platform for insects.
Stamen (male part Anther:

of the flower)
• produces pollen grains.
• contains a vascular bundle made up of a phloem and a
xylem.
Filament:
stalk that holds the anther in a suitable position to disperse
pollen grains.
Carpel (female part Stigmas:

of flower)
• a swollen structure that receives pollen grains.
• Mature stigma secretes a sugary fluid that stimulates the
(pistil) pollen grains to germinate.
Style:
• connects the stigma to the ovary.
• It holds the stigma in a suitable position to trap pollen
grains.
Ovary:
• The structure that will develop into fruit after fertilisation.
• The ovary contains one or more ovule(s).
• The ovule is the structure that will develop into seed after
fertilisation.
Name the structures that produce male and female gamete.
(i) Male gamete is produced by anther.
(ii) Female gamete is produced by ovule.
14.3 Pollination
1 Define pollination.
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma.
2 Define self-pollination.
Self-pollination involves the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the
same flower or a different flower on the same plant.
3 Define cross-pollination.
Cross-pollination involves the transfer of pollen grains from one plant to the stigma
of a flower in another plant of the same species.
4 Refer to textbook page 321 and 322 for the advantages and disadvantages of self-
pollination and cross-pollination.
Insect-pollinated flower - Clitoria
5 Clitoria is an insect-pollinated flower.

6 Events taking place in the pollination of Clitoria.
The insect lands on the standard petal
The insect follows the nectar guide into the flower.
The insect forces its way between the two wing petals to collect nectar.
The insect forces the keel petals upwards and this expose the anthers
and stigmas.
Pollen grains stick to the back of the insect and get transferred to the
stigma.
Wind-pollinated flower - Ischaemum muticum
7 Ischaemum muticum is a wind-pollinated flower.
8 Events taking place in the pollination of Ischaemum muticum.
Stamens have long filaments that swing freely pendulous
Pollen is shaken free by the swaying motion and carried away by the
wind.
Large, extended and feathery stigma captures pollen in the air.
9 Differences between and insect pollinated and a wind pollinated flower.
Feature Insect-pollinated flowers Wind-pollinated flowers
Petals Large and brightly-coloured. Small, dull-coloured.
Nectar Nectar is present. Nectar is absent.
Scent Fragrant and sweet-smelling Scent is absent.
Stigmas Small, compact and do not Large, feathery and protrude out
protrude out of flowers. of flowers.
Stamens Not pendulous and do not protrude Long and pendulous filaments
out of flowers. with protruding anthers.
Pollen Fairly abundant. Pollen grains are More abundant. Pollen grains
larger with rough surfaces. are tiny with smooth surfaces.
Nectar Nectar guides are present. Nectar guides are absent.

guides

14.4 Fertilisation in Plants
1. The fertilisation process.
After pollination, pollen grain germinates in response to sugary fluid secreted

by mature stigma.
*A pollen tube grows out from each pollen grain.

Growth of pollen tube is controlled by the pollen tube nucleus.
Generative nucleus divides by mitosis to produce two male gametes
As the pollen
nuclei. tube
[for your grows, it secrets
information only] enzyme to digest the surrounding
tissue of the stigma and style.
Pollen tube grows down the style into the ovary.
Pollen tube enters the ovule through an opening in the ovule wall called the
micropyle.
Within the ovule, the tip of the pollen tube absorbs sap and bursts,
releasing the two male gametes.
The pollen tube nucleus disintegrates.
One of the male gamete fuses with the nucleus of the ovum to form the zygote.
This process is called fertilisation. [note: nucleus in the pollen tube is male
After
gamete,fertilisation,
hence it istheWRONG
ovule develops into theofseed,
to say nucleus the ovary
the male develops into the
gamete]
fruit.
Since one of the male gamete fuse with the nucleus of

ovum to form zygote, do you know what happen to the
other male gamete? [fyi, not in exam syllabus]

Name:__________________________________ Class:__________ Date:__________
Note: Chapter 18: Reproduction in Humans

The Male Reproductive System
Label the male reproductive organs shown below.

