tthe mor flow gt Sting and contro of analysis, the aim of state CS of the bus voltage magnitud network data. Two modificatice NOW in order to achieves hicher dew oo tims a, at the cost of some a Wea higher dezres of weeuracy of the e additional computat; ae the numerical values of the data to be pracesncs soe 8 PeMEtised tha generally noisy due to the enn. : ce for the state estimation are ai ee present. Second, itis noted that there are a ae cae of variables in the system (e.g. P, @ line flows) which can be | leasures 1 e e fl e : Freee (ut ate Het utilised in the load flow aalysis, Ths, te press Involves imperfect measurements that are redundant ard the process of | estimating the system states is based on a statistical criterion that estimates the true yalue of the state variables to minimize 0 maximize the selected criterion, | A well known and commonly used criterion is that of minimizing the sum of the squares of the differences between the estimated and “rue” (ie. measured) values of a function. Most state estimation proj overdetermined systems of non-linear equations and solved as wel lind angles by proce however, introduced Solution ams in prectical use are formulated as ighted least. squares (WLS) problems. State estimators may be both stat a for power systems. This chapter will introduce State estimator. 7 Ina power system, the state variables The inputs to an est) The estimator is desi i ping in mind thi ind dynamic, Both have been developed | he basic principles, of 4 static= magnitudes and phase ct (noisy) powel ator are imperfect (n0i8y) PY a give the “best estimate” of atehere are errors in the Jes are the voltage n angles at the buses system measurement ‘i s i y: e and phase angles KS nd aasurernents, The OUP the system voltage and phase an} ke ai e mace and that thee may be Le for cary Ot evel measured quantities ontrol : ce data are then used a the energyes such & std MATION: THE BASIC SOM the problem of power meral problem af es aj values of another related tai respectively methods of Chapter 6 could However, one WOUTS oltages rather than theit averages: he best possible estimate of Jeast square estimation (se) of 150 where This shows the mean value: actual values of bus One possible way of obtain y lies in the use of the method of method, assume that & represents the desired estimate the equation y =H% f the estimate of the Vector y. The error ¥ of tHE ST that the load flow «< of the bus voltage represents given bY yo : ‘the estimate i is defined to be the USB aries estimation index J given byod of LSE. let us consid eee caate By usin to the eros cs ight uiges ut different ¥° reliable ith the inverse ofa Modern Power a d= yy : o ” yeighting matrix of dimension m5 hg) Y is a real syminetric we i nit Eh Paros diagonal matrix for simplicity, Ni, often © f ity Itis relatively siraightforward to extend the method of LSE tothe ’ form of J and to derive the following form of the normal equation, Wei HIWHS - H'Wy =0 / iy “This leads to the desired weighted least squares estimate (WLgpy R=(HWAY' HWy =a (ht ‘This pertains to minimization as the hessian 24’WH is w non, definite. Some Properties: Rewriting Eq. (14.11b) as Sky 4 where k =(H/WHY" H'W. ce Here the matrix k depends on the value of Ai and the choice of W. Using Eqs. (14.1) and (14.12b) it is easy to get the relation as fellows X= Kix + kr =(H'WH)" (H/WH) x + kr 4 a (4.3) and E{R} =Etx} (Ay In Eg. (14.14) it is assumed that the error r is statistically independent ol columns of H and the vector r has a zero mean. An estimate that saisit! Eq. (14.14) is called an unbiased estimate. This implies that the estimation em is zero on an average. E=kr ue The covariance of the error of estimation is therefore given by 5 P, = KR’ (ateneats of x being 1 The error variant Non-linear Measurement? meres 0 The case of special # Linear me Corresponds to the no”Sey Moder’ Power System Analysis v= hex) +r Where h(x) represents an m (limensional vector of nonlinear functions , gy Vatiable x, It is assumed that the components of the Vector A(t) are geet te fin their arguments thd therefore nwy be differentiated with tes aa ‘Components Of & The problem is to extend the method of least Sure the to estimate the Vector x from the data for the or y With these two vai being related through Eq. (14.14) To mimi¢ ur treatment of the linear measurement case, aswume