Pe) cp Characteristics and Performance of Power — Transmission Lines 5.1 INTRODUCTION the characteristics and performance of This chapter deals primarily with in power systems is the flow transmission lines. A problem of major importance of load over transmission lines such that the voltage at various nodes is maintained within specified limits. While this general interconnected system problem will be dealt with in Chapter 6, attention is presently focussed on performance of a single transmission line so as to give the reader a clear understanding of the principle involved. Transmission lines are normally operated with a balanced three-phase lou: the analysis can therefore proceed on a per phase basis. A transmission Tine of a per phase basis can be regarded as 4 two-port network, wherein the senine: end voltage V, and current Is i voltage Vr are related to the receiving-en current Jy. through ABCD constants as Vs AB ‘| sll ip) Le Pills Also the following identity holds for ABCD constants: 5?) AD - BC=1 These constants can be determined ea: by suitable approximations lumping the line impedan For Jong lines exact analysis has to be carried oat b: distribution of resistance, inductance and capacitance prem ie , constants of the line are determined therefrom. Equations for i evel i Jine and receiving- and sending-end circle diagrams will al iil il this chapter so that various types of em it sth Lis? sily for short and mediu! lene aie ce and shunt 8° ni Vv conse cp sors and OE" fete tle d conditions ¢4n "Reler to Appendix B.The following nomenclature has been adopted in this chapter ance of Power Transmission Lines = series impedancefmnit lengtly/phase shunt admittanceAinit length/phase to neutral rs resistance/init len gth/phase = inductance/unit lengtlyphase = capacitance/unit length/phase to neutral {'= transmission line length = total series impedance/phase Y= yl= total shunt admittance/phese to neutral Note: Subscript § stands for a sending-end quantity and subscript & stands for a receiving-end quantity §.2 SHORT TRANSMISSION LINE formance ¢f is the flow For short lines of leagth 100 km or less, the total 50 Hz shunt admittance Se ie (jwCI) is small enough to be negligible resulting in the simple equivalent eircut ious nodes 8 rig. 5 need ye of Fig. 5.1 , tly. foousse! ty hr aly set | reader 20% | i teal) g ‘ eh | ree pm = ue aon Fig. 61 Equivalent cicut ef @ shor ine STIS nite, This being a simple series cirekit, the relutionship berween sendin vd voltages and currents can be inmmediately written as (MC lc] = 1 wort line is shown in Fig. 5.2 for the receiving The phasor diagram for the sort line I current case, From this, figure we all I¢L = [(IVpl c08 eet HIRD? + {IV sin Oe +lxy') l= [Veh = (Ng + MI (e+ X) (a) DIV) I 605 oy + X sin Ae) UP CR de Fh ivy! DAR wy [pM Al » is ail jerion lines, shant alte I iigtht "For overhead transi pisalvey (eC) a9 the line conductanceModern Power System Analysis The last term is usually of negligible order. 2 . NR aux m5 IWGILY, is £08 hy + ee sind etapa say Expanding binomially and retaining first order terms, We get IVet=t ta ‘ or Ig) = Wy t+ 1M (R cos oy + X Sin oe) (55) ‘The above equation is quite accurate for the normal load range. Vs y ‘ ‘ Va (ax b ~—t = = x 98 as 1, 4 x Vpitos #a | Velsin UR ’ . “t=i52lk Fig. 5.2 Phasor diagram of a short line for lagging current Voltage Regulation Voltage regulation of a transmission line is defined as the rise in voltaze atthe receiving-end, expressed as percentage of full load voltage, when full load at ‘Specified power factor is thrown off, i.¢. Per cent regulation = WrolWVaa! 100 an Wr where Wpdl = magnitude of no load receiving-end voltage WWqq! = magnitude of full load receiving-end voltage (al a specified power factor) For short line, !Vqg! = [Vsl, IN! = Wy Pee ceat regulation = WVs!-'at WeelInthe above derivation, 4, has been considered positive for'a lagging load It will be negative for a leading load. INR COs Gy —UUIX si oe IV, (for Heading, load) Per cent regulation = «100 (5.8) Voltage regulation becomes negetive (i.e, load voltage is more than no load voltage), when in Eq, (5.8) | X sin Gy > R608 dp, OF tan dy (leading) > | ralso follows trom Eg. (5.8) that for zero vohage regulation tun y= = oot | x RE 9) | ie, alleading) = 5-6 = ever, an the transmission {ine impedance. This is, how' one is she angle o' ; where 0's the ang ition forze-0 regulation is delermined approximate condition follows: The exact cond - x Ys o s . oe ve \te o : ia ie phasor dlagram under zero reguaten condition ae ingran cader conditions of 121 voltage 5 ss the phasor di Figure £3 shows : WWst= (Vel ec= 08 AD WW sn ZAQD= Gq iv, Miloer System Analysis =o ysism An se ZAOD = sin 2 Vl Tt follows fi 's from the geometry of angles at A, that for zero voltage regulation, 1 ilZ1 2V«l) (5.10) op (leading) = | =~ 0+sin Nahnre acts From the above discussion it is seen that the voltage regulation of a line is heavily dependent upon load power (decreases) as the power factor of a lag zero zt a leading power factor given by Eq. (5.10) ‘actor, Voltage regulation improves ing load is increased and it becomes \ Example S51 | A single-phase 50 Hz generator supplies an inductive load of 5,000 kW at a ging by means of an overhead transmission line power factor of 0.707 lag 90 km long, The line resistance and inductance are 0.0195 chm and 0.63 mE to be kept constant at 10 per km. The voltage at the receiving-end is required KV. Find (2) the sending-end voltage and voltage regulation of the line; (b) the value of the capacitors to be placed in parallel with the load such that the regulation is reduced to 50% of that obtained in part (a); and (c) compare the transmission efficiency in parts (a) and (b), Solution The line constants are R= 0,0195 x 20 = 0.39 Q 3.96 2 X= 314 x 063 x 107 x 20 (a) This is the case of a short line with = J, = Iy given by Ws ea =17A From Eq. (5.5). Wel = Welt HEL (R CoS Op + X sin dp) = 10,000 + 707(0.39 x 0.707 + 3.96 * 0.707) V = 12.175 kV Voltage regalation = Se 10 190 21.75% (b) Voltage regulation desired = a = 10.9% 1VsI-10 —— =0109 10—— oe | “eal alka | *e Characteristics and Pertormanes ce ot Power Tr, aNsMission Lines | 133 OF NEW value of |y sy! = 1109 kV Figure 5.4 shows the equivate nt cireuit of the | placed in parallel with the line with weap load acitive reactance p ! d) Daa th v ad is es Fig. 5.4 Assumting Cos de now to be the power factor of load taken t ‘and capacitive reectance ether, we can Write (11.09 — 10) x 109 = 14 108 cos. ¢ ig + Xsin gy) o Since the capacitance does not draw any real power, we have ine uph= 5000 (ii) nH 10x c0s vp 10 Solving Eqs. (3) and Gi), we get wos ¢ 0.911 lagging lpt= 549 fo=lp—t = S49{0.911 — i412) — 7070.7 — 0.707) = 029+ 73.7 Note that the real part of 0.29 appears due the approximation in (i) Ignoring it we have [c= RTBT A |¥_,|_ 10. 000 ke Saxe “ftel 277 Cet yF x of transmission: ) Efficiency a output * output + loss Case (a) __ 5000 r= 96.2% } 7 So0-+ (701) = 0.09 x195000 5000 +£(549)2x0.30x10> Tt is to be notes e noted that by placing a capacitor in parallel with the load, the Teceiving-e ei iving-end power factor improves (from 0.707 lag to 0.911 lag), the line e regulation decreases current reduces (from 707 A to 549 A), the line valt improves (from yalue) and the transmission efficienc (one half the previou: a powerful method 96.2 to 97.7%), Adding of improving the performance of a further towards the end of this chapter. sapacitors in parallel with load is transmission system and will be discussed Example 5.2 ives 5 MVA at 6 kV. 0.85 lage ig. 5.5 rece’ F station t ‘de of a transformer from a powe! se of 8 and 2.5 ohms, respectively alled at each end of the line. The d while the 33 kV side is star are 05 A substation as shown in factor on the low voltage si cable having per phase resistance and reactat Identical 6.6/33 kV transformers are Ins 6.6 KV side of the transformers is delta connec’ connected, The resistance and reactance of the star conns and 3.75 ohms, respectively and For the delta cont windin 36 ohms. What is the voltage at the bus at the power station end? ected wind are 0.06 and Load Cable 6.68/33 KV 3316.6 KV Power station end Substation end Fig. 55 us choose Solution Itis convenient here to em ploy the per unit method. Let Base MVA= 5 6.6 on low voltage side Base kV = = 33 on high voltage side Cable impedance = (8 + (25) Miphase _ BA J2)XS. . (0,037 + MOIS) mH 03) tar impedance of 6. kV winding of the transformer 2 + fOv12) M/phase = £0.06 + 036) = wou 3ERECIETISNSS and Performance ol Power Transmission Lines | Jia5 = I Per unit transformer impedance. (G02 + j0.12)x5 (667 (0.0046 + 50.030) pu Total series impedance = (0.037 + 40.0115) + 2(0.0046 + j0.030) (0.046 + j0.072) pu Given: Load MVA = 1 pu 1 6 Load voltage = 0.91 pu 6.6 1 Load current = —— = 1.1 pu 091 Using Eq. (5.5). we ge IV) = 0.91 + 1.110.046 x O85 + 0.072 x 0.5 = 0.995 pu = 0.995 x 66 = 6.57 kV (line-to-Hine) Example 5.3 Input to a single-phase short line shown in Fig. 56 is 2.000 KW at 018 lage power factor. The line has a series impedance of (0.8 + 4) obms. If the load ‘yoltage is 3. KV find the load and rece ad power factor: Also find the supply voltag R x 2,000 KW a atogat se jagging Fig. 55 Solution 3 problem e ditions —load voltage and input a ‘with mixed-end conditions—load voltage = is a probl a ae fare specified. The exact solution is outli 3 es Sending-end a wes g-end active | ¢ ivelreactive powe tive power + For active power . . \ WW! [Jt-c0s. p= Vg! Mens > WR | For reactive powet = a Wt UN sin y= Wel Wh sin oe F ints | _ ____ Modern Power System Analys Squaring (i) and (ii), adding and simplifying, we get VQ? MER = Ie? HE 214 HEP CUMR 005 Gp + IHIX sin dy) + UEP (R + X°) a) Note: This, in fact, is the same as Eq, (5.4) if IZ? is cancelled throughout, For the numerical values given = : zh = (R? + X°) = 032 tygh l= ZOU = 2,500 x 10° 0.8 IVI Ml cos. d= 2,000 x 10° [Vet WW sin dp = 2.500 10° x 0.6 = 1,500 x 10° From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we 2000 <10* = 0-41 Wcos: dg = Fe yet — 4 Wisin §9= ao Substituting all the known values in Eq, CH). We have 2 20 42x 3000 IF | 04 (2.500 10")? = (2,000) uP 1500«10° 04x 3000 Simplifying, we £¢t oz ult — 11.8 x 10° Lure 6.25 x 10° which upon solusion yields Wi= 725 A Substituting for 1/1 in Eq. (iv), we get CO% by = 0:82. Loall Pp = Wd eos oe = 1,790 kW = 3,000-% 725 * 0.82 Wel = Il cums gg = 2,000 2000 3.44 kV sl 7x08Nominal-7 Representation If all the shunt capacic nominal-T circuit show FT representation equations can Be written: Ip. Wa + LADD Va= ¥o+ ty (Z2) Substituting for Vp and J, in the last equatiog, we get Vs= Ve + Yq (22) + (22) | de{ we +1; | =¥,(1+ 2} +1242)a Modern Power System Analysis Rearranging the results, we get the following equations 1 rt y 14—2y) 24+—¥Z 4 [tk a7) 4 t )r (5:12) s I y {i+ 5 yz), \-'* Nominal-7 Representation In this method the total line capacitance is div ided into two equal parts which “ w in the ne nal- 7 are lumped at the sending- and receiving-ends resulting in the nom representation as shown in Fig. 5.9. N Ve We v2 Ve Fig.5.9 Medium line, nominal7 representation From Fig. 5.9, we have 1 San : Ig= Tat Yel + 9 Vit Ve = Vp + (iy +} Vad 1 ipzdet LVp + 5 ¥1Vs(14+L9Z) +e? 1 " rd Vp¥ | 1+ ar (et +4 (14412) Finally, we have Listy (‘] t {14 ty2) Z De Whe deve) (and-z: . 1 7) (572) It should be noted that nominal-7 and tominal-r with the above : se by opel! not equivalent to each other. The reader shouldl verify this fact by aprly ‘delta transformation to either one. i | Using the nominal-7 method, find the sending-end velas® a regulation of 4 250 km, three-phase, 50 Hz, tcansmission line °° ro eg ue eonstatt ng 9MVA at 08 legging power factor 1 conductors are spaced equilateral ohav/km and its effective dian >a balanced load at 132 kv. The line cis 0.11 3m apart. The conductor tesistance ris 1.6 cm. Neplect loakance 30 Solution “Now, 1 ='0.461 log” = 0146) lop 124 mata 0.7788x 08 2.0282 _ log Dir c= = 0.0094 Em R= 0.11 x 250 = 27.5 9 = 2afk = 2x 50 x 134 x 197 2 R4 t= Ye, x 250 = 97.4 9 275 + j974 = 101.2 LAP a JO = 314 x 0.0094 x 19° x 259 290" = 738 x 104 cop 2 = 1093 £26.99. = (04 1 738.10-+zoyrtouacrs 76.2 +1012 274.2" 1093 x 10 236.9" = 76.2 + 2.85 21642 + 11.06 237.3" = 82.26 + (748 = 82.5 252° Ic (line) = 82.6 x/3 = 143 KV 14 Lyz=1 40.0374 21612" = 0.964 + por 1V yo} (line no toad) = Voltage regulation = (ON LINE—RIGOROUS SOLUTION TRANSMISSt 54 THELONG ers Of a line aye not lumpee’ but the fact that the parameters o For ines over 250 eu i avitou im earned oe ad “disututed. vif140 | Modem Power System Analysis Is ker dlx 20x ty Ip oe = | 4 1 Vat Vx) yex) Fig. 5.10 Schematic diagram of a long line al return (of zero impedance) of s one phase and the neutr ction of the line at a distance + Figure 5.10 show a transmission line. Let dx be an elemental se oa series impedance zéx and @ shunt admittance from the receiving-end having ydx, The rise in voltage’ to neutral over the elemental section in the direction of increasing x is dY,. We can write the following differential relationships across the elemental section: : a 4) aVx = 1, cde or (5.15) ¢ kind of connection (e T or m) assumed for the first order differential relauens- 9 x, we obtain Tt may be acticed that th elemental section, does not effect the Differentiating Eq. (5 14) with respect di Substituting the value of “ from Eq, (5.15), we get i ‘This is a linear differential equation whose general solution can be weitle® ‘as follows: ¥, = Cye™ + Ge? on where ae ls) ¢ arbitiary constants to be evaluated fq. (5.17) with respect to and C, and C Pifferentiating ere V, is the compen expression ofthe ems Voltage, whose snigaie on wary, with distance along the fine.4 Characteristics and Pertorman Power Transmission a formar ee NOI RSH TEESE : 102 of Power Transmission Lines | 14 as Cy7e" = Cyye® 5.19) where i (5.20) The constants Cand C; may be evaliaed by using the end conditions, i.e when «= 0, V, = Vj and 1, = Typ Sabstituring these values in Eqs. (5:17) and (5.19) gives Vr= 1+ O 1 p= = (C Cy 7 ie) which upon solving yield With C, and Cz as determined above, Eqs. (S 17) and (5.19) yield the solution for V, and 1, as ; + (Mal = (We ln) (ae tle (521) f re) Pree esika ihe characieriste wipedance of theline and pis ale Be propasation constant Knowing Vp fq and the parameet of hind J, at any distanve * al ane line, vsiag Bq, (5.21) complex ong the line ean be easily number ams values of V, found out. ‘A snore convenient form of expression for voltage and current is O9tai sexendicing bypetbolic functions. Rearengins Fa. (5-21). 6 get Va Vy (+ tee (E ined byam ner ———"—S—(—é‘—™N functions, a8 ducing hyperbolic (5.22) rewritten after intro IpZ, inh These can be V,= Vr cosh w+ 1,= Ico + Ye + sinh z, sinh 7 me (5.23 cosh q! || I, ae Here A=D=cosh al B=Z, sish 9 (624) c= tinh 4 Z. In case {Vlg} is known. LY fe }ea" be easily found by inverting Eq. (5.23) ‘Thus Vv, = (rl : a Me (625) i) lc Alls Evaluation of ABCD Constants ts gives ™ ine can be evaluated from the resul umber as The ABCD constants of a long fi Faq, (5.24). It must be noted that ¥=W1YE is in general a complex m can be expressed as v= ot ji (5.20) mbers iavalved in evening 22? function of complex ™ of the three methods eiven belo” The hyperbolic puted by any one constants can be omy Method 1 cosh (al + jal) = cosh al cos (t+ j sinh ol sin it ea sinh (af + jf) = sinh, al.cos A+ j cosh al sin rg-ns in Ba. (5:27) 6" as 1 sinh, cosh, sin and cos ‘of real number Note thal in standard tables. jooked up Method 2sinh i Z(14. 42) og: Ci VEZ 1+ 6) (5.28a) This series converges Fapidly for values of ? usually ep r 2 i a fd ad Sncountered for power lines and can be ¢ mveniently approximated 8 above The COmespondin | expressions for ABCD Constants are : | A=Daly 2 ) | Buz (1 + (5.28) : : carer } 6 BF Teabove Approximation is computationally convenient §P to 400/500 km, lod 3 and quite accurate for Ogle y- pat Sosh (al + j1) = — hay hy : iaiy = eel —e-nly Bi Cod 50) = Ee eet 5.5 INTERPRETATION OF THE LONG LINE EQUATIONS already said in Eq. (5.26), vis a complex. number which can be expressed 7= a+ js The real part ais called the attenuation constant and called the phase the imaginary part is constant. Now V, of Eq. (3.21) can be written as v pitleretem len Bha, ght) $e ie Where P= 2 (Vy + WZ) = Ly ~ Zz.) voltage ¥,(1) can be written from Eg. (5.30) as y= e| Affe Llp ytrney ; (5.30)—_— 144 | Modern Po ¢ consists of (WO Thus they repre wor System Analysis_ nich is a function terms each of wh cent two travelling waves, The instantaneous vol af two variables—time and distance ue (5.32) Now V.)= am cost ut + Ax + A) (5.33) ig sinusoidally distributed along the distance distance, At any instant of time 4 Ya he ceceiving-end with amplitude inert g exponentially with from U as shown in Fig. 5.11 (@> 0 fore line having resistance). Envelop &* att wat J Sending end x Receiving end = Direction ct travelling wave Fig. 5.11 Incident wave wAy3). Thus es in distance phase by ( Line fing-end and is the incident wave !ly in going from the send «time Af, the distribution advanc is travelling towards the recei plitude to decrease exponent Ate this wave Josses ease its amy to the receiving-end Now ™ cos (ut — Ae + dy) c yoltage distribution retards in distance phase by (ods. from the receiving-end to the sendin in going from the receiving-ent en qo the “After time At th sthis is the reflected wave travellir vith amplitude decreasing exponentially sending-en!, as Shown in Fig. 5.12, vat any point along the Fie, WS voltage is the s present at ihe point (EA) (5 32)), The same is tn se for incidant and reflected euerent waves &8 ected mn of incident and Fell ye of current be similar ve, curren" voltage waves waves: Expressior written down bY proceeding from FA) (5.2). Hf Z is pure resistane’ e vied {rom voltage waves by dividing By ZEnvelop g-«x Sending end x=1 ik Ditection of traveling wave Fig. 5.12 Rofiected wave If the load impedance Z, = it = Z. ® characteristic impedance, the reflected voltage wave is zero (V_— Zl, A line terminated in its characteristic impedance is called the infanit The incident wave under this condition cannot distinguish between a termina- tion and an infinite continuation of the line. Power system engineers normally call Z, the surge impedance. It has a value of about 400 ohms for an overhead line and its pl ingle normally varies from 0° to — 15°. For underground cables Z, is roughly one-tenth of the value for overhead lines. The term surge impedance is, however, used in connection with surges (due to lightaing or switching) or transmission lines, where the lines loss can be neglected such that the line is terminated in its 0). 