91 INTRODUCTION So far we have dealt with the Steady state behaviour of power system under normal Operating conditions and its dynamic behaviour under small scale perturbations. This chapter is devoted to abnormal system behaviour under Conditions of symmetrical short circuit (symmetrical three-phase fault*), Such Conditions are caused in the system a ‘identally through insulation failure of €quipment or flashayer of lines initiated by a lightning stroke or through Accidental faulty operation, The m must be protected against flow of heavy Short circuit currents (which can cause permanent damage to major equipment) by disconnecting the faulty part of the system by means of circuit breakers Operated by protective relaying. For proper choice of circuit breakers and Protective relaying, we must esti The magnitude of currents thy would Hor Under short Circuit conditions—this is the scope of fault analysis (study). Ear foes sot on pt a teeing i E ‘0 lines to gro s symmetric moe ep ioolh ernest cance and for the subject f study Oetie next two chapters. Taough the symmetrical fults are rare, the symmetrical fault analvsis must be cacried out, as this type _ fault generally {0 most severe fault curtent flow aginst which the system m Protected, Symmetrical felt analysis is, of couse simpler 1 cary ON A power network comprises synchronous generators, ie an a loads. Though the operating conditions at the time of ful are i ” ee Toads can be neglected during fault, as voltages dip very low so thy by Low es he neglected in comparison to fault currents, iran i Jhase short eieuit or thay invelve are ."Syometrical fault may be # solid three-p! Mpedance,jer System Analysis ________— aa] _ Modern P ‘The synchronous generator during short circuit : varying behaviour. In the event of a short circuit, the flux per pole under dynamic change with associalec transients in damper and field windings. The reactance of the circuit model of the machine changes in the first few ¢ from a low subiransient reactance to a higher transient yalue, finally setiling a a still higher synchronous (steady state) value. Depending upon the arc interruption time of circuit breakers, a suitable reactance value is used for cirenit model of synchronous generators for short circuit analysi 7 tna moder large interconnected power system, heavy during a fault must be interreptec much before the steady state conditions ire established, Furthermore, ftom the considerations of mechanical Forces that «ct on circuit breaker components, the maximum current that a breaker has to ca momeniarily must also be determined, For selecting a circuit breaker we mus. determine the initial current tat flows on occurrence of a short d also the current in the transient that flows at the time of circuit has a characteristic time- 2085 ents flowing 9.2 TRANSIENT ON A TRANSMISSION LINE Let us consider the short circuit transient on 4 transmission tine. Certain simplifying essumptions are made at this stage. @ oe fed from a constant voltage source (the case when the line is ; fed trom a realistic synchronous machine will be treated in Sec. 9.3). ii) ay Gireuit takes place when the line is unloaded (the case of short ircuit on a loaded line will be treated later in this chapter), (iii) Line expactiance is negligibl je and the line can be repr a eee ote mellp and the line can be represented by a lumped if L fe 4] F=V2 Vain (urea) ee | Fig. 9.1 With the v‘ ith the above assumptions tae line ofFi. 91. Tac so cheat ue a be reese by the creit mode Bes eke sects i stat on he vole inal to take place at t= 0, The zaramett i ‘uit theory that the 2 \en short cireui: accurs. WI ie the atzen ater short eicult is composed ot ive pers. +i, where steady state current ee es@=tan al GODT R f, = transient current fit is such thar iQ) ieee ) = 4(0) + (0) = 0 being an | Inductive circuit; t deeays contesponding te the ttme constant L/R] == iQ" VZV is fy = ~=—sin (€— ae (*/" tif PA) ‘Thus short circuit current is given by : Dv i incur teiot Z| 4 } wancaice (9.1) Aplot of. i, and i = i, +, is shown in Fig. 9.2. In power system terminology F the sinusoidal steady state current is called the symmetrical short circuit | qurent ani! the unidirectional transient component is called the DC off-set } current, which causes the total short circuit curren: to be unsymmetrical till the e transient ded ays. It casily fullows from Fig. 9.2 that the maximum momentary short céreuit HFTENT yn, CGFTESPONdS to the First peak, If the ck short time is neglected, ‘of Gansient current in this ie i 2S z, L = sin (0- a) + (9.2) IZ) SS j | Since transmission line resistance is small, 4 = 90%. f vo = ay oP z 22Y ong 9.3) ma fen = Ot This fas the maximuin possible value for o = 0, ie, short cireuit occurring when the Voltage wave is going through zero. Thus i a) ster ' os =twice the maximum of symmetrical short circuit current uty | = (doubling effec momentary short circull/eutrent isdascn ; i choice): he value (a safe choice)@ = The next question is ‘what is the & pointed out earlier, madera day eircuit br tn the fir few cycles: (five cycles o7 lest), Wilh reference 10 Fig 92 uurrent to be interrupted” As lilas by eh itrreans that When the current is interrupted, the DC off-set (i,) has not get 4; i ie cut and so contribules to the current 10, be interrupted. Rather than conputiny 5 the value of the DC off-set at the time of interruption (this would ba hip} complex in a network of even moderately large size), the symimetricfl shy on circuit cartert clone is calculated. This figure is thea increased by an eifnpiricay multiplying factor to’ account for the DC off-set current. Details are 3+ Sec. 9.5 | c “ie v4 n | {| | fet f { Bt / Bsn 0) / Maina momenary | F cirteitigs SL 8 \ r | | 0 if y “i—_ the inciced: emf. ‘This bance eae ttee X, ofthe chine sella Ynchtozous teactunce in the ease ap arg sistance being small can be ny el of a synchron 1 Geet 2 mitted 25.4 meatance 1. in gain resctanée whien combined wich the jut StS with sqichronous. reactance X, (dine silieat pole machines), rm steady state shor circuit mod in per phase basis, Xiu x, ‘a x xX # Xa + Xe ae 5, (3) Steaty state short cicult mode {D) Aprox cieut model dure ofa Synchroross machine oe ; fate Sublransient period of shot citcuit (5) Appronimate circuit mode! during transient perod of shon circu Fig. 9.3 Consider now the sudden short circuit (three-phase) of a synchionos everor initially operating under open circuit conditions. ‘The machine _ (aoete0eS a transient in all the three phase finally ending up in steady state “ondiions describe above. The circuit breaker must, of course, interrupt the Sutrent much before steady conditions are reached. Immed.ately upon short Sleuit, the DC off-set currents appeer in all the three nhases, each with different magnitude since the point on the v tage wave at which short circuit Scour: is different for each phase. These DC off-set currents are accouated for S¢pardtely on an empirical basis and, t! fore, for short circuit es) we af concentrate our attention on symmetrical (sinusoidal) shor cirett eit only: Immediately in the event ofa short iru the symmetcca shor: Steitit currenc is limited only by the leakage reactance of the amici Sine the At gap flux cannot change instantaneously (theorem af constant fl inege ‘© counter che demagnetization of the armature shor circuit caren et 4PPeatr in the field ‘winding 2s well as in the damper winding ina d oe es Aelp the main flux, These currents decay in accordance ne o ae : ‘amstants. The time constant of the damper vinding ie tae ies Inductance is much less than that of the field winding, which has high leakagezl] __ rte Power System Analyss inductance. Thus during the initial part of the short circuit, the damper and fielg windings have transformer currents induced in them so that in the circuit mode} their reactances—Ky of field