Seeley’s

ESSENTIA
LS OF
Anatomy &
Physiology
Tenth Edition

Cinnamon Vanputte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo

See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures

and tables pre-inserted into PowerPoint
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Chapter 3

Cell Structures and Their Functions

Lecture Outline
Cell Structure
Generalized Cell 1
Organelles:
• specialized
structures in
cells that
perform
• specific
functions
• Example:
nucleus,
mitochondria,
ribosomes
Cytoplasm:
• jelly-like
substance that
holds organelles
Cell membrane:
• also termed the
plasma
membrane
• a structure that
encloses the
cytoplasm

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Functions of the Cell
Smallest units of life
Cell metabolism and energy use
Synthesis of molecules
Communication
Reproduction and inheritance
Cell Membrane Structure
The fluid-mosaic model is the
model used to describe the
cell membrane structure.
The membrane contains
phospholipids, cholesterol,
proteins, and carbohydrates.
Phospholipids form a bilayer.
Phospholipids contain 2
regions: polar and nonpolar.
The Cell Membrane
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Cell Membrane
The cell membrane, or plasma
membrane, is the outermost
component of a cell.
It forms a boundary between
material in inside the cell and the
outside.
Materials inside the cell are
intracellular and those outside are
extracellular.
It acts as a selective barrier.
Phospholipid Structure
A phospholipid molecule has a polar
head region that is hydrophilic and a
nonpolar tail region that is
hydrophobic.
The polar region is exposed to water
around the membrane.
The nonpolar region is facing the
interior of the membrane.
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Movement through the Cell Membrane
The cell membrane has selective permeability, which allows only certain
substances to pass in and out of the cell.

Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and potassium are found in

higher concentrations inside the cell.

Substances such as sodium, calcium, and chloride are found in higher

concentrations outside the cell.

Cell Membrane Passage

Some substances, like O2 and CO2, can pass directly through the
cell membrane’s phospholipid bilayer.
Some substances must pass through transmembrane protein
channels, such as Na+ through its channels.
The route of transport through the membrane depends on the
size, shape, and charge of the substance.
Some substances require carrier molecules to transport them
across the cell membrane, such as glucose.
Some substances require a vesicular transport across the
membrane.
The vesicle must fuse with the cell membrane for transport

Active Transport and Passive Transport 1

Passive membrane transport does not require the cell
to expend energy.
Active membrane transport does require the cell to
expend energy, usually in the form of ATP.

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Active Transport and Passive Transport 2
Passive membrane transport mechanisms include diffusion, osmosis,
and facilitated diffusion.

Active membrane transport mechanisms include active transport,

secondary active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.

Diffusion 1
Diffusion generally involves movement of substances in a solution down a
concentration gradient.
A solution is generally composed of two major parts, solutes and the
solvent.
Solutes are substances dissolved in a predominant liquid or gas, which is
called the solvent.
Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to move from an area of higher
concentration of a solute to an area of lower concentration of that same
solute in solution.
This movement from high concentration to a low concentration is diffusion.

Concentration Gradient
A concentration gradient is the difference in the concentration of a
solute in a solvent between two points divided by the distance between
the two points.
The concentration gradient is said to be steeper when the concentration
difference is large and/or the distance is small.

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Diffusion 2

Leak and Gated Channels 1

Lipid soluble substances can diffuse directly through the
phospholipid bilayer.
Water-soluble substances, such as ions, can diffuse across the
cell membrane only by passing through cell membrane
channels.
Leak and Gated Channels
Two classes of cell membrane channels include leak
channels and gated channels.
Leak channels constantly allow ions to pass through.
Gated channels limit the movement of ions across the
membrane by opening and closing.

Figure
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3.3
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Diffusion through the Cell Membrane

Leak and Gated Membrane Channels

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Osmosis 1
Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a selectively
permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to
one of lower water concentration.

Osmosis exerts a pressure, termed osmotic pressure, which is the force

required to prevent movement of water across cell membrane

Osmotic Pressure and the Cell

Osmotic pressure depends on the difference of solution concentrations
inside a cell relative to outside the cell.
A cell may be placed in solutions that are either hypotonic, isotonic, or
hypertonic compared to the cell cytoplasm.