prostate gland
kidney
ureter
urinary sperm duct

bladder
penis
urethra
testes
scrotum
parts functions
testis Produces sperm and male sex hormones such as testosterone.
sperm duct pathway travelled by sperms from testis to urethra
to maintain a lower temperature than body for the development of

scrotum
sperms.
activate sperms by secreting a slippery fluid that contains nutrients and

enzymes. (stimulate the sperm to swim actively)
prostate gland
urethra allows semen and urine passes but never at the same time.
enters the vagina of a woman during sexual intercourse to deposit

penis
semen, containing sperms.
1
The Female Reproductive System
Label the female reproductive organs.
kidney fallopian tube
ureter ovary
uterus
uterine lining
urinary
bladder cervix
vagina
parts functions
produces ovum/egg and female sex hormones like oestrogen

ovary
and progesterone.
is a narrow muscular tube where mature eggs are released in

oviduct
order to be fertilised.
(fallopian tube)
is where the fetus develops during pregnancy. It has muscular

uterus
walls to enable contraction to push out fetus during birth.
soft, smooth inner lining of the uterus important for embryo

uterine lining
implantation.
is a circular ring muscle below the uterus that could dilate to allow
cervix
the delivery of fetus.
vagina is where semen is deposited during sexual intercourse
2
Puberty
1. Puberty is the stage of human growth and development in which a person becomes physically
mature.
2. Sex hormones released during this period causes secondary sexual characteristics to develop.
gender sex hormones released
male Testosterone
(testes)
female Oestrogen/ estrogen and progesterone

(ovary)
3. Menstruation is the process whereby blood or menses is discharged from the uterus via the
vagina. / breaks down do uterine lining.
Natural variation in the menstrual cycle
1. The average menstrual cycle of a female lasts for 28 days.
2. There is natural variation in the length of the menstrual cycle, which are caused by:
- stress;
- tiredness;
- illness;
- unbalanced diet;
- malnutrition
3. The menstrual cycle can be divided into 4 different stages. (page 254)
Day 1 to 5 Menstruation (process)
• The uterine lining breaks down and is shed with blood.
Day 6 to 13 Repair of uterine lining
• Ovaries produce hormone oestrogen
• Oestrogen causes the repair and growth of the uterine lining making
it thick and spongy with blood vessels.
• High oestrogen leads to ovulation usually on day 14
Day 11 to 17 ovulation (day 14)

3
(Day 14)
• Mature egg/ ovum is released from the ovary into the oviduct.
fertile period (day 11 to 16)
• Sperms in vagina are likely to cause fertilisation.
Day 15 to 28 After ovulation,
• ovary produces hormone progesterone
• progesterone prevents ovulation and further development of eggs.
• causes the uterine lining to thicken further, preparing it for the

implantation and growth of embryo.
• oestrogen production decreases.
- If no fertilisation occurs, progesterone and oestrogen production

decreases.
The uterine lining breaks down and the whole cycle repeats.
4. Fertile and infertile periods of the menstrual cycle

An egg can survive in the oviduct for one or two days (from day 14 to 16) while a
sperm can survive in the oviduct for about three to four days;
Sperm deposited into the vagina around day 11 can fertilise the egg.
Hence,fertilisation is possible from around day 11 to 16 of the menstrual cycle. This
period is known as fertile period.
The rest of the days make up the infertile periods of the menstrual cycle.
4
Sexual Reproduction in Humans

1. Define fertilisation.
Fertilisation occurs when the nucleus of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of an ovum to form a
zygote.
2. What is implantation?
Implantation happens when the embryo becomes embedded in the uterine lining.
Name the region of female reproductive system where the following processes take place.
process region of female reproductive system

ovulation Ovary to oviduct
fertlisation Fallopian tube / oviduct
implantation Uterine lining / in uterus
The fetal blood system is separated from the maternal blood system
placenta
umbilical cord
Amniotic sac
Amniotic fluid
Structure Function
Amniotic sac encloses the fetus in the amniotic cavity.
Supports and cushions the fetus
Absorbs shocks and protects the fetus against physical injury
Amniotic fluid Amniotic fluid lubricates and reduces friction in the vagina during birth
Allows fetus to move freely, promoting muscular development
During birth, it lubricates and reduces friction in the vagina or birth canal
5
Structure Function
1.
Allows oxygen and food substances to diffuse from the mother’s blood
2. into the fetus’s blood
Allows excretory products to diffuse from the fetus’ blood into the
placenta 3. mother’s blood
Allows antibodies to diffuse from the mother’s blood into the fetus’ blood
4. to protect the fetus against diseases
Produces progesterone to maintain uterine lining for a healthy pregnancy
1.
The umbilical arteries transport deoxygenated blood and metabolic waste