winding and X,,, of damper winding—appear in parallel® with X, as shown in Fig. 9.3b. As the damper winding currents are first to die out, Xy) effectively becomes open circuited and at a later si becomes open circuited. The machine reactance thus changes from the paralle] combination of X,, Xpand X,,, during the initial period of the short circuit to X, and X; in paralle| (Fig, 9.3c) in the middle period of the short circuit, and finally to X, in steady state (Fig. 9.3a). The reactance presented by the mackine in the initial period of the short circuit, Le. " 1 it CK, 1/k) +3 is called the subtransient reactance of the machine. While the reactance effective after the dariper winding currents have died out, i.e. X= XK, 4 (K, 0X) is called the transient reactance of the machine. Of course, the reas steady conditions is the synchronous reactance of the machine. Obviously X’) < (; < X,. The machine thus offers a time-varying reactance which changes from Xj to X!, and finally to X,. Subtransient period Transient period Steady state period ‘Symmetrical short circu current Actual envelope steady value Extiapolation of iransiert envelope (3) Symmetrical short ctcult armature eyrrent in synchronous machine as Fig. 9.4 (Contd) *Unity tum ratio ts assumed here,2 AUIt Analysis [3 Extrapolatian, of ANSON otwWeior 9 SUTENEHeVolopy “2 eri Al i ‘ a a Steady state ‘SUTTON amplitude Time (b} Envetopa of Synchroncus machina Symmetrical short chouit curtent If we examine the Sscillogram of the short ci machine after the DC off-set Currents have be thseurrent wave shape as given in Fig. 9.4a., The envelope of the current wave shape is plotted in Fig. 9.4b. The short circuit current ean be divided into three periods—initial subtransient Period When the current is large as the machine offers subtransient reactance, ¢ he middle transient period where the machine offers transient reactance, and fi nally the steedy stare period wien the machine Offers synckronous reactance. ‘fthe transient ‘envelope is extrapolated backwards in time, the differen between the transient and subtransient envelopes is the cutrent Ai” (core. ‘pending to the damper winding current) which deceys fast according to the Samper winding time constant. Similarly, the ditference Ai between the steady Site and transient envelopes decays in accordatce with the field time constant Intemns of the oscillogram, the currenis and ceactances discussed above, we cin write cuit Current ofa synchronous "en remo ed from it, we wil (9,7a) (97h) (9.7e) i = steady state current (rms) o = Sia current (rms) excluding DC component a : ‘subtransient current (emis) excluding DC component Bo direct axis synchronous reactanceMouern Power System Analysis Xj= cirect ax cransient reactance X= direct axis subtransient reactance no toad voltage (rms) in Figs, 94a and b. 1E,) = per ph Oa,Ob, Oe = intercepts shown a Me i The intercept Ob for fining transient ee or ae accuraely by means of a logarithmic plot Both = exponentially as Ait = Ai} exp Hu) Ait = Ai, exp - 179 and field winding time constants. where 7, and rare respectively damper. peer Tw < MAC EMe 1 » Tgp AU” practically dies eit and we can write log (Ai"+AN")), = Aig’ TG Fig. 9.5 ‘The plot of log (Ai + Ai’) versus time for f > 7), therefore, becor straight line with a slope of ( Ai}j/z;) as shown in Fig. 95. As t line portion of the plot is extcapolated (straight line extrapolation is muc accurate than, the exoonential extrapolation of Fig. 9.4), the inte: eoiresponiling to 1= 0 is Ailpe9 = Al expt) _, = Ai, = ob Table 9.1 Typical values of synchronous machine reactances (All values expressed in pu of rated MVA) L Synchronous Die of, — Tureoaliemator. Salient pote compensator Synchrom machine (Turbine (Hydroelectric)! (Condenser? motors* generator) capacitor) ————___¢apaciter) a ae O65 1s325 08-110 04-1. 02-05ie, coe are are depende: (corres citation), the values of nce ii : ‘ m 4 ices normally lie within certain pa He ied for different types of machines, ‘Table 9. gives Epica) Wales of machine renetances which can be used in fuul alcutaione and jn stability studies. Pe Normally both generator and motor Subtransient reactances are used to determine the momentary current flowing on occurence af a short cirewit, Te decile the interrupting cupacity of circuit breakers, except those which open jwstantancously, subtransient reactance is use for generators and transient 8. AS we shall see later the transient reactanees at pon magnetic saturation are used for stability studies, ‘The machine model tobe employed when the short circuit takes place from foaded conditions will be explained in Sec, 9.4. ‘The method of computing short circuit currents is illustrated through examples given below. — For the radial network shown in Fig. 9.6, a three-phase feult occurs at F, Determine the fault curzent and the line voltage at 11 kV bus under fault conditions, JO.MVA 1OMVA, 18% reactance (Gy G2 12.5% reactance AT KY. Transformer NO 1: 10 MVA, 10% reactance } Overhead line : 30 km, 2= (0.27 +J0.96) 92! km 33 kV- Transformer NO 2: 5 MVA, 8% reactance 6siv—— = (0.135-+ (0.08) £2! ke z= (0.135 men 2 Fig. 9.6. Radial networs for Example 9.1 Select a system base of 100 MVA. f bases are: 11 kY'in generators, 33 RV for overhead line and 6.6 KV 15x100 _ goof Gx [OLE al 5 oo it Gre as 100 = /l25 pu 100 _ sce of = j 204190 = jL.0 pu{s36.| Modem Power System Analysis = 082100 _ Reactance of f= j——, = /1-6 pu Z (in ohms) XMVA puso Overhead line impedance = <3 (KV pase) _ 30x(0.27 + j036)>100 i. Gyr = (0.744 + 0.99) pu j0.08) x 100 Cable impedance = ae 08)x100 _ 9a + j0.55) pu Circuit model of the system for fault calculations i the system is on no load prior to occurrence of the faul venerators are identical (in phase and magnitude) and are equal to 1 pu. The generator cizcuit cen thus be replaced by a single voltage source in series with the parallel combination of generator reactances as shown. shown in Fig. 9.7. Since the voltages of the two “1 KV bus F Fig. 9,7 Total impedance = (j1,5 = (G5 Ml j1.25) + GLO) + (0.744 4 jt é 44 + 70.99) jl. (0.93 + j0.55) 4 ed =1674 + j482=51 7 70.8° pu Tes 120 _ Sicioge 7196 2 - 70.8 pu Ting = LOU 108 Be neg = 8150 A r toa sc = 0.196 x 8.750 = 1 a = 1,715. ‘Total impedance ty A etween F and 11 ky busv0 he 337 744 ~ 7099) + (aco) 276.8 pu Voltage at 11 EV bus = Bans | ADIMVA, 1 LV generator with 21 = 20% is'/eomnecied through 4 transferme:, line and transformer to a bus that Supplies three identical motors aS shown in Fig. 9.8. Each moto, has X]= 25% and X= 30% on a bose of SMVA, 6.6 kV. The three-phese rating of the step-up transformer is 25 M.A, Wes KV with a leakage reavtanoe Of 10% and that of the: stepdown transformer is 25 MV A. 66/5.6 kV with « leakage Feactance of 10%. The bus voltage at the motors is 6.6 LV when a hhree-phase fault occurs ab tne point F. For the specified fault, calculate (@) the subtransient current in the fauit é~ 708" PU= 0.88 x 11 = 9.68 py = O88 72 _30 (0) the subtransient current in the breaker 8, (0) the momentary current in breaker B, and (©) the current to be imerrepted by breaker I in five eyeles, Given, Reactance of the transmission line = 15% ona base of 25 MVA, 66 EW Assume that the systera is operating on no lend when the fault occurs, i A208 | | Metors 8/66 RV TP 11766 kV B56 eae a Gen Fig. 9.8 Solution Choose a systen base of 25 MVA eee Fora generator voltage base of 11 KY, line voliage ba Voltage tase is 6.6 kV. | @ For each motor 25 = 0.25 x 2 = (135 x fO.25 x 5 in = Ute; transformers and generator reac Valles, : f em for ee Sinise ion id motor induced en These a itially on no load, the generator and motor System being initially o1 of Fig. 99h and then to Menticel, The circuit can therefore be reduced to that of Fig cil. The circuit can the Fig. 9.9¢. NowModem Power System Analysis a * 1 Base current in 6,6 KV circuit = fog = 4.22, WD 