Hypotonic
A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes and a higher
concentration of water relative to the cytoplasm of the cell.
The solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure, than the cell.
Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it to swell.
If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a process called lysis.

Isotonic
A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has the same solute concentrations
inside and outside the cell.
The cell will neither shrink nor swell.

Hypertonic
The cytoplasm of a cell in a hypertonic solution has a
lower solute concentration and higher water
concentration than the surrounding solution.
Water moves by osmosis from the cell into the hypertonic
solution, resulting in cell shrinkage, or crenation.

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Osmosis 2

Red Blood Cell Changes in Differing Solutions

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Carrier-Mediated Transport 1
Some water-soluble, electrically charged or large sized particles cannot
enter or leave through the cell membrane by diffusion.

These substances include amino acids, glucose, and some polar

molecules produced by the cell.

Carrier molecules are proteins within the cell membrane involved in

carrier-mediated transport.

Carrier-Mediated Transport 2
Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms include facilitated diffusion and
Active transport.
Facilitated diffusion does not require ATP for energy.
Active transport does require ATP for transport.

Facilitated Diffusion 1 Facilitated Diffusion 2

Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-
mediated transport process that
moves substances across the cell
membrane from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration of that substance.
Because movement is with the
concentration gradient, metabolic
energy in the form of ATP is not
required.

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Active Transport
Active transport is a carrier-mediated process, requiring ATP, that moves
substances across the cell membrane from regions of lower
concentration to those of higher concentration against a concentration
gradient.

Active transport processes accumulate necessary substances on one side

of the cell membrane at concentrations many times greater than those
on the other side.

Sodium-Potassium Pump 1
A major example of active transport is the action of the sodium-potassium
pump present in cell membranes.
The sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out of cells and K+ into cells.
The result is a higher concentration of Na+ outside cells and a higher
concentration of K+ inside cells.

Sodium-Potassium Pump 2

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Secondary Active Transport 1
Secondary active transport uses the energy provided by a concentration
gradient established by the active transport of one substance, such as
Na+ to transport other substances.

No additional energy is required above the energy provided by the initial

active transport pump.

Secondary Active Transport 2

In cotransport, the diffusing substance moves in the same direction as the
initial active transported substance.
In countertransport, the diffusing substance moves in a direction opposite
to that of the initial active transported substance.

Secondary Active Transport 3

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Endocytosis
Endocytosis is a process that that brings materials into cell using
vesicles.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when a specific substance binds
to the receptor molecule and is transported into the cell.
Phagocytosis is often used for endocytosis when solid particles are
ingested.
Pinocytosis has much smaller vesicles formed, and they contain liquid
rather than solid particles.

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Exocytosis 1
Exocytosis involves the use of membrane-bound sacs called secretory
vesicles that accumulate materials for release from the cell.
The vesicles move to the cell membrane and fuse, ultimately releasing the
material by exocytosis.
Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of digestive enzymes.

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Exocytosis 2

General Cell Structure

The interior of a cell is composed of the cytoplasm, which a jelly-like fluid
that surrounds the organelles.
Organelles are specialized structures that perform certain functions.
Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, cytoskeleton, centrioles,
cilia, flagella, and microvilli.
Generalized Cell 2

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Cell Nucleus 1
The nucleus is a large organelle usually located near the center of the
cell.

The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope, which consists of outer

and inner membranes with a narrow space between them.

The nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores, through which materials

can pass into or out of the nucleus.

Cell Nucleus 2
The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes which consist of
DNA and proteins.
During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes are loosely coiled and
collectively called chromatin.
When a cell prepares to divide, the chromosomes become tightly coiled and
are visible when viewed with a microscope.

Cell Nucleus 3
Within the nucleus are Nucleoli, which are diffuse bodies with no
surrounding membrane. that are found within the nucleus
There are usually one to several nucleoli within the nucleus.
The subunits of ribosomes, a type of cytoplasmic organelle, are formed
within a nucleolus.
These ribosomal components exit the nucleus through nuclear pores.