2. products (carbon dioxide and urea) from the fetus to the placenta.
umbilical cord
The umbilical vein transports oxygenated blood and food substances
(glucose and amino acids) from the placenta to the fetus.
Label umbilical vein and umbilical artery in the diagram below.
umbilical vein umbilical artery
6
Name some constituents of the blood pass from fetus to mother and from mother to fetus across the
placenta. You can use the list below.
from fetus to mother from mother to fetus
amino acids,
carbon dioxide, antibodies,
urea glucose,
minerals,
oxygen
Sexually Transmitted Infection
Sexually transmitted infections, STIs are diseases that are spread through sexual intercourse.
1. STI may be caused by bacteria or virus.
2. STI could spread via:

- Semen or fluid in vagina.
- Blood of infected person getting into bloodstream of uninfected person.
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
3. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is caused by a virus called Human

Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
4. Symptoms of AIDS include:

chronic or persistent fever;
severe diarrhoea that lasts for months;
pneumonia;
Kaposi’s sarcoma;
brain infection; and
widespread tuberculosis.
7
5. AIDS could be transmitted via: (continue for class 42 and 43A)

unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person;
sharing of hypodermic needle with an infected person;
having a blood transfusion with an infected person; and
substance exchange at the placenta (from infected mother to foetus) during pregnancy.
6. Steps to prevent AIDS includes:

keeping to a single sex partner, or abstaining from sex;
using a condom during sexual intercourse;
not abusing drugs as drug abusers are in the habit of sharing needles;
not sharing instruments that can break skin and get contaminated with
blood; and
making sure needles used for hypodermic purposes are sterilised.
8
Day 1 to 5 menstruation:
• The uterine lining breaks down and is shed with blood.
Day 6 to 10 Repair of uterine lining

• Ovaries produce hormone oestrogen.
• Oestrogen causes the repair and growth of the uterine lining making
it thick and spongy with blood vessels.
• High oestrogen leads to ovulation usually on day 14.
Day 11 to 16 ovulation (day 14)
(Day 14) • Mature egg/ ovum is released from the ovary into the oviduct.
•
Fertile period (day 11 to 16)
• Sperms in vagina are likely to cause fertilisation.
Day 15 to 28 After ovulation,

• ovary produces hormone progesterone.
• progesterone prevents ovulation and further development of eggs.
• causes the uterine lining to thicken further, preparing it for the
implantation and growth of embryo.
• oestrogen production decreases.
- If no fertilisation occurs, progesterone production decreases.

The uterine lining breaks down and the whole cycle repeats.
9
Name:__________________________________ Class:__________ Date:__________
Note: Chapter 19: Heredity
1 Define gene. alleles
A gene is a unit of inheritance on a particular position

(locus) of a chromocome, it is a small segment of DNA (a
sequence of nucleotides), which is used to synthesise a
specific polypeptide.
*can exist in two (or more) forms.
2 Define allele.
Allele is a form of a gene. Dominant allele is represented

with capital letter while recessive allele is represented
with small letter.
A pair of alleles of the same gene occupies the same relative positions on a pair of
homologous chromosomes.
3 Explain the following terms.
terms explanation
A dominant allele expresses itself in both homozygous (TT)

dominant and heterozygous (Tt) conditions.
A recessive allele will only express itself in a homozygous

recessive (tt) condition.
Co-dominance results when the two alleles controlling a

codominant trait both express themselves in the organism.
An organism is homozygous for a trait if the two alleles

homozygous controlling the trait are the same. (e.g. TT and tt)
An organism is heterozygous for a trait if the two alleles

heterozygous controlling the trait are different (e.g. Tt).
phenotype Refers to the expressed trait in an organism.
Genetic make-up (pairs of alleles) of an organism, that is, the

genotype combination of genes in an organism.
1
2
Explain why observed ratios often differ from expected ratios in the Mendel’s
monohybrid experiment, especially when there are small numbers of progeny
(offspring).
Statistically, ratios are often inaccurate when the sample numbers are small.
The ratio figures are based on chance and probability, the actual number of
progeny (offspring) would be unlikely to match the expected number precisely.
5 The diagram below uses the genetic model to explain Mendel’s monohybrid experiment
on tall and dwarf plants.
Parental phenotype: tall x dwarf
Parental genotype: TT x tt
Gametes: T T t t
F1 generation genotypes: all Tt
F1 generation phenotypes: all tall
F1 generation (self-cross): Tt x Tt
Gametes: T t T t
F2 generation genotypes: TT , Tt , Tt , tt
F2 generation phenotypes: tall , tall , tall , dwarf
Ratio of F2 phenotypes: 3 tall : 1 dwarf
Note:
Genetic diagram must be done in ink/pen;
The arrows show the possible fusion of gametes, but students are not required to
show the arrows during exam;
Ratio of F2 generation/ offspring must be simplified to its nearest form.
3
19.3 Determining Genotypes
1 Breeding experiments are used to identify the genotype of an organism.