221,=( = ju Surge Impedance Loading (SiL) of a transmission line is defined as the power delivered by a line to purely re: istive load equal in value to the surge ‘impedarice of the line, Thus for a line having 400 ohms surge impedance, Val Ve! x 1000 kW V3 x 400 2.5 I,l? kW ’ \ where IVgl is the fine-to-line receiving-end voltage in KV. Sometimes. it is “found convenient to express line loading in per unit of SLL. ie. us the ratio of the power transmi st impedance loading. . : Se sure current vary karmonically along the line with | qespect tan thesparccoseunte. A compete voltig or cuen' eyle alors the corresponds - of 2a tad in the angular argument tx. The ae Ae see os the wavelength. SIL= /3 (5.35)tem AnalySS jodern Power : oe = je2dim transmission fine P, nductance/unit length) > Now for a typical power g (hunt cor i i) y= Gol? = (uelr t+ judd) yt 2 one: = jo (LO) ('- = ( we y= 0+ 8 = Jiao)” icp yt : (a) (3.37) pra(Lo” oe Now time for a phase change of 27ris I/f's, where f= u/27ris the frequency in cyclesis. During this time the wave travels a distance equal to A, ic. one wavelength. =. Welocity of propagation of wave, y= & =f\ m/s (5.39) which is a well known result. For a lossless transmission line (R =0, G = 0), “Fag (640) fLo™ ™ v=f\= LO!” mis 5.41) For a single-phase transmission line Ls, 2 arne a POs | ——_Chatacterstes. ana Performance ot Power + son Lines = (agko)" he ‘Actual velocity ‘of the propagation Somewhat less than the Velocity of ligh Wavelengi V velocity of light , along the line would be B af @ 50 Hz power transmission i app roximately given by ~3x108 | de 50 7 0000 km | Practical transmission lines ae much shorter than this (usually a few hundred kilometres), i n. J ds 10 be pointed out here th are for illustration only mi tine, lat the waves drawn in Figs. SI and 5.12 power transmis J do not pertain wo @ reat Beas | A three-phase 50 Hz transmission line is 400 im long, The Voltage at the sending-end is 220 kV. The line parameters are r = 0.125 obmvkm, x = 04 ohmn/ km and y= 28 x 10° mhoskm. Find the following: (® The sendin; on the line. (ii) The maximum permissible line length if the rece iis mot to exceed 235 kV. Gii) For part (i), the maximum permissible line frequency, if the no-load ‘voltage is mot to exceed 250 kV. end current and receivit nd voltage when there is no-los 1g-end no-load voltage The total line parameters are R= 0.125 x 400 = 500 2 X= 04 = 400 = 160.0 9 ¥=28 x 10% x 400 200% = LI? x 107 2x7 U = R+ JX = (50.0 + J1600) = 1680 2 72.6" 0 YE= 112 x 107 20P x 168 272.6" = O1B8 2162.6" G) At no-load Vg= Api ty = CVp Aand C are computed as follows; Aat+ tial+ Le 0188 21626" = O91 + 70.028148 | Modem Power System Analysis lAl= 0.91 88 ' O.188 4162.6° C= YI + YZ) = 1.12 x 103 290° (14 90,55" = 1.09 x 10 Now Wel = 22 kV 1.09 x» 10x24 x 10° = 152 4 Ugh= 10 Wp It is to ke noted that under no-load conditions, the receivin; a (242 KV) is more than the sending-end voltage. This phenomenon is Known as the Ferranti effect and is discussed at length in Sec. 5.6 Gi) Maximum permissible no-load receiving-end volt 220) 1Al = Vy = 0.936 Ve Now hedtety 2 La 6 =lt 5 Fx j28 x 10 x (0.125 + 70.4) = (1 - 0.56 x 10°F) + 70.175 x 10°F Since the imaginary part will be less than . th of the real part, [Al can be approximated as = 0.936 or cn 220 (ii) l= = 0.88 iti a \ ; ; A= 1+ 5 x jli2x 10% E( oxt 2 XJ2% 107 Ff 50-4 60 =) Neglecting the imaginary pait, we can write I 9* 1.12 x 10% x 160 x (50)ee ae Characteristics and Partorm,; ance of Powe! Transn Simplifying, we obtain the maximum pennissitie ssion Lines | 149: f= 509 4 [ees Win Example 5,5 the line is open circuited witt a receiving-end KY, find the rms value and phase angle of the following: fa) The incident and reflected volt $10 neutral at the receiving-end, (b) The incident and reflected voltages to receiving-end. heutral at 200 km from the {c) The resultant voltage at 200 km from the receiving-end Note: Use the receiving-end line to neutral vc ¢ as reference. Solution From Example $5, we have following line parameters r=0.125 Ohm: x = 0.4 Oko; y= j2.8 x10" eho == (0.125 + j04) Okm = 0.42 272.6" Oem v= ( (28 x 10" x 0.42 (90° + 72.6%"? = 1,08 x 107 Z81.3° = (0.163 + 1.068) x 10° = a+ ji Ei a= 0.163 x 10°; f= 1,068 x 10° {a) At the receiving-end; For open circuit [y= 0 Incident voltage = —* = BUSS _ 63.51 AO" KV (to neutral) = 6351 20? KV (lo neutral) ()) AL200 kam froms the receiving-en4 Vag sm yom Ancident voltage = | = 63.51 exp (0.163 x 10 x 200) acexp (/1068 & 10 « 200)SO fae aor Kv C6 neutral) — at ,-h 200 km Ve Reflected voltage = 3" = 6351 tO @A28 = 6147 4-12.2° kV (to neutral) (c) Resultant voltage at 200 km from the receiving-end = 65.62 212.2° + 61.47 2 - 12.2° = 124.2 + 0.877 = 1242 £0.4° Resultant line-to-line voltage at 200 km = 1242 x V3 = 215.1 kv 5.6 FERRANTI EFFECT As bas been illustrated in Example 5.5, the effect of the line capacitance is to cause the no-load feceiving-end voltage to be more than the sending-end Voltage. The effect becomes more Pronounced as the line length increases. This Phenomenon is known as the Ferranti effect. A general explanation of this effect is advanced below: Substituting x = / and 1x = 0 (no-load) in Eq. (5.21), we have Vo Netlt, Ne en (3.43) Fig. 5.13 auation shows that at ¢= 0, the incident (&;, Tee ion ay Mh toe gee) ‘Incident voltage ‘Wave increases xponentially ‘in ‘magnitudeVv, A ; ( Je) and tums through a Positive angle (t (represented by phasor OB, while the reflected Voltage wave decreases in magnitude exponent \ ( Be ) an turns through a negative angle 2d (represented by phasor OC) Mis apparent from the geometry of this figure Vs (OF) is such that IVql > IV, A simple explanation of th ‘erranti effect on an approximate basis can be advanced by lumping the inductance and Capacitance parameters of the line, As that the resultant Phasor voltage Shown in Fig. $.14 the capacitance is lumped at the 4 ing-end of the line, He apes ier = ernie ‘a: vs Oe a Fig. 5.14 Vs Here Se SS —t wut) Ee eB Since Cis small compared to L, ai/-can be neglected in comparison to l/wC1, Thus | Ig = iVywCl | eee Now Va= V5 = %y Gall) = Ve+ Vg? CUE = Vs (1+ CLP) (5.44) Magnitude of voltage rise = IVslu* CL? (545) Where v= I/4/LC is the velocity of propagation of the electromagnetic wave along the line, which is nearly equal to the velocity of light. 5.7 TUNED POWER LINES ic i head Equati haracterizes the performance of a long line. For an overt ‘line Bae Gis always negligible and it is sufficiently accurate to ‘neglect line resistance R as well. With this approximation qewhz = June = cosh f= cosh jolVEC = cos wt VECModern Power stem Analysis sinh 9f = sinh jal VEC = j sin wIVZC Hence Eq. (5.23) simplifies to (‘] cos wlVEC iz. sini EO Vp cr F SinulVi€ cos whVEC (f CY Now if wVEC = nm n = Hee) Wal = Vel Ul = Up Le. the receiving-end voltage and current are numerically equal to the corresponding sending-end values, so that there is no voltage drop on load, Such a line is called a tuned dine. For 50 Hz, the length of line for tuning is at 2af Vic Since 1//LE = y, the velocity of light 1 1 3 =z vec (547. I= Z@)= SAAS ) = 3,000 km, 6,000 km,... It is too long a distance of transmission from the point of view of cost and efficiency (note that line resistance was neglected in the above analysis). For a given line, length and irequency tuning can be achieved by increasing. L or C, i.e. by adding series inductances or shunt capacitances at several places along the line length. The method is impractical and uneconomical for power frequency lines and is adopted for telephony where higher frequencies are A method of tuning power lines which is being presently experimented with, uses series capacitors to cancel the effect of the line inductance and shunt inductors to neutralize line capacitance. A long line is divided into several sections which are individually tuned. However, so far the practical method of ‘improving line regulation and power transfer capacity is to add series capacitors to reduce line inductance; shunt capacitors under heavy load conditions; and shunt inductors under light or no-load conditions, 5.8, THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A LONG LINE easily obtained by comparing the transmission line in terms of endwharactetistics and Pe: ‘formance ———aiicioristics and Performance whi 4 sinhy!