thy « represents the desired estimate so that the estimate of the measurement yoo y be obtained using the relation only Y= A(x) (Is. This yields the error of estimation of the vector y F y- Ata) (14.175) In order to obtain the WLSE of x, we must choose the index Of esting J as follows. J=[y— AG)! W ly - A(X) (14.18) ‘The necessary condition for the index J to havea minimum at x, is given by Eq. (14.19), i [y= AG] (x) =0 (14.9) Where H (X) is the Jacobian of Ai(x) evaluated at €. In general this non-linear equation can not be solved for the desired estimate & A way out ofthis difficulty is to make use of the linearisation technique, Let us assume that an @ priori estimate x» of the vector x is available (say from the lo solution). Using Taylor series approximation, we get Yah (ee) + Hy @- H+ 7 Where Hp stands for the Jacobian evaluated at x= x, and 1 now assumed to include the effects of the higher order terms Series. Equation (14.20) can be rewritten as: Ay=y~ A(x) = Hy Are r where Ay is the perturbed measurement and Ax is the Nector x. An WLSE of x is then easily obtained asd leads to the desired expression for the linearized solution faaabonie an xt Bay + Uy! WHI HW ty - ‘Acis not likely that the estimate & obtained optimal value of the ve r¢+)) A flow A major * Jacobian (6.86) ane value of permissib small afte= Vin this leeds to the i estimation problem “a OF the nonin, xX ( =f - E+ ls x O+ Kay two (a) where the matrix ()) 18 defined as : (14.23) K(h= [Hy Wan Al w The index represents the itetatign number and 4 a Jecobian evaluated at ~ = 5 UEPRESeMts the Value of th = + 0. Usually the ip ‘ ian eva Sually: the iterative prec whenever the norm of the difference of two succeasns ee Possible to reduce the value of H a constant, possibly after / exceeds Permissible in view of the fuct that th small after a couple of iterations. Computations by hoidiag the 2 of 3. Thisis in general, ie change in estimate tencls to be rather Sut eet yoo{ Read data | | [Ferm Pu yey- nis a [FomHi)] Sst [row Gain KE. (1420) Tupaae Fee 1420 | ey Cearamme 2aiiei-1— HO |Consider the simple case of a scalar variable x and assume that the elation. between the measurement » and the variuble x is given by ip ver The Jacobian H, is easily obtained in this the explicit form ore eee H+ N= F+ BE OV? Ly - LEO) where we have used W = 1 Let the correct value of be equal to 2 and assume that due to the effec of r the measured value of y is found to be §.5, Also, assume that the initig, estimate (0) is taken to be equal to 1. The table below gives the results of the first few iterations, ind the iterative algorithm takes 1 gD LO It is apparent that the algorithm would yield the correct solution after sever ‘iterations, 14.3 STATIC STATE ESTIMATION OF POWER SYSTEMS | (10}-(12) As noted earlier, for a system with N buses, the state vector x may be define! as the 2N~ 1 vector of the NV ~ 1 voltage angles 8, ... By and the 1 voltage magnitudes Vj), V>,.. Vy» The load flow data, depending on type of bus, at generally corrupted by noise and the problem is that of processing an adequal™ set of available data in order to estimate the state vector, The readily available dats may not provide enough redundancy (the large geographical area which the system is spread often prohibits the telemeiering of all the avalible measurements to the central computing station). The redundancy factor, dei as the ratio’ min should have a value in the range 1.5 to 28 in order that & computed value of the state may have the desired accuracy. It may be neers to include the data for the power Flows in both the directions of some of I lines in order to increase the redundancy factor. In fact, some measurements’ which represent the computed yalues of such qu active and reactive injections at some remote buses may also bei vector y(X). where | admittan compone given by Letus a The Jag fAn cents of the power flow from the ith to t en by the following relations. Py =! VIEW LLY, bes (6-6 OQ, =) VAL VY) 1% 1 sin (4 8 Let us assume that the vector y has the geen y= (P, = Py Q~ Ov Pr The Jacobian Hf will then have the form H, He H, Hs Hy He n=|H, Wh Ineijy © o Wy : y, ix of dimension ar pe ctive POE there y is the identity ™ the partial derivatives © Introduction Sno Estate a NUS APPAPENe thay Fore ty ; ete arnt the prs m Tem ind May bye vie - rocessing formu the bt ; A [see Sect tee ed to Have 3 of Ref : : nod to Htve reached «teat a : es Would remain: mop a Condition, the : NE OF Leys a C rp cn @ Static prot ne ij * P 2 Salle problem and th methods ie = “evelop explicit solutions, tin Seay be ei OF the model equations for th tte nd Oe the components of the rectus ae the active and reactive power in ie © the Components of the stute Sava ce : fe Vector through the following P= IWiILY, i VIUIV INYO bs 64 @y 42 N Q=-y) IVAIVII Klaine 6464 @) 14.26 jet where | Y,| represents the magnitude and 4, represents the angle of the admittance of the line connecting the ith and jth buses. The active and reactive he jth bus, om the other hand are + q)-1v,P + Gy - IVP LY, Isin 4, (1438 al form Biepe Qn m & Vy lt 40 }) sabaatrix «(N 1H, isthe N Hy is the jnjections wit o'scae Power System Analysis __ NX Nosub-matrix of he partial-derivatives of the ative power injéetion, VWAF#hd son, Jacobian 7 wil also be » sparse matrix since ¥ is a span. matrix, TWo special cases of interest are those corresponding to the Use Of only y, Active anil reactive injections and the use of only the activ ind. TeaCtiVe fy flows in the vector y. In the first ease, 0 Y Compared to the 2V — 1 components of the state There is thus almost 4, fedundancy of measurements. However, this case is very close 10 the case Joad flow analysis and therefore provides a good measure Of the relative steengtlss of the methods of load flow and state estimation. In the second ¢yi it is possible to ensure a good enough redundancy if there are enough tle ling, in the system, One can obtain (wo measurements using tWo separate meters the two ends of a single tie-line. Since these two data should have equ magnitudes but opposite signs, this arrangement also provides with a ready check of meter malfunctioning. There are other advantages of this arrangemey, as will be discussed later. re are-a total of 2 compongns yy The Injections Only Algorithm In this case, the model equation has the form yehbd+r (1431), With the components of the non-linear function given by N Ay B= DD AVLIW I Yl cos (6 - 6 + 6 rs (14.324) x =D) MyM Py yl sin (h— 84 4) =t i i=N+1, N42... 2N (14.32) The elements of the sub-matrices H,, H. Hy and H, are then determined easily as follows Hy (i D= IVY YL sin — + 8) he Bice Ise Hy (iy N= IV INY yl 005 (6,~ 6+ 6) i= 1,2, Ja 2geNe Hy D=—AVMVINVY) | 008 (8 6 + 0) pen Vielen ieee Ha (i P= VMN | Sim (8) — 64 8) P= 1,2) au OY FAN DrayAn Introdu tion to >) May be used to ete _ SEEM Slate vectoy ‘ ined directly from the ystann a acobiay an At any s Slate estimation ag it to empleo: gorithm ee then ing the principy 2, Sinee the p the iterative ai he problem is non-linsay OF deco Mlecrithm given © of decoupling, the wane eine it Eq. (14.32) he result that the line. subininos Fee Hy become sull ay be approximated as ‘2 (1434) and ras mle LAs, tition the vectors y, x then, Eq. (14. may be rewritten in the decoupled form as the Follo S for the two partitioned components of th Ay, = Hy Art ry Ay, = Hy At, +r, (1436) Based on these two equations, we obtain the following neatly decoupled stae ation algorithms eparale equatic oe (14.35) i, +) xs (j) + (HYG) W, Ay a? A, teu f=O12 14.37) G4 1a & + AL My He OT ALD) Me = hy UN : ' j= 012 (14.38) fitions ef the weighting used to indicate the t nd g ate where the subscripts p ard at ry ac mies, matrix W and the non-linear functien h ds a ae had bbe aa vespectively. As mentioned cami if Be COMTNET To) ty a eee assumed Kriya vos VE Ae Ps errors 7, and ry ate ass RS! i 438) are aos tuly decoupled bere ‘Vive that Bqse (14372 and (1438) 31 0 mate ofthe ene te Note that Eas. (Or ear funstion depend on Ora all fal 7 while partitions of the nom sible to assume thal oe ve patie ie vec Te baie in order to estimate aay winle using Eg. (14:38) : 4 se for all #20 fans Eq. (14.37) is being used #0 ee y eG) fc vector. ad Similarly one may ee pan of the aged vn nol oo Oa pe to use He DA In ore to ee none eS a tions would be © fg. (143) allow the two equation: paeee ae solutions. A beter WAY ev flow solutions for x, ane 28 Jacoupled ns of fist d 14p.A low 4 ere weg. (13h Pe. dd Bg, (1438) Posey) resenting sown ia ie 12 ¥ = st on a esti ithms based Om fed state estimation algorithm “4 decour! of fast chart for one scheme ©fa} atom Power System Analysis Start 1 Yova-»| Read data | Chonse X(0) i Form 4 yp (!)end & ytd| (Caleulate Hj (j) and H¢()) te | | (EA ga Form &(j) and, () | Appl estimate initial v These ee the perm a of the p (Sep) Itisi = null mat Fig. 14,2 - above. The Li This alg linear es Inorder to illustrate an application ofthe injections only algorithm, consider th ie simple 2-bus system shown in Fig. 14.3, across Assuming lossless line, 4 = 90°. Also let Yy) = qq =2 and Yio= Fi= my Se 1. The power relations in this case would be PS=1% 1% 1% 9! sin & r ? hi PLEtWIIVI1% sin taee QAI NHI Hat YI IVy be & ‘chnigy a= 1 Yon! 1%? ~ {Yn V1 ¥al Tf we choose the initial values | Vj" =| Vs") = 1, 8%, = 0°, Wh power values exe F)"= P?'