8T = 95222 A ough circuit breaker B is (6) From Fig, 9,96, current thr 10, 2 pr pas jot it 195 520°} 3 SK Te ON ii |p it28, Leahy a = rr | | wo | -+ RTI + er lew) | rer } l (b) a | fio ! | ro He(Choat breaker) (6) | acon a Fig. 9.9 (c) For find 3 DC off-set cape e mentary ure current t thre 7 ‘Rather then calern he ssmamet ‘nt through the brey ena calculating the DC ea subtransien: aes We must add the isis. AF explained in See ga ee eo) 5, 48 made for it on an a$$$ —_Symnretricat Fay Analy si momentary current through breaker p = 1.6 x 7,47 = 11,967 A (@) To compute the current to be interry T ee e pled by the breaker, mot suotransient reactance (X= 0.25) is now. replaced by transient #8 ‘ati aan reactance X (motor) = 0.3 x 4 JUS pu 5 ‘The reactances of the citcuit of Fig. 9. Ie now iif t f Fi; Eiaest(emmetsca bs sees. modify to that of Fig. 994, by the breaker (as shown by arrow) Allowatee is made for the DC off-set vaine by multiplying with a factor of 1.1 (Sec. 95). Therefore, the current to be interrupted is 11 x 3.1515 x 2.187 = 7,381 A 9.4 SHORT CIRCUIT or A LOADED SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE In the previous article ‘on the shor circuit of 4 synchronous machine, it was assumed that the machine was operating at no load prior to the occurrence of short circuit. The analysis of short circuit on a laéded synchzorous machine is complicated and is beyond the scope of this book. We shall, however, present fete the methods of computing short circuit current when short circuit occurs under loaded conditions, Figure 9.10 shows the circuit model of « [ “ = Synchronous generator operating under steady con- ditions supplying a load current /? to the bus at a ferminal voltage of V°. E, is the induced em! under loaded condition and X, is the direct axis synchro- Tous Teactance of the machine. When, snort circuit Sceurs at the terminals of this machine, the circuit Medel to be used for computing short circuit p14 9 +9 circuit model of Suirent is given in Fig. 9.11a for subtransient Arse Surtent, and in Fig. 9.11b for transient current. The machine oo emfs to be used in these models are given n= yes JEXY (6.8) Ela Vos jPRY - El = V+ UK i . ee tage Eis known as the voltage behind the subtransient reacane i ». In fact, thevoltage Eis known o the voltage behind the wansient reactance: In fick 4 zero (no toad case), B= Bj = By, the no load voltage, in ‘iteuit model redaces to that discussed in See, 93.a_i Power System Anelysis a | si i. } | xg es ve! f vw ee & i b) Gircuit model for computing 4) Circull model for computing ( = subleansien! current transient current Fig. 9.11 Synchronous motors have intemal emfs and reactances similar to th a generator except that the cureat direction is reversed. Dering short circu conditions these can be replaced by similer circuit models except that voltage behind subtransienutransien? reactance is given by nye " 9.10) EL = V°—iPXY (9.1 B= Vr, (9.11) Whenever we are dealing with short circuit of an interconnected system, th: synchronous machines (generators and motors) are replaced by their core- sponding circuit models having voltage behind subtransient (transient) reac- tance im series with subtransient (transient) reactance. The rest of the network being passive remains unchanged. wx ‘hronous generator and a synchrongus motor each rated 25 MVA, IL kV ing [5% subtransient reactance are connected through transformers and a line as showa in Fig.9.12a. The transformers are rated 25 MVA, 11/66 kV and 86/11 kV with leakage reactance of 10% each, The line has a reactance of 10% ona base of 25 MVA, 66 KY. The motaris drawing 15 MW at 0.8 power factor trading anda terminal voliage of 10.6 KV when a symmetrical three-shace fault Sccurs at the motor terminals. Find the sul e i ibtransi i generator ca ansient current in the generator, Gent {3 ue Motor {) Qne-tine tageam for the system of Example 9 3 fai pps +n ie Vo Wo tior Cur NoySymmet ! Fault Analyeig voltages. NON & base of 25'MVvA and appropriate a fault Voliage V°= ae 9.9636. Zor py Load = 15 Mw, og PI leading IS = rae 0.6 pu, 0.8 pf leading Prefault current 7° = oe OD66-c93 209" = = 0.7783 2 36.9 pa Voltage behind Subtransient Teactance (generator) = 0.9636 20° + j045 x 0.7783 2 = 0.7536 + 0.28 pu Voltage behind subtransient reactance (motor) 36.9" £i, = 0.9636 2 or JO.1S % 0.7783 2 369° | = 1.0336 — 70.0933 pu cay equivalent ¢ N= AES oie = 0.6226 ~ 1.6746 pu j045 cuit is shown in Fig: 9.12b, Under faulted condi- Tf = 10336— f0.0933 6 5206 — 6.3906 po Joss == f.239 A (SC) Current Computation through the Theorem ig through the short circuit. currents ed Fsthod ot tapping te method is faster and ezsily adopt ‘the Thevenin theor=Modem Power System Analysis to systematic computation for large networks. While the method is perfectly ple, general, it is illustrated here through 4 simple Consider a synchronous generator feeding a synchronous motor Figure 9,1 3a shows the circuit model of the system under conditions of steady ‘ault at F, at the motor terminals 9.136 over alline load, Fault computations are to be made for dior t 1 first step the ciscait model is replaced by the one shown in Fi in the synchronous machines are represented by their transient reactance (or subiransient reactances if subtransieat currents are of interest) in series with This change does not disturb the prefault voltages behind transieat react current /° and prefault voltage V* (at /*). As seen from F'G the Thevenin equivalent circuit of Fig. 9.13b is drawn in Fig, 9.13c. It comprises prefault voltage Vin series with the passive Thevenin impedance network. It is noticed that the prefault current 4° Goes not appear in the passive Thevenin impedance network. Itis therefore to be remembered that this current must be accounted for by superposition after the SC solution is obtained through use of the Thevenin equivalent. Consider now a fault at F through an impedance Z’, Figure 9.13d shows the Thevenin equivalent of the system feeding the fault impedance. We can immediately write ye Ps — 9.12 Pn 4Z! (9.12) Current caused by fault in generator cireuit ra Al, = ——“ _eif a ‘ Of, +X, if (9.13) Xen | Xm) Kiged (0) (Thevenin feactance) Se (a) ig 8: ‘omputation of SC current ¥ the Thevenin equivalent Fig. 9.13 Computa sc by levenin equi al—Symmotricay it caused by fault in MOtOr cineui Aull Anaiyaig [29 ye Nile +X m ) Xe ANG) ! a) } Postfault currents sna Voltages ane obtained 46 Follows by superport ae perpen fo ys Meals AD (in the direction of Al) (9.15) Postfault voltage ; EVs Halle yey Av (9.16) where AV =~ 2X5,7 is the Voltage of the fauit " : Point F” on the Thevenin passive network oa Fespect (0 the reference bus G) caused by the flow of fault curent 7”, 1 An observation an be made here. Since the prefautt Current flowing out of fault point F is always zero, the Postfault current out of Fis independeat of load fora given prefauit Voltage at F. “The above approach to SC Computation is summ; rized in the following four 1; “Obtain Steady state solution of loaded system (load ‘flow study), lp 2 Replace reactances of Synchronous machines by their subtiansient/ Lf Walues. “Short Circuit all emf sources. ‘The fest i the passive Thevenin network. BZ) Excite the passive network of Ste 2 at the fault point by negative of prefault voltage (see Fig. 9.134) in series with the fuuit impedance. Compute tages and currents at all points of interest, currents and voltages are obtained by adding results of Steps Following assumptions can be safely made in SC computations leading i Computational simplification: on 1; All prefault voltage magnitudes are 1 pu. os ealaged ade ale ball voltages (pu) are nearly unity, : ‘Changes in current caused by short f Quite large, of the order of 10-20 2 die purely reactive; whereas the Mosd currents are almost purely real, otal postfault current whieh is the Of the two currents