=Z (sinha 1: ’) Is ; ie ¥% Vs 2 V@ | |2~ tanh iia. Man hile) /¢s4p2y Fig 5.15 Equivalent-r network of a transmission ine Fora) snetwork shown in Fig. 5.15 [refer to Eq, (§.13)) t iry ) Ae (i572) Z hy Is} | yyy ty } (ap tyezr fled ey 4 Pa According to exact Solution of a long line [refer to Eq, (5:23)} Ty) [ coha — Zsinh 1. [ele Lon =i oir 7] (5.49) te) [zest costa IL | aT EXact equivalence, we must have (5.50) 14 Ly = cosh 31 (551) From Eq. (5.50) EE. = {= *) (3.52) Fe zi Thus “1982 i the factor by whieh the series impedance of the nominal-r a must be multiplied to obtain the Z’ parameter of the equivalent-z, Substituting 2 from Eq. (5.50) in Eq. (5.51), we get 1+ 1 yz, sinh 91 = cosh > 2 {santa 2! Power Transmission Lines [assoo idern Power g) stem Analysis Thus | "hh 54/2 2 'S the factor by which the shunt admittance arm of the Hominal-+ ny : St be multiptie Equivalent. ™ ‘1 10 obtain the stunt parameter (¥42) of the ¢ that ¥'1 Li Note that y (! + h2 rz Sinh °y/ is a consistent equation in terms of the above values of Yand 2¢ See so that the r 2 For a tine of medium length aw = 1 and AR 7 equivalent-7 network Teduces to that of nominal: 7 ‘oa 2 2_Z ftanhyi2' 2 | 2° 2 \ qe fl Y= Y¥sinh//>/) | S 0 Fig. 5.16 Equivalent-T network of a transmiscion tine Equivalent-T network Parameters Of a transmission line are obtained on similar lines. The equivalent-7 network is shown in Fig. 5.16. AS we shall see in Chapter 6 equivalent-7 (or nominal-) network is easily adopted to load flow studies and is, therefore, universally employed, ssion line 300 km long has a total Series impedance of 40 + #125 ohms and a tetal shunt admittance of 10° mho, The feceiving-end load is 5O MW at 220kV with 08 lagging power factor. Find the sending-end voltage, current, power and power factor using (a) short line approximation, (b) nominal-7 method, (C) exact transmission line ‘equation [Eg, (5.27), (2) approximation (Eq. (5.28b)), Compare the results and comment, Solution Z= 40+ 125 = 1312 v7.30 a Ye 10" 290° The receiving-end loud is 50 MW at 220 kV, 0.8 pf lagging, 50 = rapa $209" = 016d 2.35.96 pa : ‘= Bonoes RY LP Gharacteristis and Pevtornarce of Power Transmission Lines [ass 220 - ae = 12720" KV I (a) Short line approximation | From Eq. (5.3) ' y i f 27 + 0.164 2-36.90 x 131.2 =145 249° Velrge= 251.2 KV j I5=Tp= 0.164 2-36. kA Sending-end power factor = cos (4.9° + 36.9 = 41.99) 745 1: Sending-end power= /3 x 251.2 x 0.164 x 0.745 = 532 MW (6) Nominal-7 method: A=D=1+4 Lyz=14 Lx 107 20x 1312 + 0.0656 2162.3" = 0.938 2 131.2 £723" | dog) yy be = y+ —PZ Heat = 0,001 290° + * 10° 218° x 1312 2 zur Lz x 127 + WBL2 2723? x 0.164 £36." = 0,001 Ve= 0938 angel 2 Wine = 238 KV Z1.2° x 0.164 2 369° 4215 L354 = 1374 26-2 } Ts= 0.001 ZOU? x 127 + 0.938 35:7 = 0.13 216.5° | = 0127 290° + 0.154 ; | : i ‘Sending-end pf = cos 16:8" = 6.2%) = 0.984 leading -gending-end power= ~3 x 238 0.13 x 0.984 2.7 MW (c) Exact transmission fine equations (Eq. (5.29). act ats al + jal =VYZis isa cael Modern Power System Ana = ViO 29071312 272.3" = 0.0584 + j0.3577 = 0362 281.2" cosh (ail + j38) = be Late el Laff = 0.3577 (radians) = 220,49" e £(20.49") = 1.057 220,49° = 0.99 + /0.37 a) e d 20.49" = 0.046 20.49" = 0.886 - j0.331 cosh 71 = 0.938 + j0.02 = 0.938 21.2” sinh 9/= 0.052 + j0.35 = 0.354 281.5° a i loo" cosh 9] = 0.038 B= Z, siuh of = 302.21 Z = 1282 272.65" Now = 0938 21.2 x 127 20° 4 1289 272.65" « 0.164 236,9° = N1913 21.2" + 21.03 235,75° = 136.97 46.2 ky 5 hino= 237.23 kV 1 Cs 5 = 1 Zn = sea gaR * 9854 2819 = 9.77 x 104 Logg 45= 9.77 x 104 200.4° 137 +0938 21.2" » 0,164 FOP 2904" + 0.1540 _ 35 70 = 0.1286 215.3 4 Sending-end pf = ops (; 53° Sending-end power = 5 3 237.23 x 0.1286 = 82.15 My (€) Approximation (5,244). 2-369 ~ 6:2 = 9,19) 987 leading 0.987 A=p=14 tte oo’, iijut oe ee2" (already calculated in part (4)y ma 1 + x 10 90° x (131.3) 144.6" =1N2 272.3° +287 A125.40 rae L180 131.2 Z 7 ve C= ¥i14-*)= 0.001 zor» | 6 6 J oH si = 0.001 290° D938 212° x 127 20° + 128.5 272.7? x 0164 2 -36,9° 412+ 21.07 235.8% = 136.2 4 j14.82 = 137 262° kV I shiine = 237.3 kV. Js=0.13 216,5° (same as calculated in oart (b)) Sending-end pf = cos (16.5* - 6.2° = 10.3") = 0.984 leading Sending-end power = J/3 x 237.3 x 0.13 x 0.984 52.58 MW The results are tabulated below: Short Tine Nominahe Exact Approxinetion approximation (5.28b) 2 v 23. V Wehise 251.2 kV 238 kV 237.23 KY 7.3K 1 O64 2-360 KA 013 ZIGS° RA 01285 2153" KA O13 216.5" kA Wf, 0.745 lagging 0.984 Ieading «0.987 leading 0.984 leading 2532 MW S.7MW_S2.ISMW S288. MW. Comments i! Its obtained by the nominal ‘We find from the above example that the results “meth ypproximation (5.28b) ate practically the same and are very Pe es by exuct calculations (part (c)). On the other hand the esults obtained by the short line approximation are in considerable error. ‘Therefore, for a line of this length (about 300 kin), it é sufficiently accurate to case: the Dae (or approximation (5.28b)) which results in considerable - saving in computational effort.i" Modern Power System Analysis = 5.9 POWER FLOW THROUGH A TRANSMISSION LINE So far the transmission line performarice equation Was presented us ice Voltage and current relationships between sending and receiving a pe loads are more often expressed in terms of real (wotts/kW ) and reactive & es KVAR) power, it is convenient to deal with transmission line Baie ue form of sending- and receiving-end complex power and voltages. tls Ue problem of flow of power in a general network will be treated ia the ne chapter, the principles involved are illustrated here through single transmni sion Line (2-node/2-bus system) as shown in Fig. 5.17. % Wace Vico AgoD Load S)=Ps* 10s Sp= Petia Fig. 5.17 A two-bus sysiem Let us take the receiving-end yoltage as a reference phasor (Vg = 1Vy! £0°) and let the sending-end voltage lead it by an angle 6 (Vs = Ws) 2t). The angle # is known as the torque angle whose significance has been explaiaed in ‘Chapter 4 and will further be taken up in Chapter 12 while dealing with the problem of stability. ‘The complex power leaving the receiving-end and entering the sending-end ‘of the transmission line can be expressed as (on per phase basis) Sp= Pat JQn= Vale 6.54) Ss= Ps * 105 = Vsl's (3.55) ‘Receiving- and sending-end currents can, however, be expressed i di L. ni pressed in terms of secciving- and sending-cnd voltages [see Eq. (5.1)] as a A es te a Vy (5.56) =Dy,_ 4 a Ne ate (5.57) Lt A.B. D, the transmission line constants, be written ws A soe ean, OB IB LA D = Dr Ze. since A = D) tee lm 4b - {iy a-) toe Bl vp las by ~ x 7 or fy in Ba. (354) we get abiesSt i Sy Nig if Sharact ates al Porommance of wer Transmission Lines |» a ie =A Zo[} ty, “ah _\A 1 ) Wale2(? — ¢ RSE a Malee-0)] ‘ 2 IYIVe | \ 7 = 6-5 [Alva La) (5.58 aes Bi B oo i Yr) Similarly, Sz |Piy.e (3a) —VsllVel F468 OR Bet Ais. py <(3 +6) (5.59) Inthe above equations 5, and Ss are per phase cor : Plex voltamperes, while Vy ay and V¢ are expressed in Pet phase valts. If Vp and Vs are expressed in kW line, aes then the three-phase receiving rend complex cower is given by Sq (B-phase VA) = 3 {Vell Vebe 108 ? 10° | * 2(G-$)— —£(3 =a) ial (3a) IVY, 5, (3-phase Mv.ay = lM! Aly Zea 0p (6.60) IB BI Tiis indeed is the same as Eq, (5.58). The same rest hoids for So. Thus we see that Eqs, ( 58) and (5.59) give the t expressed i KV line. 8) is expressed in real and imaginary parts, we can write the real and reactive powers at the receiving-end as Wel Ve! = Kons (3 = 8) - ot ar three-phase MVA if V; and Vq are | vee cos (8-0) (5.61) WIV in ¢9— 6) — [Al ingt sin @~ 0) (5.62) R= — iy Sin G3) ei fs Similarly. the real and reactive powers at sending-end are I¥IVel Ps fst’ cos (3 1) - Diy 605 (9+ 0) (5.63) B IVgIV4l es 3 We sin (9 0) - to see from Eq, (5.61) that the received power Py will be maximem Itis easy (Si sin(G+0) (5.64) at b= 8 such that f IVellVpl _ FAILV aoe (5.65) Fe yah ‘The corresponding Qy (at-max Py) is = TALE in (80) F * isi160 | 60 ' Modern Power System Analysis Thus the loa ri Aus the load must draw this much leading MVAR in order to re maximum real power. Consider now the spevie e the ease of a short line with a series impedance Z. Now A=D=1 20, B=Z=10 20 Substituting these in Eqs, (5.61) to (5.64), we get the simplified results for the short line as [Vg lIVel Viel? Pe Rl ce) |e cas (5.66) ay) zi [Vell Mel Vel” 2 Ge Rl in (Q— 0) ——*—sin (5.67) AS WZ Zl for the receiving-end and for the sending-end Vell Vel < Ps cos = VSlVAl os (4.8) (5.68) ii Z Aare IV5H¥ pl. iF = —S—sin @——*— *-sin (0+ 