2 A test cross is used to determine the genotype of an organism with dominant trait
by crossing the organism with a homozygous recessive organism.
[refer to textbook page 365 for details]
(a) If the organism is homozygous dominant (e.g. TT), all the offspring should
show the dominant trait.
(b) If the organism is heterozygous (e.g. Tt), half the number of offspring
should show the dominant trait. The remaining half should show the recessive
trait.
(c) Codominant results when the two alleles controlling a trait both express
themselves in the organism.
Sex Determination
1 When male and female gametes fuse during fertilisation, there is an equal chance
that the offspring could be a male or a female. [refer to textbook page 370]
2 Complete the table below: Identify the number of chromosomes and state the type of
sex chromosome that can be found in the nucleus of the following cells:
number of type of sex

type of cell
chromosomes chromosome(s)
XX (for female);
zygote 46
XY(for male)
XX (for female);
a cell in the embryo 46
XY (for male)
cheek cell (or other type XX (for female);

46
of somatic cells) XY (for male)
Sperm (male gamete) 23 Either X or Y
Ovum/ egg
23 All X
(female gamete)
4
19.4 Multiple alleles
Multiple alleles is a term used for a gene that exists in more than two alleles.
For example, occurrence of blood groups in humans.
Write down the genotypes of all the blood groups.
Blood group Genotype
A IAIA, IAIO
B IBIB, IBIO
AB IAIB
O IOIO
Note: IA and IB are co-dominance.
19.5 Discontinuous and Continuous Variation
Variation and competition lead to differential survival of, and reproduction by,
those organisms best fitted to the environment.
Differences between discontinuous variation and continuous variation.
discontinuous variation continuous variation
Deals with a few clear-cut phenotypes Deals with a range of phenotypes
Controlled by one or a few genes Controlled by many genes
Genes do not show additive effect Genes show additive effect
Not affected by environmental

Affected by environmental conditions
conditions
Examples : Examples:
eye colour and blood group height and skin colour
5
19.6 Mutation
Describe mutation.
Mutation is a sudden random change in the structure of a gene or in the chromosome
number.
Examples of mutation:
Chromosome mutation Gene mutation
change in the number of change in the structure of a gene/

chromosomes sequence of bases/ nucleotides in
DNA
Examples: produces variation between individuals
Down’s syndrome (47 chromosomes) as it results in new alleles of genes
Examples:
sickle-cell anaemia
albinism
Down’s syndrome (chromosome mutation)
– Humans normally have 46 chromosomes in their body cells.
– People with Down’s syndrome have 47 chromosomes.
– They have an extra copy of chromosome 21.
– Chromosome mutation in the gametes of a female parent can produce a child

with Down’s syndrome.
Sickle-cell anaemia (gene mutation)
– Caused by mutation in the gene controlling haemoglobin production
– The mutated gene is recessive, hence only expressed in homozygous recessive

condition.
6
– Sickle-shaped red blood cells have low oxygen carrying capacity compared to
normal red blood cell. [Note: unlike normal red blood cell which has a circular
biconcave shape. Recall adaptation of RBC]
Compare between sickle-shaped red blood cell and normal red blood cell.
sickle-shaped red blood cell normal red blood cell

Sickle-shaped Circular biconcave-shaped
has lower surface area to volume has higher surface area to volume
ratio, lower rate of diffusion of oxygen ratio; increasing the rate of diffusion of
into and out of the cell. oxygen into and out of the cell.
– This disease is fatal and sufferers usually die young.
– Individuals who are heterozygous for the sickle-cell allele are more resistant to
malaria.
– Hence, heterozygous individuals are common in area such as West Africa where
malaria is prevalent.
Name radiation and chemicals (mutagens) as factors which may increase the rate of
mutation:
Ultraviolet light, X-rays, alpha, beta and gamma ray and

some chemicals present in certain concentration (e.g. Formaldehyde and tar;
drug called LDS)
Mutation and Selection