can be taken in © equal to the larger component HY the fault), This justifies assump: the fault point on Fig. 9.14 oe @ Thevenin network method by e the above sgh rl of Exaile 93.Ma Nose Power System Analysis __ -omputation of postfaulr The circuit mode! for the system of Example 9.3 for comp condition is shown in Fig. 9.14. =~ 8.565 pu Change in generator current due to fault, 5 HONS __ py yay pu Al, == j8.565 gD Change in motor current due to fault, Aly = = 8-565 x ie =~ 6.424 pu To these changes we add the prefault current to obtain the subtransient Current in machines, Thus M="+ Al, = (0.623 - j1.674) pu M=- 14 Al, = (- 0.623 — 76.891) pu which are the same (and should be) as calculated already. We have thus solved Example 9.3 altematively through the ‘Thevenis theorem and superposition. This, indeed, is a powerful method for la networks. ue 9.5 SELECTION OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS TWo of the circuit breaker ratings which require the computation of SC current are: rated momentary current. and Yaled symmetrical interrupting current Symaneirical SC current is. ob ubiransient reactances for nt (rms) is then calculated by : u hry current by a factor of | -6 to account for the presence of DC off-set current, tent (0 be interrupted is ¢ hronous generators and tran, ‘omputed by using subtransient motors—induction mot a me sient reactances for synchronous safe heglected*, The f bea obiain the current to erected”. The DC off-set value ti be added to be interrupted is accounted fi iplyi : Symmetrical $C current by @ factor ag tabulated belo: gk ae wi Circuit Breaker Sy Speed Multiptying Facto & eyeles or slower . i i) S cycles i Feyeles re Deyeley . es 14 "Ih some recen: ‘attempts, curren Steait hve been accounted fy, “bite by: induction Motors, during & shor—_—— Synimetical ayn Analysis HSC MVA (explained below) jy More than 500, the hove Th are increased bY 0.1 each, the Multiplying factor: for ap te Ng factors Pies 125, tor for gir breakers ated 600.¥ ‘The current that a citouit breaker ¢ ‘ ‘ MN intern 1 the operating voltage over y certain range, i ©. ‘ae eal Ampetes at operatil Ng Voltage =amperes at rated Voltage x rated yor ao as Voltage cannot exceed the max; ‘no matter how low the voltage js the ra i 1 a ted interrupting current ¢ au: 8 Current cannot exceed ie raed SRL Interrupting current. Over this range of veges ie product of operating voltage and tnterupting current is constant, fs therefore fogical as well as convenient to Xpress the \ e circuit breaker rating in terms SEMVA that can be interrupted, defined as aimee Rated interuptine MV A (three-phase) Capacity Wine yay IP (Une inti er where Viline) is in kV and 7 (iine) is kA, . Thus, instead of computing the SC current to be interry ; i the | © interrupled, we compute ‘three-phase SC MVA to be interrupted, where SC MVA (3-phase) = /7 x prefault line voltage in kV x SC current in kA. TNoltage and current are in per unit values on a thiee-phase basis SC MVA (3-phase) = Mocetaan * Wlgcs (MIVA) a (9.17) AObviously, rated MVA interrupting Capacity of a circuit breaker is to be ‘ore than (or equal to) the SC MVA required to be interrupted) For the selection of a circuit breaker fora perticular location,“we must find jenerating Capacity (also synchronous motor Toad) em. A three-phase fault though mare is genevally the one Bives the highest SC MVA and a circuit dreaker must be capable of ng it(Ar exception is an LG (Hine-to-ground) fault close to a gemierator*,)In a simple system the fault location whick: oe SC MVA maybe cbvious but in a large system Various oles be Must be tried out to obtain the highest SC MVA requiring repe: itations, This is illustrated by the examples that follow. ‘age/ operating Voltage Hmm design value. Also, akage reactance and MVA SOKV generators A, B and C, each of 10% lo ‘gs shown in 40, 50 and 25, respectively are interconnected electrically, Will be explained in Chapter 11.Modem Powor System Analygie Fig. 9.15, by a tie har through current limiting reactors, each of 12% reactan:, based upon the rating of the machine to whieh it is connected. A three Pha : feeder is supplied from the bus bar of generator A at a line voltage of 6 6 The feeder hus a resistance of 0,06 O/phase and an inductive reactance of ( ) ‘Mphase. Estimate the maximum MVA that can be fed into a symmetrical « circuit at the far end of the feeder, 40 (A)10% 80 ())10% 26 (6) 10% NVA) MYA") MVA ; f fi L \ = 12% 12% 12% ¢ ” ¢ I _ Tie bar Fig. 9.15 Solution Choose as base 50 MVA, 6.6 kV. Feeder impedance _ (0.06 + j0.12) x50 (6.6 Gen. reactance = 9450 = 0.125 pu Gen B reactance = 0.1 pu Gen C reactance = 0,1 x 50 _ 25 02 pu = (0.069 + 0,138) pu Reactor A resctance = ORD = 015 psSita _ Assume no load prefay) ©Onditions, 6 currents i then be calculated by the cir to Fig. Doon Seu is easily reduced '0 that of Fig. 9.16), wh = (0,069 + J0.138) 4 JO.125 | GOS 4 J0.22 iia a = 0,069 + 70.226 = 0.236.2930 ut Analysis a -Prefiult Clirtents are cro, Postfault Wit model Of Fig, 9, 16a Corresponding SC MYA = Viif= (e) . 1 g PU (since Vo = pu) i = i (MVA),.,.. = 0 _ D026 72 Mva Consider the 4-bus System of Fig. 9.17. Buses | and 2 are generator buses and 2 aie 4 ate load! buses. The generators are rated 11 KV. 100 MYA, with tatsient reactance of 10% each. Boch the transformers ang LL/110 kV, 100 MIVA with a leakage reactance of $%, The Feactances of the lines to a buse of WOMVA, 110KY are indicated on the gute. Obtain the short crate nae three-phase solid fault on bus 4 (load bus). Asstime prefault voltages to be 1 pu and prefault currents to be zero. G) = aan 2 4 10.18 The 111110 kV ( Fault Faut @ Fig. 9.17 Fourbus system of Example 9.5. ‘Changes in voltages and currents ¢ ny i be n 1g me aused by a short circuit cen , m the ‘i ote of Fig, 9. 18. Fault current 17 is calculated by ed fro circuit q e network reduction as in Fig. 9.19.eee | Oe al 1 /0.15 q i - tro eh ful | 1 : 2 er i! hos 7 2 tan fel 2 j0.15 I 9 Fig. 9.18 t T } I 510.15 | j0.15 = | N rh jot Ps | iin J () Ovg=t0 ae No —} —_—_—#) S — T 43,0086 the h ae : \ — no2085 KS yonates = J0.04768 3 ) { 20 =)/0.08166 ( Ovas40. HeFrom Fig. 9.194, it is easy to see that thet, « 2019568 jo3763g ~~ /9:83701 pu ,, i0.18055 so37sig =~ 753762 pu ‘Letus now compute the voltage changes for by 2 and 3. From Fig. ; age changes for buses 1, 2 an ig. AV, = 0 ~ (70.15) (— 3.83701) = — 05 pu AYa = 0 ~ (70.15) (— j3.53762) = — 0.53064 pu vi =1+ AV, = 0.42445 pu Vf =14 AV, = 0.46936 pu 0 — [(70.15) ( j3.83701) + (70.15) (10.17964)] 0154860 pu — 054860 = 0.4514 pu Vi VQ=0 - determinetion of currents in the remaining lines is left as an exercise to ‘circuit study is complete with the computation of SC MVA at bus 4. (SC MVA), = 7.37463 x 100 = 737.463 MVA b-obvicus that the heuristic network reduction procedure ‘adopted above is cal for a real power network of even moderate size. Ttis, therefore, alto adope a suitable algorithm for earying ou shor cirovit study ona | computer, This is discussed in See. 9.6. FOR SHORT CIRCUIT STUDIES calculations for simple systems whose have carried out short circuit orks can be easily Tnthis section ve orModem Power stem Analysis large systems. In order to apply the four : developed earlier to large systems, 1t1S necess: af algorithm so that & digital computer ca Ee used. 4.78 fee Gen Genn Gen 2 Genr Fig. 9.20 n-bus system under steady load Consider an 7-bus system shown schematically in Fig. load. The first step towards short circuit voltages at all buses and currents in all lines indicate the prefault bus voltage vector as 9.20 operating at steady computation is to obtain prefault s through a load flow study, Let us ve 1 ‘i vy us| 2 (9.18) ve Let us assume that the rth bus is faulted th fi is is ed thr ; ance Z/ The postfault bus voltage vector will be given a oe Se Viuus= Vins + AV (9.19) where A ea : ; AS oe i an in