6) (6.69) a= Ii i The above short line equation will also apply for a long line when the line is replaced by its equivalent-1 (or nominal- 7) and the shunt admittances are Jumped with the receiving-ead load atid Sending-end generation. In fact, this technique is always used in the load flow problem to be treated in the next chapter. From Eq,(5.66), the maximum: receiving-end power is received, when 6= 0 IWllVpl Vel? so that P, (max) = —"~-—“_cos * IZ lal Now cos #= R/Zi, W,llVgl _1V, iz slzr Normally the resistance of a transmission line is small compared to its reactance (since it is necessary to maintain a high efficiency of transmission), so that @= tan X/R = 90°; where Z= R + jX. The receiving-end Eqs. (5.66) ‘and (5.67) can then be approximated as Pi, (max) = WelIVel Pa tind (5.71) VlIV Wal? DAL a eA 72 = ars (5,72)Char istic: rasteristios end Performance of Power Transmission Linas 57. | ia n (5.72) can be further simplified by normally small". Thus plified by assuming cos 6= 1. since fis [Wy oe= =H) Qe x YS = Wel) (6.73) Let iV¢ - Wel=1AVI, the Magnitude of voltage line, . drop across the transmission : Vel e O,= ay x Several itiportant conclusions that easily fellow are enumerated below: (5.74) from Eqs. (5.71) to (5.74) L. For R = 0 (which is valid 4pproximation for a transmission line) the Teal power transferred to the receiving-end is proportional to sin é (= 8 for small values of & ), while the reactive power is proportional to the magnitude of the voltage drop across the line, ‘The real power received is maximum for $= 90° and has a Value WelVaV/X. OF course, 6 is restricted to values well below 90° from considerations of stability to be discussed in Chapter 12, 3. Maximum real power transferred for a given line (fixed X) can be increased by raising its voltage level. It is from this consideration that voltage levels are being progressively pushed up to transmit larger chunks of power over longer distances warranted by large size generating stations. For very long lines voltage level cannot be raised beyond the limits placed by present-day high voltage technology. To increase power transmitted in such cases, the only choice is to reduce the line reactance. This is accomplished by adding series capacitors in the Line. This idea will be pursued further in Chapter 12. Series capacitors would of course increase the severity of line over voltages under switching conditions. . As said in | above, the VARs (lagging reactive power) delivered by ai line is proportional to the line voltage drop and is independent of 6 Therefore, ina transmission system if the VARs demand of the load is large, the voltage profile at that point tends to sag rather sharply. To maintain a desired voltage profile, the VARs demand of the load must be met tocall ly by employing positive VAR generators (condensers), This will be discussed at length in Sec. 5.10. oat A somewhét more accurate yet approximate result expressing line voltage in terms of active and reactive powers can be written directly from ie: Ba COVA lig! Rcos G+ Ml X sin 1Vgl ‘necessary from considerations af system stability which will be discussed cat length in Chapter 12. wModer Po) RP, + XQ, é . ma (5.75) S result reduces to that of Eq. (5.74) if R= 0. | (Example 5.8 An interconnector cable links generating stations | and 2 as shown in Fig, 5.18 The desired voltage profile is fat, ie. (V,1=1V,I= 1 pu. The total demands at the two buses are Sn= The station loads are equalized by the flow of power in the cable. Estimate the torque angle and the station power factors: (a) for cable Z =0 + 0.05 pu, and (b) for cable Z = 0.005 + 0.05 pu. It is given that generator G, can generate a maximum of 20.0 pu real power. Solution The powers at the various points in the fundamental (two-bus) system are defined in Fig, 5.18(a). G; @ | Sor = Port Qos | Sue = Pen */Ase [valzo” Bus t Maleh Bis 2 } Ss=FS4i0s Soi = Post Qe E ®) G;, (Ge | So) =20 4/5608 | Sa =20+/15698 Yah 10.2 14.5° 2>— e020" | Ge es ue, | $525 4/0638 Se= 50638 | Sy = 15+/5 Spa 28 +15 coh © (Sy) |yamysse 20.10+)16.12 1 Ye 10.ci4a" 2 w= 1c" — SS | +j01 49a fI2 1 25+ 1s Two-bus system, a MTP ON © Characteristics ——_latletistics | Case fa): -2Nd Performance of Poway Transmission Lines | 163 Cable imped Since cable resist ee Mower lows in ah ¢ cable, Hence Pout Pan = Pp + Pr, = 40 pa For equalization of station loads Foi = Poy = 20'pu The voltage of bus 2 is taken as Vis Vy 26,. Fucther, for flat voltage profite IV Real power flow from bus 1 to bus 2 is ob ined from Eg. (5.68) by cognizing that since R = 0, A= 90°. ee = 70.05 pu 'S zero, there iy no real Teference, jue. Vs 20° and voltage of bus Vil = 1 From Eg. (5,69) mye From Eq. (5.67) IVUWL = ee Or x = @5=-0.638 pu Reactive power loss” in the cable is f O, = Q5 ~ Op = 2Q; = 1.276 pu Total load on station 1 = (1S + j5) + (5 + j0.638) = 20+ /5.038 13938) 0.963 lagging Power factor at station 1 = cos (wn 75 Je Total load on station 2 = (25 + /15) ~ (5 — (0.638) = + 15.638 Py = 3 +1063 - FReacive power los can also be computed as UP = 1 2 0501.27 piee Modem Power System Analysis Power factor at staion 2 = eos (tan! 1°68 ) — 0.788 lawging The station loads, load demands, and line flows are shown in Fig. 5.18(b), a flat voltage profile, the generators are Tequired to supply resetive powers Qo) = 5.63: 5.6338, fey Case (b): the cable resistance causes real power loss which is not known a priori. The rea load flow is thus not obvious as was in the case of R = 0. We specify the generation at station | as Pq = 20 pu The consideration for fixing this generation is economic as we shall see in Chapter 7. The generation at station 2 will be 20 pu plus the cable loss. The unknown variables in the problem are Pox 6, Oe1 Oe: Let us now exemine as to tow many yystem equations can be formed. From Eqs. (5.68) and (5.69) ye MAA Poy Po = Re= cos 9 i cos (+4) 1 I $= —*— cos 343? —!_,, p Dosen * 43"- Soe cos 843+ G) 5h ATA 61 = Op) = Os= — sin d— ai sin (0+ 4) 1 5 =5 4.3" ‘0 24 dosnt HF - = sop Sit 8434 4) From Eqs. (5,66) and (5,67) Pra Pey= Py = Mille iz 8 (0 o)= Mr cosa 25 ~ Poet _, Gosoa “°° (43° 4)- Teas 843° We ='0; = ay ee la a= Mh sna———$_——_Sttormance of Power 6 = 144° Substituting 4 in Eqs. (ii), (iii) and (iV), we Transmission Lines | fas Qor= 5.13. Qe = 16,12, Py = 20.10 The flow of real and reactive powers for this case is sh ' M may be noted | eae ¢ is shown in Fig. 5.18 (c) Set nt Me Ral power loss of 0.1 pu is supplied by GAP = 20.10) The above presented problem is a wwo-bu solution is always possible in a two-bus when $ load flow problem. Explicit Case. The reader should try the case Qg3= j10 and V3) = The general load flow problem will be taken up in Chapter 6, It will be seen that explicit solution is not possible in the general case and iterative techniques have to be resorted to. | Eeamwise A 275 KV transmission line has the following line constants: A=0B5 25% B= 200 275° (a) Determine the power at unity power factor that can be received if the voltage profile at each end is to be maintal ned at 275 kV (b) What type and rating of compensation equipment would be required if the load is 150 MW at unity power factor with the same voltage profile ax im part (a) (©) With the load as in part ites the compensation equipment is not instiles am ; Solution (a) Given Wal rivg = 275 kV; a= 5 3 = 75°. Since the power is received at unity power factor, Qn= 0 Substituting these walues in Eq. (5-62). ¥¢ °™ ga 25X25 sin (15% 9 200 (by, what would be the receiving-end voltage if n write 0.8 SS . (275y' sin 7-9) 200 = 378 sin (75° ~ 9-302 which gives a t= From Eq, (5.61) 215x273 cog (a5¢ = 224) = 2AS-x (275) con —— 200 Pe = 2776 - 1099 = 107.7 MWModern Power System Analysis (b) Now IVs = lvl = 275 kV Power demanded by foad = 150 MW at UPF F Pp = Py = 150 MW; Op = 0 From Eq. (5.61) - 150 = 25%275 150 = 378 cos (75*- 6 - 110 o = 2846 From Eq. (5.62) 0.85 cos (75°= 6)— I x (275)? cos 70° 0 = 2154215 Qa= 700 = 274.46 — 302 =— 27.56 MVAR ‘Thus in order tomaintain 275 kV ata recei ing-end, Oy =~ 27.56 MVAR must be drawn along with the real power of P, = 150.MW. The load being 150 MW. at unity power factor, ie, Q,, = 9, compensation equipment must be installed at the receiving-end. With reference to Fig, § 19, we have ~ 756+ O-=0 0. 85 7975)? 