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Cell Nucleus 4

Chromosome Structure

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Ribosomes
Ribosome components are produced in the nucleolus.

Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins are produced.

Ribosomes may be attached to other organelles, such as the

endoplasmic reticulum.

Ribosomes that are not attached to any other organelle are called free
ribosomes.
Ribosome Production

Endoplasmic Reticulum 1
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that
extends from the outer nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm.
The rough ER is involved in protein synthesis and is rough due to attached ribosomes.
The smooth ER has no attached ribosomes and is a site for lipid synthesis, cellular
detoxification, and it stores calcium ions in skeletal muscle cells.

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The Golgi apparatus, also called the Golgi complex, consists of closely
packed stacks of curved, membrane-bound sacs.

It collects, modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids

manufactured by the ER.

The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of which are secretory vesicles,
lysosomes, and other vesicles.

Golgi Apparatus 2

Lysosomes
Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi
apparatus.
They contain a variety of enzymes that function as intracellular
digestive systems.
Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with lysosomes in order to
breakdown materials in the endocytotic vesicles.
One example is white blood cells phagocytizing bacteria.

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Lysosome Action

Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that
break down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide (H 2O2).
Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and amino acid breakdown
and can be toxic to a cell.
The enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen.
Mitochondria 1
Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are small organelles responsible for
producing considerable amounts of ATP by aerobic (with O2) metabolism.
They have inner and outer membranes separated by a space.
The outer membranes have a smooth contour, but the inner membranes
have numerous folds, called cristae, which project into the interior of the
mitochondria.
Mitochondria 2
The material within the inner membrane is the mitochondrial matrix
and contains enzymes and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
Cells with a large energy requirement have more mitochondria than
cells that require less energy.

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A Mitochondrion

The Cytoskeleton 2
The cytoskeleton gives internal framework to the cell.
It consists of protein structures that support the cell, hold organelles in
place, and enable the cell to change shape.
These protein structures are microtubules, microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments.
Microtubules
Microtubules are hollow structures formed from protein subunits.
The microtubules perform a variety of roles, including helping to support the
cytoplasm of cells, assisting in cell division, and forming essential components
of certain organelles, such as cilia and flagella.

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Microfilaments
Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from protein subunits that
structurally support the cytoplasm, determining cell shape.

Some microfilaments are involved with cell movement.

Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the cells to shorten, or contract.

Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed from protein subunits that are
smaller in diameter than microtubules but larger in diameter than
microfilaments.
They provide mechanical support to the cell.
A specific type of intermediate filament is keratin, a protein associated with
skin cells.

The Cytoskeleton 1

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Centrioles
The centrosome is a specialized area of cytoplasm close to the nucleus
where microtubule formation occurs.

It contains two centrioles, which are normally oriented perpendicular to

each other.

Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle composed of microtubules.

The centriole is involved in the process of mitosis.

Centriole

Cilia
Cilia project from the surface of certain cells.
They are responsible for the movement of materials over the top of
cells, such as mucus.
Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend from the cell and are
composed of microtubules.

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Flagella
Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia but are much longer, and
they usually occur only one per cell.

Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which propels the sperm cell.
Microvilli
Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell membrane that are
supported by microfilaments.
They do not actively move as cilia and flagella do.
Microvilli are numerous on cells that have them and they increase the
surface area of those cells.
They are abundant on the surface of cells that line the intestine, kidney,
and other areas in which absorption is an important function.

Whole Cell Activity

A cell’s characteristics are determine by the type of proteins produced.
The proteins produced are in turn determined by the genetic information in
the nucleus.
Information in DNA provides the cell with a code for its cellular processes.

DNA 1
DNA contains the information that directs protein synthesis; a process called
gene expression.
A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined together to form two
nucleotide strands.
The two strands are connected and resemble a ladder that is twisted around
its long axis.
Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base.

DNA 2
Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a specific bonding pattern to another
nucleotide on the opposite strand.
A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that provides a chemical set of instructions
for making a specific protein.
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Expression
Gene expression, which is protein synthesis, involves transcription and
translation.