bus voltages caused by the fault. tenerators replaced pr care tasive Thevenin network of the system vil (Fig. 9.21), sient reactances with their emis shorted a rh! Cor | 3 Sea 4 3 = *% tee ee { f | c(t Fig. 9.21 y, a Pa ON of the system of Fig, se caused by the faui oOa Sai Fault Analysis F step 3 We now excit ‘ EB aizh Fig. 9.21 The oe FONE Then he ek with ~ Vein series NEN ECIOF AV comprises the buUS Voltages ofthis network. Now (9.20) where = bus impedance matrix of the (9.21) LSet a Zin | Passive ‘Thevenin network J! = bus current injection vector Since the network is injected with current — 71 only at the nb bus, we have ly 0 0 aw (9.22) 0 ‘Substituting Eg. (9.22) in Eq, (9.20), we haye for the pth bus AV, =- 7,9 SEIPBEN4, the voltage at the rth bus under faut is Via yo 4 AV. = vo _ git (9.23) = this voltage must equal on VE= 25jF Se from Eqs. (9.23) and (9.24) L Bayles: 0 (8.25) Ve 2 Lee .. )) ‘Hh bus (from Bays (9,20) and (9.22)) Av,=— ay! 0:26) Vix Vi— Zbl, t= bn on For 1” from fig. (9.25), we have Z, ve Ve ergagtModem Power m Ani For i= r in Eq. (9.27) Vos z yo (9.28) Z,+2/ In the above relationship V's, the prefault bus Voltages are assumed to hy. Known from a load flow study, Zyys matrix of the short-circuit study network of Fig. 9.21 can be obtained by the inversion of its Yous Matrix as in Examiple 9.6 or the Zyyy building algorithm presented in Section 9.7, It should he observed here that the SC study network of Fig. 9.21 is different fom the corresponding toad flow study network by the fact that the shunt branches Comesponding to the generator reactances do not ‘appear in the load flow study network. Further, in formulating the SC study network, the load impedances ars ignored, these being very much larger than the impedances of lines ind Senerators. Of course synchronous motors must be included in Zyug formula. tion for the SC study, Postfault currents in lines are given by B= ¥% Vi, vfy (9.29) For calculation of postfautt generator current, examine Figs. 9,22(a) and (b), From the toad flow study (Fig. §.22(a)) ate. Prefault generator output = Po + Ha, /o i Xe la | hee er | = oh vi = il (by Fig. 922 f= Pa i04 YP *(OFefaulkt generator ouput = P., +124) (9.30) P= V+ ix'gs® From the SC study, Vis obtained _ Muay. V4 is obtained. It then follows from Fig. 9.22(b) that ow (9,32) ee — algorithm discussed above, im elution for Example 9.5 which was gone) °° Stl TeeOmpate the short circuit technique, OHNE eae ising the nexvane eosFirst of all the bus admittance mati: as follows: for the network of Fig, 9.1 ee : jO15 * Yee = w= hs = ‘702 75.000 | 3 jo2 = — J28.533 = j16.667 —j28333 75.000 6.667 j10.000 oe 75000 —J28333 10.000 6.667 BUS=| 46.667 10.000 —j16.667 0.000 {10.009 76.657 (j0.000 —j16.667, 70.0597 700719 j0.0780 0.0902 f0.0780 j0.0719 jo.0719 0.0780 j01556 70.0743 | j0.0780 j0.0715 f0.0743 70.1356 | the postfault bus voltages can be obtained using Eq. (9.27) as Z Vie oesModem Power Sysiem Analysis The prefault condition being no load, V1 = V4 Y= 1 pu _ 70.0780 a Ee 01356 x 1.0 = 0.4248 pu Zz. t= yo Sa yo Wi, = V; zy 4 9 - J0.0719 70.1356 x 10 = 0.4698 pu Zz Vf ya - aie “a 9743 10 = 04521 70.1356 Re Vi = 0.0 Using Eq. (9.25) we can obtain the fault current as p= 1.000 356. These values agree with those Obtained earlier in Example 9,5, Let us also calculate the short circuit cument in lines 1-3, 1-2, 1-4, 2-4 and 2.3. == 7.37463 pu 0.4248 —0.4521 _ Fons = 7182 pu Vi =VE _ 0.4248— 0,460: r= WoW _ 0. 4698 _ Pe gS pu WAVE _ o.424g— Hye 2 Os OA i ty = “0. ‘74.248 pu Vi-Vé _ 0.4698— t= 2M _ 0. Oe f = 7015 B.132 pu= _—__Symretica Fauit Analysis = 1.000 Loo | 4 (08 Z,) j0.0903 AMO74197 pu 9.7 2y5s FORMULATION ‘Bylnventing ¥,,,. Favs = Yaus Vee a Vaure= Oous!” Jai = Zar, Jous (933) o Fous = (Yous! Se sPMSIY Of You, may be retained by using an efficient inversion techaique Ml and nodal impedance Matrix can then be calculated directly from the Aatorized admiteance matrix, This is beyond the Scope of this book. Current Injection Technique - Byuation (933) can be written in the expanded form (9.34) (9.38) ; is a symmetrical matrix). : pose Gee Curent is injected at bus (nods) , while the eher = ‘pen circuited, the bus voltages yield the values ofthe th columa “al ‘organized computerizable techniques are possible for bus ae ‘The technique had utility in AC Network Analyzers © bus voltages. ‘bus voltages could be read by @ voltmeter. buses one of which is a iBbe Retwerk of Fig. 9.23) with there buses one yal buy 2 open cireuit, Le. 4) cl I a ea tras LatkesModem Power System Analysis Now let fy =0-and J, = 1. It similarly follows that .; Ay = Wy=4= 23 i Zy=V,= 6 a Collecting the above values 7 4 4. Zus=|4 6 P Because of the above compurational procedure, the Zyys matrix is referced to as the ‘open-circuit impedance matrix’. Notai Zug Building Algorithm It is a step-by-step programmable technique which proceeds branch by branch, ’ It has the advantage that any modification of the network does not req jie Figu complete rebuilding of Zpys. ame Consider that Zs has deen formulated upto a certain stage and another branch is now added. Then ye a) nian 27, Gow) & Upon adding a new branch, ene of the following situations is presented. Hene: 4 4 =a 4 — é rs ee = wf Pe 3 : Vo. | <4 ‘ rb j= TF Reference = bus fa) w it if ie 2 fm SS ae 3 (©) 9.23 Current injection method of computing Zyys 1. Z, is added from’a new bi added and the dimensi modification, Fig. us to the reverence bus (ie. a new branch is Hon Of Zays goes up by one). This is spe!Symmetrical Fault Analysis Zyis udded from a new b; fo an old bu lew branch is added and the dimension of Zaus Boe: Up by one), This ig type-2 modification. 3, Z,connects an old bus co eis Othe seerence branch (ie Baitheditvension of Zs. does not ching ge). This new loop is formed i ¥8 type-3 modification, (Le., new loop is forme d but the dimension of Zaus des not change). This 3S Nype-4 modification, Novation: i, j—old buses; Type-1 Modification reference bus: k—new bus, 7 2 2 5 3 B (linest) ‘n-bus ne:work in which branch with Simpedlance Z, is addled to the new bus. and the reference bus 7. Now Zp,,(old) .36) Zoos (new = | 220 (9.36) Passive inear | pea | fo—— et | ml fe Je | Fig. 9.24 Type-t modification new bus k to the old bus /as in Fig. 9.25. It follows from this, i ‘ i from usModern Power System Analysis / Pagsive liroar n-bus network Fig. 9.25 Type-2 modification Ali+V, = Zle+ Zh + Z wn + Ly Yt by) + oe + Sul Rearranging, Vie Zyl + Zola +. + Zplj tn + Sal, + (Zy + Zoh ‘Consequently | 2y zy I yg (new) = |Zayg (old) |: (9.37) Zid jr Lpy Type-3 Modification 1 %, comnects an old bus (j) to the reference bus ( Fi 0 IS (7) as in Fig. 9.26. This case follows from Fig. 9.25 by connect i fe sis 18-925 by connecting bus to the reference bus r, ie. by setting : - f Passive fineair 1 , rebus etworte Fi. 9.26 Type-3 moditcation Sim,i 8) Metrical Fault Analysis yi | 4, a; M, | 27 iB T P=] Zpustoid) |: : al 4 (6.38) OF ntn---Z, |Z, +2, | 1, “Biminate J, in the set of equations ¢, at 2 ‘ontained in th Om Bye aes comin A ae (9.38), cd B= Rrra 197, =z, G+ taht + 2,09 (9.39) Now | Zali + Zale sn. + Zed + Zs (0.40) Substituting Eg, Rios in Eq, (9.39) ek Ty =| %- Regent fz : 2a) I faa |p Se ez. Zia j (9.37) can be written in matrix form as (941) 2; Zaus (new) = Zpys (old - [ F [l2jyosZp] (9.42) Zy+2y 4 Su Modification two old buses as in Fig, 9.27. Equations can be written as follows ‘the network buses. —— | Passive linear ‘n-bus network Fig. 9.27 Type-4 modilieation Za + Days + Lit W* Fy YW) + Ah OS) ons follow for other buses.0 Modern Power System Analysis The voltages of the buses ind j are, however, constrained by the equation (Fig, 9.27) Y= Sh V, (9.44) OFZ yhy + Zaly tu + Zy ht WV Zy lly — My) + + Zyl, = Dh Zl + Daly toe + ZI + y+ SMU... Z,) Rearanging OFZ - Zh +. + Zy- Zp) 4+ Z-%) 1, nt Zig — Zi) In + (Zy # Zi, + Zj— Zy- Bd by (9.45 Collecting equations similar to Eq, (9.43) and Eq. (9.45) we can write v (Zy- Z;) (9.46 a Eliminating 2, in Eq, (9.46) on lines similar to what was done in Type-2 modification, it follows that i [Zu gas (new) = Zgys (old) — ——_! ___ 8 2+ 2; +2, —22Z, (2) - 2). @a~Z)1 (0.47) With the use of four relationskips Eqs (9. 