= 0, 0 = 02'= 1, The value ofthe. ott evaluated at the above nominal values of the variables turtoe Line Mich Foie tone 2 |“! 0 4g Hy Oe ea 0 omar 0-1 3 Application of the LSE | : ee then yields the fot Urbations in the three state vara ets OF th jor the yale State variables around their chosen Ad, = AP, — AP, & VY 0.78 AQ, —026 30, 0.38 4Q,+0.14 Ad, These equations sI e uset alee “4 = should be used in order to translate the messured values of ¢ perturbations in the active and reactive power injections into the estimate of the perturbations of the state variables. ‘o note that for the simpie example, partitions Hyand Hy are .d state estimators are the same a those given eB 1) Itis interesting atl] matrices so that the decouple above The Line Only Algorithm ped in order ii 1s SOME ‘ag seen caret, oul § osm is data for the active and reactive te fhe vector of the ‘A model equation This algorithm has been develo} void che need forsobing 108 Pa oe ‘ appeotimation linear estimation problem, which or other, In the line flow only algorithm, i line flows are processed 1m order to gener voltage difference le for this vector ste this verter across the tie-lines. Let 2 den? ; may be ex f te) y be expressed @s i croc of te er" perth: rr caer Where B is the mode-element inc ‘equation «ne cas i is i 8 in the voltage data, Since this a ie (ud 'echnique to generate ME estima ii the variance All ‘3 of he x= (BWA in equi te i aha eve £4, ( flow dal where the weighting mats 10) ple wit raat HM? of + if thi main Probe gene s knowa. *S not directly measura®) ye butVj deuptes the voltage across (he Tine connecting the ith and the jth Buges & following relation holds V, = %) UPy - QV P= V, ¥) Pi Flere Z,, stands for the inpedance of the line q This shows that the weetor 2 is related to the Vectors & Und Y if & Hebi fashion and one may use the notation zeg (xy) (aay, In view of this non-linear relation, Eg, (14.40) may be expressed in the form t= |B way’ BWe ts,» 498 This, being a non-linear relationship, can not be solved except through » numerical approach (iterative solution). The iterative form of Eq. (14.43) BG + 1) = 1B wey! BY We [ty (4.4n, p= Olea Nove that the original problem of estimation of x from the data for zis a linear problem so that the solution given by Eq. (14.40) is the optimal solution However, the data for z need to be generated using the non-linear transforma tion in Eq. (14.42), which in turn has necessitated the use of iterative Ee (14.44), Compared to the injections only iterative algorithm, the preset algorithm bas the advantage of a constant gain matrix [B’ WB)! B” W. This result in a considerable computational simplification. The concept of decoupled estimation is easily extended to the case of the line flows [15]. 144 TRACKING STATE ESTIMATION OF POWER SYSTEMS [16] Tracking the state estimation of a given power system is important for real time monitoring of the system. As is well known, the voltages of all real system randomly with time and should therefore be considered to be stocts processes. It is thus necessary to make use of the sequential techniques of Ref. (1) in order to obtain the state estimate at any get point. The power relations in Eqs. (14.25) and (14.26) are sill valid D9 be rewritten after indicating that the voltage magnitudes and angles & functions of the discrete time index k, Modem Power System Analysis _ 7 h, FEERRBRER FeeR FER. F© static WLSE formula ull the algorithms [Eg Inverse of otherwise there is n (no, : ; ‘Appen if tank of H always choose a 20 said to be ob Wer network is U aservabl: given power system is ments selected for the state est required inversion of An observaole system in terms of the imation purposes, there is no guarantee