1 Mutation produces variations in a population of organisms.
2 Some mutation may be beneficial to the individual.
3 Nature ‘selects’ those organisms with more favourable traits to survive and
reproduce.
4 Evolution occurs through
- mutation
7
- natural selection
19.7 Selection
1. Variations in organisms may arise due to:
(a) crossing over and independent assortment of chromosomes and during

meiosis
(b) mutation in genetic material
(c) random mating and random fertilisation.
2. Mutation provides new alleles to the gene pool for natural selection to act on.
3. Genetic variation is important to help organism adapt and survive in changing

environments.
4. Natural selection is a process that ensures the best adapted organisms in a

population survive to reproduce and pass on their genes to the next generation.
5. Nature selects varieties of organisms that are:
(a) more resistant to diseases
(b) more competitive, better adapted to the changes in the environment.
6. The process by which present complex forms of living organisms have arisen from
simpler ancestral forms is known as evolution.
7. The flow chart below describes the mechanism of evolution.
Organisms reproduce rapidly as food supply is abundant.
Organisms migrate to different environments.
Spontaneous mutation takes place, resulting in variation in the organisms.
Organisms with favourable traits will survive, reproduce and pass on the favourable
genes to their offspring.
8
These organisms become the predominant species in the environment.
9
8. Plants and animals with desirable traits can be artificially selected through
selective breeding. The flow chart below illustrates the selective breeding process.
Organisms with desirable traits are identified.
When a single variety has the When more than one

desired traits, we carry out variety have the desired
self-fertilisation (plants) or traits, we cross breed the
inbreeding (animals). plants or animals.
Offspring with the desired traits are selected

and inbred over generations to ensure
continuity of the improved organism.
The table below shows the comparison between natural and artificial selections.
Natural selection Artificial selection
Results from mutations in genes Results from manipulation by humans
Brought about by changes in Humans select organisms with desired

environmental conditions traits to reproduce
Very slow process Relatively faster process
May be advantageous or harmful to Advantageous to man

man
10
11
Note: Chapter 17: Molecular Genetics
Name:__________________________________ Class:__________ Date:__________
17.1 DNA
1 Outline the relationship between genes, chromosomes and DNA. [refer to

textbook page 288]
A small segment of DNA carries a gene that stores information used to make
a polypeptide.
A molecule of DNA is wrapped around proteins to form a single chromatin
thread.
During cell division, chromatin threads coil tightly into a structure called
chromosomes inside the cell nucleus.
2 State the structure of DNA in terms of the bases, sugar and phosphate. [refer to
textbook page 288 to 291 for details]
Each DNA molecule is made up of two anti-parallel polynucleotide strands.

The two strands coil about each other to form a double helix structure.
Each chain is made up of nucleotide units.
A nucleotide unit contains a nitrogen-containing base, a deoxyribose sugar
and a phosphate group.
The rule of complementary base-pairing states that adenine will bind to
thymine (A-T) and cytosine will bind to guanine.
Complementary bases are joined by hydrogen bonds.
Amended from © 2013 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited 1

17.2 Genes [refer to textbook page 292 to 294]
1 A gene is a sequence of DNA nucleotides (bases) that controls the formation of a

single polypeptide.
2 What is the main function of DNA?
The main function of DNA is to control the production/ synthesis of polypeptides.
DNA is used to carry genetic code that determines how a protein should be made
in a cell. The proteins contribute to the development of many characteristic in
your body.
If the message stored by a gene (nucleotide sequence of a gene) is altered/

changed, it may affect your body structure or function. This is known as gene
mutation, for example sickle cell anaemia. [refer to Chapter 16 on gene mutation]
3 Protein/ polypeptide synthesis in the cell occurs in two steps: transcription (occurs
in nucleus) and translation (occurs in cytoplasm). [Note: details of translation and
transcription are not required]

20.3 Transferring Genes between Organisms
1. Genetic engineering involves the transfer of genes from one organism to another
using a vector molecule. This molecule is used to carry a gene from one
organism to another.
2. The process:
Producing human insulin

1. Isolate the desired gene.
1. Type 1 diabetes is caused by the inability of the islet of Langerhans to produce
sufficient insulin.
2. Insert the gene into the vector DNA.
2. The process:
insulin gene the recombinant plasmids into bacteria.