36), (9.37), (9.42) and (9.47) bus i ‘matrix can be built by a Step-by-step proc @ time) as illustrated in Example 9.8, ne can be easily computerized. ‘Whea the network undergoes changes. the modification procedures can be ‘employed to revise the bus impedance matrix of the network, The opening of 4 line (Z,) is equivalent to adding « branch in parallel to it with impedance ~ %; (sce Example 9.8). a For the 3-bus network shown in Fig. 9.28 build ae. : on ¥ or Sir f = Ys i % t Mya Sos |Solution = ep Je Add branch 2), = 9.55 Crom bus 1 ( Je ik New) to bus ») Ad@ brench z,, = Biep 22 ASC branch 25, = 0.) (frou, bus 2 " modification © (new) to bu ! (old; » | (old); type-2 y 0.25 25 oe 5 0.25) 0.35 a Step 2> Add brinch ¢, motificaticn 0.1 (fro (from bus 3 (new) to bus. 1 (old)): type-2 [025 025 0.25) us = | 0. 035 02 0.25 92: (ii) 0.35, Sep4: Add branch =,, (from bu, old) to bu: 3 Sr); type-3 modification 0.25 025 fo2s) 5 =| 0.25 3 uy = | 0. 035 icone 035) [025 0.35 0.25) 0.25 025 ei | (Q1458 0.1042 0.14587 =|0.1042 01458 6.1042] 0.1458 0.1042 0.2458] Sip > Add branch 2; = 0.1 (from bus 2 (old) to bus 3 (old): typed modification 0.1458 0.1042 0.1458) %oys=|0.1042 0.1458 01458 0.1042 01+ 01458 + 0.2458- 250.1012 0.104: = wo | 042 0.0417 0.0417] =0.0417. 0.1397 0.1103 0.125 =|01103 0.1397 0.1250 0.1250 01250 0.1750. ’ uivalent to conneeing an impedance e. type-4 modification eee (old) ~ [py 0175+ 0.1397 1 Orening a line (tine 3-2): This bus 3 (old) and bus 2 (ld) | 0.125 Zeus = Zaus0.0147 0.0147 [0.0147 — 0.0147 0.0500) N 4 0.0500. 0.1458 0.1042 0.1458 =| 01042 0.1458 0.1042}; (same as in step 4) = 0.1458 0.1042 0.2458 ne (c For the power system shown in Fig, 9.29 the pu reactances are show For a solid 3-phase fault on bus 3, calculate the following (a) Fault current s (b) Vj and V5 (©) Hp, Ts and 14 (@) ¢Gy,and 14, @ | Assume prefault voltage to be 1 pu. cos 4 J : 4 3 But 1 0.4 ge | = Sim gli f Fig. 9.29 — — Solution The ‘Thevenin passive network for this system is drawn in Fig. 9.28 With its Zpus given in Eg. (iv) of Example 9.8, . (@) As per Eq. (9.25) my vi ae | ; 2, +a) 4 5 oF eV A ! A ea care ot ’ ) AS pei Eq. (0.26) A } eraHy=¥% Wi vf) ee Fou (0286 - 0286) = 0 Y=, = n= Sy (0.286 ~ 0) = fa-W ig +E EG, = | pu (prefault no load) yp 1=0286 a, = . 1 Fo j00s 78 Hyz= j2.86 PROBLEMS line of inductance 0.1 H and resistance 5 ohms is suddenly ‘at 1 = 0 at the bar end as shown in Fig, P-9.1. Write the for short circuit current i(), Find approximately the value of ‘maximum (maximum momentiry current). that the first current maximum occurs & the same time as maximum of the symmetrical short eireuit current.)01H 50. )v=100 sin (100 nt + 15°) || ] } Fig. P-9.1 9.2 (a) What should the instant of short circuit be in Fig. P-9.1 so that the DC off-set current is zero? (b) What should the instant of short circu DC off-set current is maximum? 9.3 For the system of Fig, 9.8 (Example 9.2) find the symmetrical currents to be interrupted by cireuit breakers A and B for a fault at (2) P and (i) Q 9.4, For the system in Fig. P-9.4 the ratings of the various components are Generator: 25 MVA, 12.4 kV, 10% subtransient reactance Motor: 30 MVA. 3.8 kV. 15% subtransient reactance Transformer 7\; 25 MVA, 11/33 kV, 8% reactance Transformer Ty; 20 MVA, 33/3.3 kV, 10% reactance fit be in Fig. P-9-1 so that the Line: 20 ohms reactance ‘The system is loaded so that the motor is drawing 15 MW at 0.9 loading power factor, the motor terminal yoltage being 3.1 KV. Find the subtransient current in generator and motor for a fault at generator bus. [Hint: Assume a suitable voltage base for the generator. The voltage base for transformers, line and motor would then be given by the transforma- tion ratios. For example, if we choose genesator voltage base as 11 kV. the line voltage base is 33 kV and motor voltage base is 3.3 kV, Per unit reactances are calculated accordingly.) re Fig. P-9.4 9.8 Two synchronous motors are connected to the bus of a large system through @ short transmission line as shown in Fig. P-9.5, The ratings of various components are: a ee (euch): 1 MVA, 440 V, 0.1 pu transient reactance ! 0,05 ohm reactance Large system: Short circuit MVA at its bus at 440 V is 8. When the motors are i : 8 are operating at 440 V, calculate the short circuit Current (symmetrical) fed into a three-phase fault at motor bus,Line z, Motors: Motor bus Fig, P.gs synchronous gener: a _ sync! _ eae Tated 500 kVA, 44g y, 01 Bee ee al Sota g i e initial symmetric: et Ce Be crac terminate cal ms cure fora three-phase fault : . O7A enerator-transformer Unit is connected to a line ‘breaker. The uni: ratings are Generator: 10 Mv, 66 X, = 0.80 pa Transformer: 10 MVA, 6.9/3 kV, reactance 0.08 pa ‘The system 41 Operating no load at a Line voltage of 30 kV, when a three: phase fault occurs on the Line just beyoad the circuit bresker Find {@) the initial syrrmetrical rms current in the breaxer, 4b) the maximum possible DC off-set current in the breaker, (¢) the momentary cu:rent rating of the breaker, © (@) the current to be intecruptec by the breaker andthe intemupting kVA, and |» (€) the sustained short circuit current in the breaker, Phe’ system shown in Fig. P-9.8 is delivering 50 MVA ai 11 ky, 08 Tagging power factor into a bus which may be regarced zs infinite, Particulars of various system compozents are: 60 MVA, 12 kV, X/= 0.35 pu 80 MVA, 12/66 kV. X = 008 pu stance negligible. Reactance 12 ohms, resistarc ! vt that the circuit breakers 4 and B will® : tiree-phase fault occucring at through a circuit : &V; X= 0.1 pu, Xj = 020 pu and Generator: Transformers each): | bine: [Calsilace the symmetrical curse } ‘be called upon to interrupt in the event of 8 ‘Near the cirvuit breaker B.eee a bus a | . fas afi rough a bus as show 9.9 A two generator P-9.9, Additional power is fe large system which may be regs te rerween the transformer and the bus to limit the SC ruptur the feeder circuit breaker B to 333 MVA (fault close to breaker), Find inductive reactance of the reactor required. S n data are: Generator G MVA, 15% Generator Gy! ‘Transformer T; ‘Transformer Ty ‘Assume that all reactances are given on appropriate voltag a base of 100 MVA. a transforme! tor X is incl reactance reactance | 40 MVA: 10% reactance bases, C G @ Te : a f th 8B * Feeder Fig, P-9.9 9.10 For the three-phase power network shown in the various components are: h Ts Ty Bus Fig, P-8.10 1 100 MVA, 0.30 pu reactance 3 60 MVA, 0.18 pu reactance ae ch): $0 MVA, 0.10 pu reactance oan X: 0.20 pu Mo a base of 100 MVA aoe ohms (reactive); neglect resistance ue See Ditally unloaded and a line voltige of 110 BY, ¢ aa ‘a it ones at mid point F of tine Ls short circuit MVA to be interupted by the circutl breakers A and B at the ends of the line, What would these walues be. tf eae tne. What wou id these values be. i!——etieal Fault Analysis 4 transformer ‘AMOUS Components are: 0.12 0.28 Presented by a generator with @ reactance age at each bus lase short cireuit Occurring on bus 1 § @ cutrent of 5.0 pu to flow Into the fault, Determine the equivalent ve of the power network, ‘the 3-bus system of Fig. P-9.12. The generators are 100) MVA, Transient reactance 10% each. Both the transf formers are 100 MVA deakage reactance of 5%. The Teactance of each of the lines toa of 100 MVA, 110 KV is 10%, Obtain the short circuit solution for phase solid short circuit on bus 3. prefault voltages to be | pu and prefault currerts to be zero. q @ To = AMOK APIO KV pa joa 7 Li A Fault Fig. P-9-12 pedani data ane 9,12, the system - ‘configuration of Fig: P+ 2 0,15 pa former = 0.05 pu ia bus voltages: ade currentModern Pewer System Analysis 9.14 For the fault (solid) location shown in Fig. P-9.14, find the se currents in lines 1.2 and 1.3. Prefault system is on no-load with 1 pu yollage and prefault currents are zero. Use Zpys method and compute its elements by the current injection technique. © 0.18 pureactance | To V2 44/7110 kV, 005 pu reactaroe me jO.4; ee Ree 1 +—3: ys to TAN 44) 0K, 05 pu reactance a Pa! gaa x G) 04 pureactance Re fe ps Fig. P2149 ea cep: tb €. =e, oe Th, é ——" cE REFERENCES: | _ Books 1. Brown, HE, Solution of Large Network by Matrix Methods, Wiley, New York 1975. 