the information matri multiplications of the matrices, there is some the finite word len; i will exist. During small but definite error introduced h and quantisation, Waether or net these errors create ill-conditioning of the information matrix may be deiernined from a knowledge of the condition number of the matrix. This numbers defined as the ratio of the largest and the smallest eigen values of the information matrix. The matrix M becomes more and more ill-conditioned as its condition number increases in magnitude. Some detailed results on power system state estimation 7 echniques tay be found in [18}. Factorzation using Cholesky factorization techniques tay be fou! in Al Te helps to reduce ill-conditioning but may on aa in Ret (1) A technique to teduce computational purts SySTEM EQUIVALENCING (20) a1 simplification isto 14.6 EXTERNAL is ipntation: ce : 5 = n Fig. 14.4. One of wi paystems as shown ia Fig. 14% 0S ubsystems a8 pt acticed method: jose buses in ubsystem and consists ¢f hi One of the widely divide the given system into : these is referred to as the “intems, =” which we are really interested. THE : “direct interest tC uses which pro’ ce the third su ree Which are not of dire subsystem. Finally, the €Xternal subsystems constitut subsystem. For any give PO subsystems may be done eitheModern Power System Analysis To ill the simplification of the state stimation algorithm, consider illus: linearised measurement equauion for the injections aly case. Since the system is partitioned finto three subsystems, this equation may be written as Ay) fH Hy 0 Ax) [in 1 By, |=] ta Hoe Me Axy|+|% (14.45) m=! Dy, | | 0 Ho Heed LA%ed Led the internal measurement vector Aly, is not completely independent of the external subsystem state Ax, since Aly, depends on the oundary subsystem state cLdJ Q) follows ¢ fe fglse alae it 05 which corresponds to a 5% false alarm ue of c by making use of the table 1 is simple to carry out the tes 2d while choosing We may select, for example, d=0.0 situation, It is then possible to find the ¥ (L). Once the value of « is determined whether or not J (x) exceeds ol 123] ig detected, Ht Identification of Bad Data Once the presence of bad data identified so that they could it is processed. One way © Measurement residual J; = 3 — 5 imperative that these be tor of measurements before ents of the roved from the ve" o eval -ompon Juste the comp f we assume that the cy tte and the variance 4 i sy 20 ea ad i distribution es - : bir ct uted es! en te he magrinde of Oa 08 gs a 98% confidence level. Thus: if oy e Caan = Fate cm : 2 uc is assumed £0 be significantly larger in ee ba dat es cd! em Corresponding data is take bi ali algorithe aa component of y, thea the : et ee cs be the had data and is reMONS dots the remaining data 9"a Power System Analysi performed again to find out if there are additional bad data in the Measuremen, set. As we will see later bad measurement data are detected, eliminated anid replaced by pseudo or calculated values. Suppression of Bad Data [24] The procedures described so far in this section are quite tedious and time consuming and may not be utilized to remove all the bad data which may be present in the vector y ata given point of time. It may often be desirable on the other hand to modify the estimation algorithms in a way that will minimise the influence of the bad data on the estimates of the state vector. This would be possible if the estimation index J(x) is chosen to be a non-quadratic function, The reason that the LSE algorithm does not perform very well in the presence of bad data is the fact that because of the quadratic nature of J(), the index ‘assumes a large value fora data that is too far removed from its expected Value, To avoid this overemphasis on the erroneous data and at the same time to retain the analytical tractability of the quadratic performance index, let us choose J(%) = 8' (¥) Wg(¥) (14,498) where (J) is a non-linear function of the residual ¥. There may be several possible choices for this function. A convenient form is the so-called “quadratic flat’ form. In this case, the components of the function g (y) are defined by the following relation. 