3. Insert bacterial plasmid
recombinant plasmid
Other applications of genetic engineering include:
1. Creation ofcut using a plants that are resistant to herbicides.
transgenic cut by same
restriction enzyme
restriction enzyme
2. Creation of transgenic plants that are pest-resistant.
3. Gene therapy – Healthy genes from a person can be transferred to the cells of
bacterium
insulinperson
another gene inserted
with defective genes.
into plasmid
transgenic
*Note: Genes can be transferred between organisms of different species and
bacterium
between organisms of the same species.
20.4 Effects of Genetic Engineering on Society

1. Advantages of genetic engineering:
Applications of genetic
Benefits to society
engineering
Low cost production of medicines Drugs such as human insulin become more affordable.
Production of crops that grow in Farmers are able to grow crops in environmental
extreme conditions conditions that are not favourable for cultivating most
crops.
Development of pesticide-resistant The use of costly pesticides that may damage the
crops environment is reduced.
Development of foods designed to Nutritional quality of food is improved.

meet specific nutritional goals

2. Potential disadvantages of genetic engineering include:
Economic hazards Environmental hazards

– If the prices of GM crop seeds are – Genetically modified (GM) crops that
not regulated, poorer farmers may not produce insect toxins may result in the
benefit from the technology while loss of in biodiversity
Social and
their richer competitors will continue ethical hazards
to get richer through the technology. Health hazards Genetic engineering may lead
Genes that code for to class distinctions
antibiotic resistance may be accidentally and religious
incorporated into bacteria that cause disputes
human diseases.

Note: Chapter 21: Ecology
Name:__________________________________ Class:__________ Date:__________
1 Explain the following terms in the context of food chains and food webs.
term explanation
Organism (mostly plant) that can make its own food by
photosynthesis.
Contains chlorophyll that converts light energy from the Sun into
chemical energy, which is stored in food molecules (carbohydrates,
producer
proteins, fats)
Synthesis glucose from carbon dioxide and water, produce oxygen
as by-product during photosynthesis;
All food chains start with producers
consumer Organisms that unable to produce their own food. Obtain energy by
feeding on other organisms
Organisms that break down dead organisms, egested and excreted

materials.
They secrete enzymes to digest larger insoluble food molecules into
small soluble molecule externally (outside their body/cells).
Examples: proteins to amino acids, starch to glucose.
decomposer
They release the energy that is trapped in these materials and return
nutrients to the physical environment where they can be used again.
Example: carbon dioxide (from respiration and decomposition in the
decomposer) is returned to the air and to be used for photosynthesis
again.
Each stage of a food chain is known as a trophic level.

trophic level
food chain is a series of organisms through which energy is
transferred in the form of food
2 What is the source of energy in a food chain? Sun
1
3 Complete the food chain below.
Example:
grass snake
grasshopper toad
primary Secondary
producer consumer Tertiary
consumer
consumer
4 A food web consists of interlinked food chains.
5 The flow of energy in an ecosystem is non-cyclic.
Briefly describe the non-cyclical nature of energy flow.

The Sun is the main energy source in an ecosystem.
Light energy is converted into chemical energy by producers via photosynthesis.
Energy from producers is passed from one trophic level to another via feeding.
Energy is lost to the environment as heat as it flows through the ecosystem/ as it is
transferred from one trophic level to another.
6 Describe energy losses between trophic levels.
Energy is lost to the environment as food is transferred from one trophic level to
another. Energy is lost
• as heat during respiration,

• through faeces/ undigested matter egested by consumers, and
• through excretory waste products excreted by consumers.
• in uneaten body parts/ dead bodies,
7 Discuss the efficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels.
Shorter or longer food chains are more efficient in energy transfer? Shorter food chain
Explain : Large amount of energy is lost at each trophic level (about 90%), less and less
energy is available for the organisms at the next trophic level when it is transferred along
the food chain.
The shorter the food chain, the greater the amount of energy available to the final
consumer, because less energy is lost to the environment.
2
Ecological pyramids can be used to compare the trophic levels of a food
chain.
Note: Pyramid must be drawn with ruler and pencil, write the name of
organisms in ink.
Pyramid of numbers Pyramid of biomass

Describe what is meant by the term pyramid Describe what is meant by the term pyramid
of number. of biomass.
Pyramid of numbers shows the comparison Pyramid of biomass shows the comparison
of the number of organisms present in of the dry mass of organisms present in
each trophic level at a particular time each trophic level at a particular time
Typical pyramid of number: Typical pyramid of biomass:
snake snake
rabbit rabbit
grass grass
Tree aphid ladybird small bird Tree aphid ladybird small bird
Grass zebra tsetse fly Grass zebra tsetse fly
A pyramid of number can be inverted if: A pyramid of biomass can be inverted if:
organisms in one trophic level are organisms in one trophic level have a
parasitic on organisms of another high reproductive rate.
trophic level, and
many small organisms feed on a large

organism. (due to size)
3
21.6 Nutrient Cycling in an Ecosystem
1 Carbon is one of the nutrients that is cycled in the environment. It is constantly

removed from and released into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide.
2 The carbon cycle ensures that the concentration of carbon is not lost but
continually recycled.
3 Importance of the carbon cycle:

(a) ensures a continuous supply of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis to take
place, and
(b) allows energy to flow through the ecosystem via photosynthesis and
feeding.
(c) Maintain the correct concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
The carbon cycle:

Fill in all the blanks below.
respiration
photosynthesis feeding
CO2 in
the air
death
decomposition
combustion
Refer to slides.
4
What is a carbon sink?
• A carbon sink is an area that stores carbon compounds for an indefinite period.
• It stores more carbon than it releases. Examples are ocean and forest.
Outline the role of forests and oceans as carbon sinks:
a) Oceans as carbon sinks
• Oceans are the largest carbon sinks on Earth.

• The carbon dioxide that dissolves in the ocean’s water is absorbed and used by
phytoplankton and algae in photosynthesis.
• A portion of the carbon compounds found in oceans is buried in the seabed and is in
the form of fossil fuels such as natural gas and oil.
b) Forests as carbon sinks
• Atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed by the plants and used in photosynthesis.

• A large amount of carbon compounds is stored in trees.
• Remains of dead trees form coal – a fossil fuel.
This concept was tested in 2014, question 4.
5
Note: Chapter 22: Our Impact on the Ecosystem
Name:__________________________________ Class:__________ Date:__________
22.1 How Do We Affect the Ecosystem?
1 Natural resources can be divided into:
(a) Renewable resources

- can be replaced by natural cycles as long as they are not overused
(b) Non-renewable resources

- cannot be replaced once they are used
2 Human activities result in deforestation, over-fishing and pollution.
Deforestation
Deforestation is the clearing of forests to clear land for human activities.

1. The effects of deforestation include:
(a) Soil erosion (the topsoil is eroded during heavy rains, it can lead to flooding)
(b) Flooding (soil erosion causes the water levels in rivers rise rapidly)
(c) Desertification (results in habitats being lost and the extinction of many species of
organisms)
(d) Climate changes (when trees are cleared, there are fewer clouds, less
transpiration and less rainfall. The area becomes dry and warm, and annual
rainfall decreases)
Over-fishing (uncontrolled fishing practices)

Adapted from © 2013 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited 1
1 The use of these fishing equipments harm the environment:
2 Effects of uncontrolled fishing practices includes:
(a) Destruction of marine habitat
(b) Decrease and extinction of certain fish populations

1. Dredge 2. Drift net 3. Trawlers
Pollution
results in the destruction catch fish indiscriminately resulting in
of coral reefs the death of non-target fish
Pollution is the addition of substances to the environment that damage it, making
it undesirable
1 or unfit for life. Substances that cause pollution are termed
pollutants. Water pollution
Can be caused by
(a) Untreated (b) excessive usage (c) inorganic (d) insecticides

sewage of fertilisers waste
(a) Untreated sewage from homes and industries:
contain disease-causing bacteria that can cause epidemics. Cholera is an

example of a disease caused by waterborne bacteria.
contain phosphates and nitrates that can lead to eutrophication.
Use of environmental biotechnology to treat sewage:
(a) Environmental biotechnology involves the use of biological sciences to provide

environmentally friendly solution in reducing pollution.
(b) Used water (i.e. sewage) has to be treated before being removed
The usage of decomposers (microorganisms, e.g. bacteria) in sewage

treatment helps to speed up the water treatment process.
This process takes time. In towns and cities, sewage is treated in water
reclamation plants.
(c) Outline the roles of microbes in sewage disposal as an example of
environmental biotechnology:

In the aeration tank, the liquid is mixed with aerobic microorganisms, mainly
bacteria. Bubbles of compressed air are pumped into the liquid.
The dissolved oxygen is used by the microorganisms for aerobic respiration.
The microorganisms absorb and breakdown the organic pollutants in the water.
In the anaerobic digester, no oxygen is supplied. Anaerobic bacteria

decompose the sludge. They break down the organic matter, producing biogas,
mainly methane. The biogas is used as a fuel to generate electricity for the
functioning of the reclamation plant.