2, Nevenswander, LR, Modern Power Sssiems, International Textbook Coripany ‘New York, 1971. 3. Stagg. G.W. ard AH. ELAbiad, Computer Methods in Power Systeus Analysis. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1968. 4 Andersson, P.M., Analysis of Faulted Power Systems, Iowa State Press, Ames, [ows 1973, a 9 lathe. E., Circuit Analysis of Aliemating Current Power Systems, Vol. 1, Wik. “New Yark, 1943, 6. Stevenson, W.D. Ir, New York, 1982, Paper 7. Brown, HE. etal. “Digital Calewlation : r of ‘Thiee-Phase Short Circuits ty Matrik Methods”, AMEE Trans, 1960, 79°: 1277, ‘i Elements of Power Systems Analysis, 4th edn, McGraw-Hill.10.1 INTRODUCTION werk so far, we have considered both norm al end abnormal (short it) operations of power system under completely balanced (symmetrical) Under such operation the system impedances in each pl and the three-phase voltages and currents thro. ase are out the system are y balanced, i.e. they have equal magnitudes in each phase and are Scively displaced in time phase by 120° (phase @ leacs/lags phase b by and phase b leads/lags phase c by 120°). In a balanced system, analysis ‘Occed on @ single-phase basis. The knowledge of volt and current in Se is sufficient 10 completely determine voltages and currents in the * to phases. Real and reactive powers’ are simply three times the per phase values. anced system operation can result in an otherwise balanced system due YMMmetrical fault, e.g. line-to-ground fault or line-to-line fault. These "i fact, of more common occurrence* than the symmetrical (three- “ult: System operation may also become. unbalanced when loads are “das in the presence of larg single-phase loads. Analysis under Van Cutiditions has to be earried out on a thr meric f *8VeBient method of analyzing unbalanced operation is thro SY Ymneirica May be nents where the three-phase volt dl are phase basis. Alterna compor id currents) which Sabalance, ta es (a usformed into three sets af balanced wes (and relative freq 0 mt ? Vic om avencies of occurrence of different kinds of faults in a’ power Mee at decreasing severity) are: Se-phase (31.) faults Double jin €-t0-ground (LLG Double line (1 59 faults 10% ey L) fautts 15% * line-o-ground (LG) faults 70%Modem Power System Analysis. currents) called symmetrical components. Fortunately, in such a trans the impedances presented by various power system elements (synchro generators, transformers, lines) to symmetrical components are decoupled each other resulting in independent system networks for each component (balanced set). This is the basic reason for the simplicity of the symmetries) component method of analysis. 10.2 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT ‘TRANSFORMATION A set of three balanced voltages (phasors) Vj. Vir Ve 18 characterized by equal magnitudes and interphase differences of 120°. The se id to have a phase sequence abe (positive sequence) if ¥,, lags Vy by 120° and V_lags V, by 120%. The three ohasors can then be expressed in terms of the reference phasor V, as V, = Va Vi= Vy Ve = OV, ‘where the complex number operator © 18 defined as 20" ell i It has the following properties (1.1) V,=V,, Yy= aV,, Ve ; Thus a set of balanced phasors is fully characterized by its reference priser (say V,) and its phase sequence (positive or negative). Suffix 1 is commonly used to indicate positive sequence. A set of (balance!) positive sequence phasors is written as Vis Var oP Vair Wes = Ve: (102) Similarly, suffix 2 is used to indicate negative sequence. A set of (balance?) negative sequence phasors is written as 103) Ys Mp = oy, Vig= OV, o L A.setof three voliages (phasors) equal in magnitude and having the same io Mes is said to have zero sequence. Thus a set of zero sequence phasors 8 ¥™ as . 104) Vow Vio= Vi Ven = Vag cs Consider now set of three voltages (phasors) Vi Vpe Ve Which im BOHEME Tp be unbalanced. According to Fortesque’s theorem* the three phasol® * Se * The theorem is a general ong and apolis to the ease of phasors [61Va= Vat * Vip + Vag VW= V, b+ Vin + Voy Vat Vot Vig The three phasor sequences (Positive, negative and zero symmetrical components of the original phasor set Voy Vsy symmetical components as per Egs. (10 ).5) to (10.7) to ge indicated by the phasor diagram of Fig. 10.1 ») are called the Y.. The addition of mnerate V,, Vy, Vis NY Vo > Vog=oVa *l-10:1 Graphical addition of the set of phasors ct 1 ™ &xPRe85 Eqs, (10.5) to ( os Tg the symmetrical components to obtain Vn, Vy Vs (unbalanced in general) 10.7) in terms of reference phasors ¥,\, 10.8) Van + Via + Vii beg V+ OW, 4 Vip > Mee OV 4 Vay, ( be expressed in the matrix form 7 * Stato MS canor V, = AY, where Va V, =| Vj, | = vector of original phasors Ye Voy V, =| Vao | = vector of symmetrical components Veo 1a. ji A=|@ a 1 (10.3) aad | We can write Eg. (10.12) as V,=A'V, (10.19) Computing A~! and utilizing relations (10.1), we get 1a @ | Ate la @ cots 1 A In expanded form we can write Eq. (10.14) as f Vo = 2 (V, + a¥,+ oY.) Ven = - (Vq% 02¥, + a, (1018) al? Yo= 3 Vat V+ Ve) aus tai Equations (10.16) to (10.18) give the necessary relationships for ‘1a? Symmetrical components of the original phasors, while Eqs. (10.5) © (0) give the relationships for obtaining original phasors components. The symmetrical component transformations though gi * voltages hold for any set of phasors and therefore: of currents. Thus———w SS SOmponents and I= where | Ts Ofcourse A and A“! are the same as given earlier In expanded form the relations (10.19) and (10.20) can be expressed as follows: i) Construction of current phasors from their symmetrical components (10.21) (10.22) (10,23) = (10.24), (+ fl, + al.) (10.25) i= 4 yt ht Id (10.26) Certain observations can now be made artling a three-phase system with neatral return as shown in Fig. 10.2 Fig. 10.2 ‘Throe-phase system with neutral retum The su sum ; ‘eavey ® Of the three line ce Somponent of line i a= Wan + Vig # V5.) Voltages will always be zero, Therefore, the zero voliages is abvays zero, i ) (10.27)a4 | Modern Power Sysiem Analysis s (line to neutral) May not be zero On the other hand, the sum of phase volt 80 that their zero sequence component Vi, may exist. , Since the sum of the three line currents equals the current 1n the neutra] wire, we have ry ieee het = ae (0.28) 3 ive, the current in the neutral is three times the zero sequence line current If the neutral connectior is severed, i (10.28) ie, in the ebsence of a newral connection the zero sequence line current is ulways zero, Power Invariance We shall now show that the symmetrical component transformation is power invariant, which means that the sum of powers of the three symmetrical components equals the three-phase power. Total complex power in a three-phase circuit is given by S=Vi= Vit Vy if+ V, (10,30) or [AV IAL Syiate = VIATAT (10.31) | | 1 @ ala @ 1\=90 | o| =3y (1032) J Oo 0 1 VOT, = BVP, = Wath + Vials + 3Veyfeg (10.39) = sum of symmetrical component powers Example 10.1 A delta connected balane three-phase supply es Specified, find the symmeiri Syrimetrical components of between symmetrical cop Aon ed resistive connected across an unbalanced 3. With currents in lines A ard 7 cal components of line currents. Also find tl delta currents. Do you netice any relationship ents of Fins and delta currents ? CommentR Seb f Fig. 10.3 Solution 1+ Ip+ te =0 or : 10230° + 152 60° + 1.