0 sin (75° — 28,46") — SHON (275)° sin 70° or Q¢=+ 2756 MVAR ie. the compensation equipment must feed Positive VARs into the line. See subsection 5.10 for a more derailed explanation, 150 - /27,56 | 1504/0 Sp Fig. 5.19 (c) Since no compensation equipment js provided Pa= 150 MW, Op = 0 Now, Ws t= 275 kV, Wel = 9 Substituting this data in Eqs. (5.61) ang (3.62), we have 2751V91 5 150= o F905 (78° — 9) SanlMeP cos 70°OLY BONS fe saa - = 2nd Performance ol Power ‘tran ower Transmiss) on Lines | 167 = S78. ong ORs From Eq. (ii), we ge OBE ‘ sin (75° — 8) = (.00291V,1 ; + (60s C75" = 6 )= (1 — (0,0a29)4y,.2)! Substituting in Eg. (i), we obtain 150= 1.375 Vl (1 - (0.002092 1p?" ' 1 — Goorssivgt Solving the quadratic and retaining the higher value of ty, Mp we obtain l= 244.9 ky Note: The second and tower valu impractical as it comesponds to solution of Wel thot aboormally low vollage and efficiency Itis to be observed from he results of this oroblem tha et power can be tansmitted over a line with 9 ‘xed voltage profile by. installing Sompensation equipment atthe receivirg-end cap: ceding positive VARS into the line. 2h feasible, ix Circle Diagrams It has been shown above the flow of active and reactive power over a transmission line can be handled computationally. It will now be shown that the locus of complex sending- and receiving-end power isa ctcle. Since circles are convenient to draw, the circle diagrans are a useful aid to visualize the loud flow problem over a single transmission. ‘The expressions for complex number receiving- and sending-erd powers are reproduced belaw from Eqs. (5,58) and (5.59). za TN ey (5.58) 1B Willel 234) (5.59) 1 The units for Sq and Sz are MVA (three-phase) with voltages in KW lene. ‘As per the above equations, Sp and Ss are each composed of two phasor componeats—one a coastart phasor and the other « phasor of fixed magnitude but variable angle. The loci for 5, and 5, would, therefore, be circles drawn the tip of constant phasors as centres. i: follows from Eq. 338) that the centre of meciving-end circle is located at the tip of the phasor. ere —4hiv,F 209-0) tal us (5,76) in polar coordinates or in terms of rectangular coordinates, Horivontal coordinate of the centre = — Alig? cos (d= 0) MW raAB] Mottein Power System Analysis Vertical coordinate of the ceatre = ; IW, sin (Ga) MVAR The radius of the receiving-end circle js Wallet MVA (5.78) ‘The receiving-end circle diagram is drawn in Fig. 5.20. The centre is located by drawing OC, at an angle (3 a) in the positive direction from the negative MW-axis, From the centre Cy the receiving-end circle is drawn with the radi IV IVglMBi, The operating point M is located on the circle by means of the Teceived real power Py. The corresponding Q, (or 4) can be immediately read trom the circle diagram, The torque angie Scan be read in accordance with the Positive direction indicated from the reference line. Wala — > AW All| lal ay x / watid \ if 18) Roterencelina | ferengles \G-8) oo oe Fig. 5.20 Receiving-end circle diagram For constant |Vjl, the centre Cy remains fixed and concentric circles result for Varying IVI. However, for the case of constant Wel and Varying IV¢! the me of circles move along the line OC, and have radii in accordance to IV Similarly, it follows from Eq. (5,59) that th citele se aieaorme ace le centre of the sending-end citcle D lua AB— 0) (5.79) in the polar coordinates or in terms of rectan . Horizontal coordinate of the gular coordinates, = |Plvg? cow (@~ ay ww (580)rej . Fron the Receiving-end) 7p ; 16f OME as in ah Wing nd la oD sig torque 1d circle i Mi) tthe dvettion inch iON indicap Referens lng Binge hole fpilir fs Radius Malad Fig. 5.21 Sending-erd circle diagram Forconstantiv, varying Vp, How, ‘the centre €2, remains fixeel and concentric ever, if My is fixed and IV y j (MOVE along the Line OC, and have radii in acco | For th the cave of x shon 4 seties impedance (2 Gircle diagrams cun be easily drawn by recognizing We Dis ta=o Wl= IZ i= 0 The corresponding feeeiving-and seading-cny cirely diagrams have bevy drawn, in Figs 5.22 snd 5.23,a lees MYAR: 1 Wale ~ MW \ / \ Wa hy a Boy / Pa= OK Ce Fig. 5.22 Receiving-end circle diagram for a short line AMYAR a |. / Wslval | / ag | —ivalt ri —! a = MW ts fe. oe mo circle diagram for a-Short line pac “Bris is illustrated by means Of the two examples givenpee Nae Oe Sy Ch —__Sharacteristios and Performance of Power Transmission Lines. [Nl t Resistance = 0.035 ¢ sista 1.035 O/km per phase 7 Inductance = 1.1 mH/km per aa = 0.012 /km pet phase § supplied at 275 kV, deterinine the MVA rating of a shunt reactor having negligible losses that would be required to maimain 275 kV at the recei ving-end when the line is delivering no load. Use ne ‘Solution ingl-7 method 1.035 x 400 = 14 02 X=314x 11x 10° x 400 = 1382 0 Z= 144 j138 = 138.7 284.2 Y= 314 x 0,012 x 10° x 400 290° — 1.507 x 197 29" & 1 =ligtiz)=1+ 7x 10? Pra a=(14 piZ)j=i+ > % SOT x 10? x 138.7 2.742 = (0.896 + j0,0106) = 0,896 £0.7° B=Z= 138.7 £842° Ie l= 275 KV, IV,l = 275 kV = 545.2MVA Radius of receiving-end circle = 1 1B Location of the centre of receiving-end circle, | [Aly f= 212427506. ags.5 MVA Bi 138.7 Lip a) = 842" - 0.7 = 835° on ig. 6.24 Cree diagram for Exampse 6:10 5.24, 455 MVAR must be drawn from the maintain a voltage of 275 kV. Thus rating d of the ling in order 10 ecto seed 255 VA. mm the circle diagram of FAB:472 __Moidein Power Sys jem Analysis —_— Example 5.11 | wing line paramelers: A 275 KV, three-phase line has the follor 47° Aza93 215, B= M5 275 KV, determine: of 250 MW at 0.85 lagging pf If the receiving-end voltage is (a) The sending-end voliage requ is being delivered at the receiviny (&) ‘The maximum power that can be delivered if the held at 295 kV. (©) The additional MVA that hus (0 be provided delivering 400 MVA at 8 lagging pf, the supply vol ined at 295 kV. the centre of the receiv! red if a load nd, sending-end voltage is at the receivin nai Solution In Fig ing-end circle is located at areca Aliy,? = 215%275%099. = 611.6 MVA iB MS s1 0.85 = 31.8° 4G- od) =7P -158°= 755° MAR | Pp 400 MVA. 295 MVAR (leading) 7 > MW \ 611.5 NVA. 250 MW. ~ 15° 850 MVA, \ | [Vel = 295 KV. \ hes \ To" a. Ro P= 850 MW. Fig. 5.25 Cirle a Gram for Exampe 5.14Bo ROU PAS ie Characteristics anc Performance of Power Transmission Line fos ao @s fayging 9f (+ 31.4°). Then cate OP corresponding to the receiving end load of 250 MW at 0.85 = sy een. lal _ 275104! ¢,p=s%0 = “Sl 1a 15 ; IVgl = 355.5 kV (b) Given Ig! = 295 kV assert Radius of circle dia 705.4 MVA npsond vonige Drawing the receiving-end circle ‘sce Fig, 5.25) and the line €,Q parallel t0, the MW-axis, we read ee Prima = RQ = 556 MW Bo fe) Locate OP* correspanding to 400 MVA st 0.8 lagging pf 4 368°), Draw P'S parallel to MVAR-axis 40 cut the circle drawn in part (b) st S. For the seca specified voltage profile, the line load should be OS. Therefore, additional MVA to be drawn from the line is PIS = 205 MVAR or MVA leading 5.10 METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL Practically each eqaipment used in power system are rated for a certain voltage with & permissible band of voliage variations. Voltage at various buses must, therefore, be controlled within a specified regulation figure. This article will discuss the two methods by means of which voltage a: a bus can be controlled Iwas Ivale0 Pot Qe P5*/Qs 5+ 103| Fig. 526 A two-bss system Consider: the: two-bus s)stem shown in Fig, 5.26 (already exemplified in See 5.9), For the sike of simplicity let the line be characterized by a series veactance (ie, it has negligible resistance). Further, sines the torque angle & is ~~ ved Practical conditions, real and reactive powers delivered by the line = Sending-end voltage IV) and a specified receiving-end voltage Vi lean weatten as below from Eqs, (8.71) and (5.73), Wall tl Hee EM snd (5:82): (6.83) oi= “ lavaivgh : si e il as Equation ($.83) upon quadsatic solution’ can also be written jay (5.84) wis tivas Live — 4K oR Avs) ie a the line. Since the real power demanded by the load must be delivered by the line, Pr=Po } Varying real power demand Pp is met by consequent changes in the torque angle & ; “a tt s, however, to be noted that the received reactive power of the line must § remain fixed at O°, as given by Eq. (5.83) for fixed |Vs! and specified IVpl. The line would, therefore, operate with specified receiving-end voltage for only one value of @p given by Dp = Oe Practical loads are generally lagging in nature and are such that the VAR demand Qp may exceed Q%, It easily follows from Eq, (5.83) that for 0, > O% the receiving-end voltage must change from the specified value |Vgi to some value IVql to meet the demanded VARs, Thus IV, . Qp= Oy = ae (Vl = 1Vgl) for (Op > O}) The modified IV! is then given by J 1 202 IVa = aivs+ 7d (1 4xOW/IV6P) Comparison of Eqs. (5.84) and (5.85) reveals Teceiving-end voltage is Vl, but for Q,, Wel < IVS aes ae sai Qy is met by a consequent fall in receiving- rie imi i i a. Wien be Value. Similarly, if the v AR demand is Jess than (3.85) that for Op = Oy = Q%, the = Op> of,Chi Aracteristios Nd Performance Reactive Power Injection of Power Tranumission Lines It follows from the Above discussion that in order to keep the receiving-end Voltage at a specified y s y F value 1V4), a fixed amount of VARs (@},) must be from the lin it H o accomplish this under conditions of a vurying Qp, 4 local VAR Renerator (controlled reactive power source/cow SauPMent) must be used as shown in Fig. 