(b) Fertilisers contain phosphates and nitrates that can lead to eutrophication.
Eutrophication due to excessive usage of fertilisers:

Note that both untreated sewage and fertiliser containing phosphate and
nitrates can lead to eutrophication.
Excess fertilisers that are not absorbed by crops/ untreated sewage are
(c) Inorganic wastewashedincludesinto
poisonous
lakes. metals (e.g. mercury, arsenic and
cadmium) and some types of pesticides (e.g. insecticides & herbicides).
For example, mercury poisoning where the concentration of poisonous metals

Nutrients (phosphate and nitrates) in the fertilisers/sewage increase the
increases up the trophic levels in the food chain.
growth of algae and water plants in the lake. (eutrophication)
(d) Some insecticides, such as DDT, (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) are

Submergedinorganic
plants die due to lackthat
compounds of sunlight. Bacteria grow rapidly and
are non-biodegradable.
use up dissolved oxygen as they decompose the dead plants.
DDT is insoluble in water and cannot be excreted. Hence, DDT is stored in the
fatty tissues of animals that consume it. If the consumers keep on consuming
food that contains DDT, the concentration of DDT will further increase in their
Other organisms die due to lack of oxygen
bodies. This process is called bioaccumulation.
This results in the insecticides being passed along the food chain,
increasing in concentration in the bodies of organism along the trophic
levels and become concentrated in the bodies of the final consumers. This
process is called bioamplification / biomagnification.
22.2 Conservation
Conservation can be defined as the protection and preservation of Earth’s

Reasons for conservation: [refer
natural to textbook page 439]
resources.
1 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Conservation measures: [refer to textbook page 440]
2 Conservation of forests by:
(a) Prevent tree felling (the indiscrimination cutting down of forest trees)
(b) Creation of laws to regulate the logging industry
(c) Reforestation: The planting of new trees or seedlings to replace trees that have
been destroyed
(d) Designation of lands as forest reserves
(e) Research to improve quality of forests and making them more productive
3 Conservation of fishing ground by:
(a) Banning the use of drift nets, trawlers and dredges
(b) Using nets with a certain mesh size
(c) Regulate the entry of ships into fishing grounds
(d) Limiting the number of ships allowed in fishing grounds at any one time
(e) Banning the harvesting or fishing of endangered species
(f) Raising endangered species of fish in hatcheries for release into the sea

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Riverside Secondary School

Note: Chapter 2: Cells

Cytoplasm Jelly-like substance that allows chemical reactions to take place.

Carry out aerobic respiration (chemical reaction)

To synthesis (produce) proteins such as enzymes and hormones for the

Function of vacuole, in general:

Functions for large central vacuole in plant cell:

Chloroplasts Carry out photosynthesis to make food (glucose).

2 Compare the structure of typical animal and plant cells.

(a) Red blood cell:

Shape/ structure function

binds with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin and

to increase surface area to volume ratio

Enables the cell to store more haemoglobin for transport of

(b) Xylem vessel

Shape/ structure function

• Long and narrow extending from

(c) Root hair cell

Shape/ structure function

• Has long and narrow

Refer to textbook page 27 for examples.

Note: Chapter 3: Movement of Substances

the concentration gradient. down the water potential gradient.

Examples of questions on diffusion:

Key points required in such questions:

1. Blue dye molecules

2. spread out to all parts of the water by diffusion .

water 3. because there is a higher concentration of blue dye

2. move out from the Visking tubing by diffusion.

4. Hence, glucose molecules are found outside the Viksing

iodine solution 2. move into the Visking tubing by diffusion.

3. because there is a higher concentration of iodine

2 Examples of diffusion on living cells.

In a sugar solution, it is made up of water molecules and sugar molecules.

In a salt solution, it is made up of salt molecules and water molecules.

Examples of questions on osmosis:

Key points required in such questions:

2. move into the visking tubing by osmosis.

concentrated salt solution

2. move to region A by osmosis.

Effects of osmosis on plant and animal cell.

Plant cell Animal cell

cell enlarges and becomes turgid cell expands and bursts

the same no change in size and shape

cell undergoes plasmolysis cell shrinks in size

Distilled water concentrated salt/sugar solution

- Loss of turgidity causes the plant to eventually wilt.

2. Cells will be killed if they remain plasmolysed for too long.

Surface Area to Volume Ratio

- Root hair cells have long and narrow protrusions

Prepared by Mrs Tio-Fung Eng Chu

Note: Chapter 4: Nutrients

State the roles/ functions of water in living organisms.

(a) is the solvent in which chemical reactions take place

(b) is an essential component of cells, tissues, digestive juices and blood.

2 In plants, water is important for:

(b) keeps the plant cells turgid and plants upright

3 The amount of water a person needs depends on:

(c) the environmental conditions

Prepared by Mrs Tio-Fung EC

Carbohydrates Fats (lipids) Proteins

Made up of Made up of Made up of

• *A source and store

• glucose • maltose • *starch (stored in plant)