8 )= 5, =a, for 3,/9,> a, (14.49) Where 4; is a pre-selected constant threshold level. Obviously, the perform ance index J(x) may be expressed as » for Filo; < a, fn I@) = Oy, (1450) =1 fad each component his & quadratic nature for small values of the resus! bl 4 constent magnitude for residusll magnitudes in excess of the threshold Figute 145 shows at Ne ; Quadratic choise, MBE OF J, (2) forthe quadratic and ihe 9The m £ quadratie may b aan mimicked in org Be er tO dletive “(1+ 1) (I) 4 {a where the 1X Cis dig agonal and ity Clements tt) Onan Te Computed ag = 0, for Fos a i. Comparing this Paring this solution with th that give ae Mt given in Ba. (1425) it cular choice of 3 Fe eae index in Eq. (14,49, 4 isto the estimation als in excess of tn achieved by the t 'Y Me production of a null value for the ‘Mes Of the residual, any isure that the data pr oducing resid the estimate. This ig matnx C for large va‘ threshoid level will not 14.8 NETWORK OBSERVABILITY anp PSEUDO. MEASUREMENTS A minimum amount of data is necessary for Stute Estimation (SE) to be effective. A more analytical way of determining whether a given data is eno for SE is called. obseryability analysis. I: forms an integral part of aay real time State estimator.The ability to perform state estimation depends on whether sufficient measurements are well distributed throughout the system Mies Sufficient measurements are available SE can obtain the . peor of the : = the network is observable. As explained ex Be syste cea wrement Jacobian matrix is equal * nk of the measurement es of available Sec. 14.5 this is true when the rank of measures to the number of unknown state vata es pre Jacobian matrix is dependent on the lod etwork topology say a syhere to add additonal data or sation is to improve the accuracy of the The additional measurements or telemetry Measuremeats as well as on the An auxiliary problem in state Pseudo measurements to a Powe! calculated state ie. 10 improve obs fepresent a cost for the Ne aE jn the central System, and software data Penissing 63 ee, Pieudo measurements filling of ARTE any pivot comes ve are the functions of the 0° g factorizatl singular, and tbe CObservability can be obecked dunil : i anarix may be si servabili ion, the estirt system in order observebilit remote terminal nde ei nputer. Selection cf propriate weight aigorl sis we t ion. faciorizat ss, anow ihe Small or zero during ae out meayaring it, we a we s pout orci Bit say at be pet injecrion OU ping nace. For cs To find the value of ADT the meas oe Power system beyond ied ould generally b Hormally know the Sent measure! telemetry channels (-¢- 4 it generagis Hou8? mally beenModern Power S\ aon Ae State estimator). If these channels are out, we can perhaps communicate with th. ‘Operators in the plant control room by telephone and ask for these vatues an enter them manually. Similarly, if we require a load-bus MW and MYAR fey @ pseudo measurement, we could use past records that show the relationsh between an individual load and the total system load. We can estimate the a system load quite accurately by finding the total power being generated ang estimating the line losses. Further, if we have just had a telemetry failure, we epuld use the most recently estimated values from the estimator (assuming tha itis mun periodically) as pseudo measurements. Thus, if required, we can give the state estimator with a reasonable value to use as a pseudo measurement at any bus in the system. Pseudo measurements increase the date redundancy of SE. If this approach is adapted, care must be taken in assigning weights to various types of measurements, Techniques that can be used to determine the meter or pseulo measurement locations for obtaining a complete observability ‘of the system are available in Ref. [25]. A review of the principal observability analysis and meter placement algorithms is available in Ref. [26]. 