5.27. The VAR balance « the Teceiving-end ix now Oh + Oc= Oy Fluctuations in Qp are absorbed by the local VAR generaior Q- such that the VARs drawn from the line remain fixed at Op- The receiving-end voltage Would thus remain fixed at IV§l (this of course assumes a fixed sending-end voltage IVs). Local VAR compensation can, in fact, be made automatic by Using the signal from the VAR meter installed at the receiving-end of the line (Wal PatiOe Po* iQ tie ‘Local VAR u generator Lea Fig. 5.27 Use of local VAR generator at the load bus ‘Two types of VAR generators are employed in practice—satic ype and rotating type. These are discussed below. Static VAR generator It is mothing but a bank of three-phase static capacitors and/or inductors. With reference to Fig, 5.28, if IV gl is in line kV, and X¢ is the per phase capacitive reac- tance of the capacitor bank on an equiva- % emt star basis, the expression for the VARS fed into the line can be derived as Yoel Val eo kA * nce lV4 is specified within a band, Qf may vary within corresponding oh, 1a Fig. 5.28 Static capacitor bankSSE 116 Modern Power System Analysis ___ ie 7 [Vel ype iQ, (S-phase) = 3 - 18) Wyl Il ajix Ex MVA JOON V3% Walt (5.86) Qe @-phase) = MVAR If inductors are employed instead, VARs fed into the line are We VAR (5.37) x, Under heavy load conditions, when positive VARs are neede are employed: while under light load conditions, whem mi needed, inductor banks are switched on. The following observations can be made for static VAR generators {i) Capacitor and inductor banks can be switched on in steps. However stepless (smooth) VAR control can now be achieved using SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) circuitry (ii) Since Q- is proportioral to the square of terminal voltage, for a given capacitor bank, their e‘fectiveness tends to decrease as the voltage sags under full load conditions. Gi) If the system voltage contains appreciable harmorics, the fifth being the most troublesome, the capacitors may be overloaded considerably {iv) Capacitors act as short circuit when switched on. (v) There is a possibility of series resonance with the line inductance particularly at harmonic frequencies, Rotating VAR generator Q,(3-phase) = capacitor banks ative VARS are Ttis nothing but « synchronous motor running at no-load and having excitation adjustable over a Wide range. It feeds_positiv ; : © VARs i : Green ioe acne S into the line under ° gative VARs when underexcited. chine thus munning is called a synchronous. condenser oe Wa Wet || Ie % ‘excitation | Ee Fig. 5.29 Rotating VAR. BreenCharacteristics and Periormance ‘ol Power Transmission Lines. Figure 5.29 shows A synehroncus motor connected ft (0 the receiving-end bus bars and Tunning at no load, Since the moyor draws negligible real ae Goin the bus bars, B,; and Vp are n in phase. Nis the synchronous 1 ictance of the motor which is assumed to have negligible : Fesistance, Ig! and IV are in line kV, we have AV gl | — IVg)/Xg MVA Qc = IV4l (lel - WVghX; MVAR (5.88) ely follows from the above Positive VARs into the line when | > 1h negative VARs if Fg < Wel (anderexcit continuously tionship that the machine fi ig! (overexcited case) and injects ed case), VARs are easily and adjustable by adjusting machine excitation which controls Ie. In contrast to static VAR generators, the following observations are made in Tespect of rotating VAR generators, (i) These can provide both pas ously adjustable. Gi) VAR injection at a given excitation is less sensitive to changes in bus voltage. As IVql decreases and (gl —IVgl) increases with consequent smaller reduction in Q- compared to the case of static capacitors, From the observations made above in respect of static and rotating VAR Senerators, it seems that rotating VAR generators would be preferred. However, economic considerations, installation and maintenance problems limit their practical use to such buses in the system where a large amount of VAR injection is needed. ‘Control by Transformers The VAR injection method discussed above lacks the Aexibility and economy of voltage control by transformer tap changing. The transformer tap changing 48 obviously limited to a narrow range of voltage contol. If the voltage ‘Correction needed exceeds this range, tap changing is used in conjunction with E Se hie serach tends to sag owing (o VARs demanded by the ‘oad, can be raised by simultaneously changing the taps of sending-and _receiving-end transformers. Such tap changes must be made ‘on-foad’ sod ean “be done either manually of automatically, the transformer being called a Tap ing Under Load (TCUL) transformer. and neg: ive VARs which are continu-— ____ Modem Power System Analysis 0 Consider the operation of a transmission line with a tap changing transformer at each end as shown in Fig. $.30. Let fy and ty be the fractions of the nominal transformation ratios, i.e. the tap ratio/nominal ratio For example, a trans- former with nominal ratio 3.3 KW/IL kV when tapped to give 12 kV with 3.3 KV input has t= 12/11 = 1.09, ton leet Fig. 5.30 Transmission line with tap changing transformer at each end ‘With reference to Fig. 5.30 let the impedances of the transformer be lumped in Z along with the line impedance. To compensate for voltage in the line and transformers, let the transformer taps be set at off nominal values, fy and fy. With reference to the circuit shown, we have ByyVg= tgnsVq+ IZ (5.89) From Eq. (5.75) the voltage drop referred to the high voltage side is given by RPy +-XO, . i_talVel (5.90) LAV = thn, gl — tgnglVil lan RP, + XQ, Ha lVs l= ten WVql +2 te PIN GN tery Vil + teltgV gl (S91) In onder that the voltage on the HV side of the two transformers be of the ‘same order and the tap setting of each transformer be the minimum, we choose fstg= : : 5.92 Sebscinting tg = Wis in Eq. (5.91) and reorganising, we obtain af RPy + XQ, )-2 Wel \amiviiv,t)~ WAL er For complete ve cay, MEF AMP onmpensation, the right hand side of Eq, (5,93) It iy obviows fromm Fig. 5.30 ay ty > 1 and 5, , compensation. Equation (5.90) indicates "5 os Se ie “Tis is 0 saute <1 increases the tne eum 1179 1AM which is to be compe voltage drop Compensation would SIVe Tise to exe compensation exceeds certain lim rl f the i 7 een ae a ee ‘ap setting dictated by Eg, setting range (usually pot more simultaneously inject VARs at th desired voltage level, nsated, Thus Merely tap Setting as a method of essively large tap setting if tap it would be necessary. to end in order to Maintain the than 4 he receiving Compensation of Transmission Lines The performance of long EHV AC transmission systems can be improved by. Teactive Compensation of series o; shunt (parallel) lype. Seri acitors and shunt reactors are used to Teduce artificial] oS ¥ the series evctance and shunt susceptance of lines and thus they act as the line compensators. Compen: of lines results in improyi ct g the system stability (Ch, 12) and volt in increasing the efficiency of PoWer transmission, facilitating line en and reducing temporary and transient overvoltages. Series compensation reduces the series impedance of the line which causes voltage drop and is the most important factor in finding the maximum power transmission capability of a line (Eq. (5.70). A, Cand D constants are functions of Z and therefore the also affected by change in the value of Z, but these changes are small in comparison to the change in B as B= Z for the Rominal x and equals Z (sinh 1/1) for the ecuivalent 7. The voltage drop AV due to series compensation is given by AV = IR cos J. + KX, — Xe) sin o (5.94) Here X= capacitive reactance of the series capacitor bank per phase and A, is the total inductive reactance of the line/phase. In practice, X= may be so selected that the factor (X,- X,} sind, becomes negative and equals (in magnitude) & cos @, so that AV becomes: zero. The ratio XIX, is called “compensation factor” and when expressed as a percentage is known as the percentage Compensation”. ‘The 2S of effect ‘of compensation depends on the number, location and circuit arrangements of series capacitor and shunt reactor stations, While Planning tong-distance lines, besides the average degree of compensation Fequised, it is required to fird out the most appropziste location of the reactors and capacitor banks, the optimum connection scheme and the number of ‘intermediate stations. For finding the opesating conditions along the line, the ABCD constants of the portions of line on each side of the capacitor bank, and ABCD constants of the bank may be first found out and then equivalent Constants of the series combination of line-Capacitor-line can then be arrived at ‘by using the formulae given in Appendix B, % j ; Jn India, in states like UP, series compensation is quite important since super thermal plants are located (east) several hundred kilometers from load centres (siest) and large chunks of power must