Transcription involves copying DNA into messenger RNA.

Translation involves messenger RNA being used to produce a protein.

Transcription 1
Transcription takes place in the nucleus of the cell.
DNA determines the structure of mRNA through transcription.
During transcription, the double strands of a DNA segment separate, and DNA
nucleotides of the gene pair with RNA nucleotides that form the mRNA.

Transcription 2
DNA contains one of the following organic bases: thymine, adenine,
cytosine, or guanine.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil, adenine, cytosine, or guanine.

Transcription 3
DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA nucleotides.
DNA’s thymine pairs with RNA’s adenine.
DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s uracil.
DNA’s cytosine pairs with RNA’s guanine
DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s cytosine.

Transcription 4

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Translation 1
Translation occurs in the cell cytoplasm after mRNA has exited the
nucleus through the nuclear pores.

The mRNA attaches to a ribosome.

Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA are read by anticodons (3

nucleotide bases) on transfer RNA (tRNA).
Translation 2
Transfer RNA transports specific amino acids from the cytoplasm to the
ribosome-mRNA complex and initiates formation of the polypeptide chain.
The process continues until the entire polypeptide is completely formed.

Translation of mRNA in Protein Synthesis

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Overview of Gene Expression

The Cell Cycle 1

During growth and development, cell division occurs to increase the number
of cells or replace damaged or dying ones.
This cell division involves a cell cycle.
The cell cycle includes two major phases: a nondividing phase, called
interphase, and a cell dividing phase, termed mitosis.
The Cell Cycle 2
A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase performing its normal
functions.
During interphase, the DNA (located in chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus) is
replicated.
The two strands of DNA separate from each other, and each strand serves as a
template for the production of a new strand of DNA.

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The Cell Cycle 3
Nucleotides in the DNA of each template strand pair with new
nucleotides that are subsequently joined by enzymes to form a new
strand of DNA.

The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA template determines the

sequence of nucleotides in the new strand of DNA.

Replication of DNA gives two identical chromatids joined at a

centromere; both form one chromosome.

DNA Replication

Cell Genetic Content

Each human cell (except sperm and egg) contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total of
46.
The sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes total.
One pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes, which consist of two X
chromosomes if the person is a female or an X and Y chromosome if the person is a
male.
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Mitosis
Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter cells from a single parent cell.

Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and

telophase.
Prophase
During prophase the chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes.
Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to assist in breaking the
centromere between the chromatids and move the chromosomes to
opposite sides of the cell.
The nuclear membrane dissolves.
Metaphase
During metaphase, the chromosomes align near the center of the cell.
The movement of the chromosomes is regulated by the attached spindle
fibers.
Anaphase
At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids separate and each chromatid is
called a chromosome.
Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is moved by the spindle fibers
toward the centriole at one of the poles of the cell.
At the end of anaphase, each set of chromosomes has reached an opposite
pole of the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to divide.
Telophase
During telophase, the chromosomes in each of the daughter cells become
organized to form two separate nuclei, one in each newly formed daughter
cell.
The chromosomes begin to unravel and resemble the genetic material during
interphase.
Following telophase, cytoplasm division is completed, and two separate
daughter cells are produced

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The Cell Cycle

Differentiation
A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a single cell, then a great number
of mitotic divisions occur to give the trillions of cells of the body.
The process by which cells develop with specialized structures and functions
is called differentiation.
During differentiation of a cell, some portions of DNA are active, but others
are inactive.

Diversity of Cell Types

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Apoptosis
Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is a normal process by which
cell numbers within various tissues are adjusted and controlled.

In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra tissue, such as cells

between the developing fingers and toes.

In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates excess cells to maintain a

constant number of cells within the tissue.
Cellular Aspects of Aging
There are various causes for cellular aging.
• Existence of a cellular clock
• Presence of death genes
• DNA damage
• Formation of free radicals

Tumors
Tumors are abnormal proliferations of cells.
They are due to problems occurring in the cell cycle.
Some tumors are benign and some are malignant (cancer).
Malignant tumors can spread by a process, termed metastasis.

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