14.9 APPLICATION OF POWER SYSTEM STATE ESTIMATION In real-time environment the state estimator consists of different modules such as network topology processor, observability analysis, state estimation and bad Gata processing, The network topology processor is required for all powe: system analysis. A conventional network topology program uses circuit breaker status information and network connectivity data to determine the connectivity of the network. Figure 146 is a schematic diagram showing the information flow beiweet the various functions to be performed in an operations control centre computer system, The system gets information from remove terminal unit (RTU) “tat encode measurement trunsducer outputs and opened/closed status informatio? into digital signals which are sent to the operation centre over comnunicat Gievie, Couuol cetireiean alo, tranomait commandstssct «6 TisRne generators and openiclose to circuit breakers and switches. The measurements of generator output would be directly used by the AGC (Chapter 8). However, rest of the data will be processed by: the state est before being used for other funstions such as OLF (Optimal Losd HOW Se Before raming the SE, we must know how the transmission Us S connected to the load and generator buses i.e. network topology: ‘This ised Changing and hence the eurent telemetered breakerfowirch status must te to restructure the electrical system model. This is called the rework (pa program ‘or system status processer or network configurator: = tor — ‘System Model‘@N1U20 JoNUOD WAYshs JeMod y¥ 9" “Bia | / ‘pWetsand Sceyon suuety AvidsIq PUE speoyieno Bere swaiqaud | requaiog “UONEIASP Bayon pue | t |_| "speopeno: oun worsee5| siskjeuy | C ouwtute| | ravecee5 a pa, 2s ene | | | ——— — Th | | soneyndues | | roar arse pet 5a Jo a3 | siojoey uopedionsed \Fas pue siuiod aseg \f a net SjeuBIs | Jojewnss ees | e Jemoyesies | | Sindino sye18NeD| —Yonejaued ‘guoneysgns, 7 quawdinba | UST way yndino | | SwueweinseaLi aN a suoneouNWW0S Oo ~ | pue Anouroias SWWETY IuaWeuNseew peg | | aya fo igi, | HOLWWLS3 siojes0do 40} Aejdsiq givis |_| _ pew ___| sosse901q ABojodo | washes payepdry .c ‘suoneaipus emeie youme/eo. Jopoyy wershsModern Powe! SYSteM ANalysis: = The output of the state estimator ive. IVI, 6 Py, Oy together with latage mada form the basis for the economic dispatch (ED) or minimum emi (MED), contingency analysis program etc. Further Reading The weighted least-squares approach to problems of static state estimation jp Power systems was introduced by Schweppe [1969-74]. It way eather Originated in the aerospace industry. Since 1970s, state estimators have been installed on a regular basis in new energy (power system or load dispatch) control centres and have proved quite helpful. Reviews of the state of the art in state estimation algorithms based on this modelling approach were Published by Bose and Clements [27] and Wu [28]. Reviews of external system modelling are available in [29]. A generalised state estimator with integrated state, stutys and parameter estimation capabilities has recent! ly been proposed by Alsac et a} {30]. The new role of state estimation and other advanced analytical functions in competitive energy markets was discussed in Ref. [31]. A comprehensive bibliography on SE from 1968-89 is available in Ref. 32). ission Aisparcy 14.3 ( PROBLEMS I Ne ee 14.1 For Ex. 66 if the power injected at buses are given as S, = 1.031- HIN, S2= 05 + jl.0 and S,=— 1.5 — 70.15 pu. Consider W, = Wy = — W, = 1. Bus 1 is a reference bus. Using flat start, find the estimates of 1V,| and §, Tolerance = 0.0001, fAns: Vj = 120%, Vi = 1.01223 20.4907, V5 = 0.99824 2-2. 1864": Final values: V, = 1.0420% ¥, = 1.080215 2-1,356%, V, = 10831 LZ 3.736". 142 For sample system shown in Fig. P. 14.2, assume that the three meters have the following characteristics, i Meter Fuil scale (MW) Accuracy (MW) © Mi 100 £8 002 {00 #4 100,4 oe 25 My Flo. Ptga line as sh a3 shown g le. Using pe load a Ficaene OW, calculate ments: are owing through the ne calculate the DeSt e&tiniate of i é . = 0 rad, M, /0-4pu ce 1 4 (100 MVA base) Fig. P. 14.3 Meter Full s Meter Standard le (MW) Deviation (o Reoding in full seale M, 100 l M>, 100 4 a REFERENCES a ie sé Aided Power Sysrem an, Camputer Alle PWC ! ibis, AK, DP. Kothari and a f a “and a ea i Tota MeGrawHl Analysis: andl Control, Tate eat eae his rata Mera Nagrath, 1J. and DP, Kem , fe New Delhi, 1994 acne rower 3. Monticelli, A., State Estimation Si pea i ach, Kluwer Acad PUBIETIT seit ‘vt as oe 4. Kusic, GL. Computer Mee rer cane 5. Wood, A.J, and BF. Woleth™ i Ea, John Wiley, NY. 1996 emer APP Pret ion aedHR cern power sytem fray 6. Grainger, J.J. and W:D, Stevenson, Power System Anaiysis, MeGrw-Hiny yy 1994, * 7, Deauisch, R,, Estimation Theory, Prentice-Hall Inc. NJ, 1965 8. Lawson, CAL. and RJ. Hanson, Solving Least Squares Problems, Prenyty Ine., NJ., 1974, ; 9. Sorenson, H.W., Parameter Estimation, Merce! 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