be transmitted over long distances. Series capacitors also help in balancing the Voltage drop of two parallel lines,180 | Modem Power System Analysis ______— When series compensation is used, there are chances of oe altars to the ground at the series capacitor terminals, This ae on eee power limiting criterion at high degree of compensation, ¥ Ease high speed contactor is used to protect the capacitors under ig i es eto joad or ao-load conditions, charging current should be kept less than the rated full-load current of the line. The charging current 1s oe mately given by BV where Be is the total capacitive susceptance t . ee and |V1is the rated voltage to neutral. If the total inductive susceptance is 8) Gue to several inductors connected (shunt compensation) from line to neutral at appropriate places along the line, then the charging current would be ( w) = jl = Bel V Il 1- (5.95) Ig= Be- 8) = Bd VI Reduction of the charging current is by the factor of (1 — B, /Bc id By /Be is the shunt compensation factor. Shunt compensation at no-load also keeps the Feceiving end voltage within limits whick would otherwise be quite high because of the Ferranti Effect. Thus reactors should be introduced as load is removed for proper voltage control. As mentioned earlier, the shunt capacitors are used across an inductive load so as to provide part of the reactive VARs required by the load ta keep the voltage within desirable limits. Similarly, the shunt reactors are kept across Capacitive loads or in light load conditions, as discussed above, to absorb some of the leading VARs for achieving voltage control. Capacitors are connected either directly to a bus or through tertiary winding of the main transformer and aue placed along the line to minimise losses and the voltage drop. It may be noted that for the same voltage boost, the reactive power capacity ‘ef a shunt capacitor is greater than that of a series capacitor. The shunt ‘Capacitor improves the pf of the load while the series capacitor has hardly any Impact on the (pf, Series capacitors are more effective for long. lines for improvernent of system stability. Thus, we see that in both series and 1 Hines it is possible to transmit large a voltage profile. Proper type of com ‘quantity at appropriate places tw achi hunt compensation of long transmission mounts of power efficiently with a flat pensation should be provided in proper leve the desired voltage control. The reader oe PROBLEMS 5:1 A thice-phase voluge of 11 kV is applied to a : line hay ie X= 12 Sl per condicto.’At the end ofthe line is a bareang ocr 7Chatacteristics and Performance of Powor Transmission Lines [aa KW at a leading power factor. At what value of Pis the ve tage regulation zero When the power factor of the Toud js (a) 0,707, (b) 0.857 5.2 A long line with A= D= 0.9 215° and B= 150 265" 0 hy end a transformer having a series impedance Z,-= 100 26 voltage and current are -V, ancl J, form of [*] ‘A’ BT, iJ le phy, and evaluate these constants. 5.3 A three-phase overhead line 200 km long has resistance = 0.16 km and Conductor diameter of 2 cm with spacing 4 m, 5m and 6 m transposed. Find: (a) the ABCD constants using Eq. (5.28b), (b) the Vn Le phy P, when the line is delivering full load of 50 MW at 132 kV and 0.8 lagging Pf, (c) efficiency of transmission, and (d) the receiving-end voltage regulation at the load P 0. The load r Vs and Jy in Obtain expressions 54 A short 230 kV transmission line with a reactance of 18 {phase supplies a load at 0.85 lagging power factor. For a line current of 1,000 A the Tecelving- and sending-end voltages are to be maintained at 230 kV. Calculate (a) rating of synchronous capacitor required, (b) the load current, (c) the load MVA. Power drawn by the synchronous capacitor may be neglected, $5 A 40 MVA generating station is connected to a ‘three-phase line having Z= 30 £17 2 ¥ = 0.0025 29 U ‘The power at the generating station is 40 MVA at urtity power factor at a voltage of 120 kV. There is a load of 10 MW at unity power factor at the mid point of the line, Calculate the voltage and load at the distant end ‘of the line. Use nominal-T circuit for the line. 5.6 The generalized circuit constants of a transmission line are A =093 + j0.016 B= + ji40 The joad at the receiving-end is 60 MVA, 50 Hz, 0.8 power factar lagging. The voltage at the supply end is 220 KV. Calculate the Toad voltage. 5.7. Find the incident and reflected currents for the line of Problem 5.3 at the seceiving-end and 200 km from the receiving-end, SA If the fine of Problem 5.6 is 200 km long and delivers 50 MW at 220 kV and 0.8 power factor Lagging, determine the sending-end voltage, current, power fiewr and power, Compute the efficiency of transmission, characteristic impedance, wavelength, and velocity of propagation. 5.9 For Example 5,7 find the parameters of the equivalent-m circuit for the line. aa2 | Modern Power System Analysis 7? 5.10, An interconnector cable having a reactance of 6 © links generating stations | and 2.as shown in Fig, 5.18a. The desired voltage profile is 1V,| = |V4l = 22 kV. The Loads at the two-bus bars are 40 MW at 0.8 lagging power factor and 20 MW at 0.6 lagging power factor, respectively. The station loads are equalized by the flow of power in the cable, Estimate the torque angle and the station power factors, 5.11 A SO Hy, three-phase, 275 kV, 400 km transmission line has following parameters (per phase). Resistance = 0.035 Q/km Inductance = | mH/km Capacitance = 0.01 jiF/km If the line is supplied at 275 kV, determine the MVA rating of a shunt reactor having negligible losses that would be required to maintain 275 KV at the receiving-end, when the line is delivering no-load. Use nominal- = method. 5.12 A three-phase feeder having a resistance of 3 2 and a reactance of 10 () supplies a load of 2.0 MW at 0.85 lagging power factor. The receiving end voltage is maintained at 11 kV by means of a static condenser drawing 2.1 MVAR from the line. Calculate the sending-end voltage and Power factor. What is the voltage regulation and efficiency of the feeder? 5.13 A three-phase overhead line has resistance and reactance of $ and 20 2, respectively. The load at the receiving-end is 30 MW, 0.85 power factor lagging at 33 kV. Find the voltage at the sending-end. What will be the KVAR rating of the compensating equipment inserted at the receiving-end $0 as (0 maintain a voltage of 33 kV at each end? Find also the maximum load that can be transmitted. 5.14 Construct a receiving-end power citcle diagram for the line of Example 5.7. Locate the point corresponding to the load of 50 MW at 220 kV with 0.8 lagging power factor. Draw the circle passing through the load point. Measure the radius and determine therefrom IVs. Also draw the sending- end circle and determine theretrom the sending-end power and power factor. 5:15 A three-phase overhead line has resistance and reactance per phase of 3 and 25 9), respectively. The load at the feceiving-end is 15 MW, 33 kV OB power factor lagging. Find the capacity of the compensatio® “ee needed to deliver this load with a sending-end voltage of 13 ‘Calculate the extra Load of 0,8 lagging power factor which can 7 delivered with the compensating equipment (of capacity as calcul a) installed, if the receiving-end voltage is permitted to 410? "a ee is nooks i B Trantenission Line Reference Book. 448 yy Fowtinute, Palo Alto Cais, 1975, 2 McCombe, 3..and FJ tqip 9 Hevemon, W.D., Elements And Above, Ebeces. Powe Rewesech Wwerheatt-ine. Pra tice, i Pones gate Macclnate, London, E 196 erties Analyt th eda, Metrum HUI, New 4 Aniliags. J. High Voltage Diners Current Tranemis sion, TEE Satis 6, Peer Peregricus Lid, Longer na Te Power Eaginecing “ Kista, EW, Direct Curren Trans, © Wilmaen, E, Power Transmission by, Heidelberg, 1975, 7, Miller, 75 1962 & Mathor, RM. (ed), Pub. Winnipeg, 1984 rats Nol 1, Wiley, New York, 1971 ect Current, Springer-Verlip. Beilin. B, Reactive Power Contec! in Electric Systems, Wiley, New Yeck Statle Compensators for Reactive Power Conirol, Content ee Pephande, MV, Electrical Power System Design, Tata McCenv-tit Delhi, 1964, Papers lopment of 10 Dynlop, RD... Gutman and D.P. Marchenko, Air Depa! Veadability Charscteristics for EHV and UHV Transmission TEA Trsensn | June 1966, No. 6, PAS-8S Vi “BHY Transmission", (Special Issue), IEEE els genes 1D Gootrich, %D., “A Universal Power Circle a2. “Sensitivity Analysis of J DP. Kothari, ; WD Medals, €5, Parmod Kumar eo aa at os Indutk # Kothari, ~ dies a Multiconductor Transmission Line’ nae eae soe» cn . Se re arisen Lines”, EEE. Tens, om SX Propagation in Overhead Transmissic ‘ x . $, Lingamunhy, “Opti Vola Es Dine Nanda wf ir System Research, Pe ime, Pi, DE Kot 1 Ne an Pow Comte i ; Using Conmant Sensitivity aan | ee cessors Controlled Static Var System k oct DP, et al, “Micrope 0 Modelling & Simulation, Gorok New ~, Prox. It i, Dec. 1985, # 137