=0 Te= = 16.2 + 78.0 = 18 2154 A From Egs. (10.24) to (10.26) = T0230 + 152-609 + 1 0) + 1SZ(154° + 2409) + 79.3 = 14242 4 (i) 110220 = 152¢- 60° + 240") + 181549 + 120%) = =1.7 — 4.3 = 4.652249" 4 (ii) Iyy = Le Ip Ig) = 0 (iii) om Eq. (10,2) i, (10, ahi Ty, = 142980 4 tq = 142162" 4 ie ty = 4.6528" A Teg = 4.652128" A U . Ip=0A ley =0:A {3 c oe te 7 Vhs + 154 Tyg = 8.65 + j5 = 10230° — jg, ve Celta load into equivalent star, we can redraw Fig. 10.3 as in ts >. RB | RI RB \ i —e a | *‘as | Modern Power System AnalysS 2 Delta currents are obtained as follows Yap Re I) Now m= |, Tyg = Val = Ua Similarly, he Gy 1d Lie- Substtoting the values of Ip) fp and Ic, we have lap = pod 30° = 6L86 A lye® (Se OF - 1gzis4*) = 10.52- 415° A Fea = wti82 154° — 1030") = 834173? A ‘The spot components of delta currents are 41.5% + 120°) + 8.32(173° + 240°))(i") 1 (626° + 1054 = 82Z72°A hl ecages Higa = 5 (O286" + 10.52(- 41.5° + 240") + 8:32(173° + 120°) = 272218 A ; Tig = 0 i Iie, I, faci Ince Incor Heay> lear am [ey cam be found by using Eq: (10.2) Co z tne arene i) and (iv), and (ii) and (v), the following relatiomh? crac metrical components of line and delta currents are immediate (vit) wii) ‘The teader should verifi : i! (viii) and compari from Eqs. (vii) y these by calvulating Lap, sand Ih, the results with Bags, (iv) and (¥).Symmetricat Components 103 PHASE SHIFT IN STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMERS Positive and negative sequence voltages and current ing through a star-delta transformer which depen Before considering this phase shift, we need to dise 8 the standard of a single-phase transformer as shown in Fig. 10.5. The marked with a dot have the: same polarity Thetefore, voltage Viy. Assuming that the small magnetizing current can be neglected, the primary current J end cancels the demagnetizing ampere-tums of {and J, With directions of flow as indi undergo a phase shift in, ds upon the labelling of amount of 1» €htering the dotted the secondary current Jy so that d in the diagram are in phase. If the be in phase opposition, Ve Vent =* Vay 230, x= phase transformation ratio (10.34) quence line voliages on star side lead the ide by 30° (The same Tesult would apply © sides). The same also applies for line i Pet Eq. (10.34), the Positive oie tite Voltages on the delta "tine toe eng, MUA Voltages on the tyr Fig. 10.6(b) the phase shift reverses (the m); the delta side quantities lead the starVac Fig. 10.7 Positive sequence voltages on a starideltia transtorre’ pepativ® ew Ft now reves result Instead, if the transformer of Fig. 10.6(a) is now excited by sequence voltages and currents, the voltage phasor diagram will 10.8, The phase shift in compariso to the positive sequence cane ie., the star side quantities lag the delta side quantities by 30". The Fig. 10.6(b) also correspondingly reverses a, It shall from now onwards be assumed that a staridelta transfor” iy labelled that the positive sequence quantities on she AV side——. -ymmetrical Com ints corresponding positive sequence quartities on the ‘LY side by so is the case for negative sequence quantities Wherein Jy WMantities corresponding LV quantities by 39° Veco Vane Voss Ven * Vazz Fi9.10.8 Negative sequence voltages on a star/delta transformer 10:9 shows the circuit of a fully transposed line carrying unbala Path for /, is sufficiently Away for the mutual eff X, = self reactance of each line le % f —a7 y ~ 7 by 7 r = } 4 1m \ Xe x, po : Noy, 71M ly In be ps 1 Ye! We | vy ' Fig. 10.9Modem Power SySen Lf 1, + Xn + Keb (10.35) V.— Ve= Kade 7 Xn * iXd, or in matrix form ry) (Ve) [hn Mn Tu Y% |-|\Vb |= 4 XXiXm 4 h (10.36) tive) boxe or V,- = 2p (1037) or | AW, Y= AL (10.38) or va = A“ZAl, (10.39) Now a de X, Keyl 1 © a Kh, i Km le a ‘om 1 1 Lim He ibe #1 0 0 7 X— 0 . {. 0 x, + 2Xq : ‘Thus Eq, (10.37) can be written as ; Y] vi [XX 0 0 7A Mil re) ° o |n| aoa [vol LV! 0 \4 0 O74 =[0. 2, 0 |e aoa) {o 0 Zt wherein J ats = f(X,— Xp) = positive sequence impedance ae ( Z, ie X,_) = negative sequence impedance ae aos Zey= JO, + Xm) = 2270 sequence impedance ed transmission has: We conclude that a fully transpos (3) equal positive and negative 3 (ii) zero sequence impedance Mm| sequence impedance ( It is further observed tk decoupled form, ix, there are 20 (10.42) can be represented in newwor] 7 nce impedan nee. ai na ep than th? *posave or wach larg mutual i, form as #) Vs a Va (a) Positive sequanc Postve sequance {S)Nagativo sequone Fig. 10.10 The decoupling between sequence sion holds also in 3-pha: This fact leads to considerable simplications in components method in unsymmetrical fault analy In ease of three static unbalanced impedance sequence networks and the method is n 3-phase analysis. networks of a fully (ransposed transmis- “phase transformers, the use of symmetrical coupling appears between (0 more helpful than a straight forward 10.6 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES AND SEQUENCE NE’ OF POWER SYSTEM ES Power system elements—transmission lines, transformers and syachronous machines—have a three-phase symmetry because of which when currents of a Particular sequence are passed through these elements, voltage drops of the same sequence appear, i.e. the elements possess only self impedances to sequence currents. Each element can therefore be Teprevented By Thre decoupled sequence networks (on single-phase basis) pertaining to positive, negative and zero sequences, respectively. EMFs are involved only in a positive sequence network of synchronous machines. For finding a particular sequence impedance, the element in question is subjected to currents and voltages of that sequence only. With the element operating under these conditions, the sequence impedance can be determined analytically or through experimental test results. With the knowledge of sequence networks of elements, complete pesitive, negative and zero sequence networks of any power system can’ be assembled, As will be explained in the next chapter, these networks are suitably intezconnected to simulate different unsymmetrical faults. The sequenve currents and voltages during the fault are then calculated from which actual fault currents and voltages can be found. 10.6 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES AND NETWORKS OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE ‘generator or motor) pohie't emits Figure 10.11 depicts an unloaded synchronous m and E, are the induce grounded through a reactor (impedance Z,). E,rom Analysis Of the three phases, When a fault (not shown in the figure) takes Place ap Machine terminals, currents f, 4, and /, flow in the lines. Whenever the fay, involves ground, curzent J, = J, + Jp + /, flows to neutral from ground via z ; anced Jine curren's can be resolved into theis symmetrical components y” 5 (Before we can proceed with fault analysis (Chapter 11), we may i know the equivalent circuits presented by the machine to the flow of positive | itive and zero sequence currents, respectively. Because of Winding 9 symmetry currents of a particular sequence produce voltage drops of tha Fe Sequence only. Therefore, there is 1-no coupling between the equivalent cirits ¢ of various sequences. ) Pe sii a | Fig. 10:11, Three-phase synchronous generator with grounded neutral Positive Sequence Impedance and Network Abince a synchronous machine is designed with symmetrical windings, i infures 5 emfs of positive sequence only, i.e. no negative or zeto sequence vollages Hf aig a induced in i When the machine carries positive sequence cusrents onl, ts P mode of opel anced mode discussed at length in Caapter 9. Te armature reaction field caused by positive sequence currents rotates al Ny synchronous speed in the same direction as the rotor, ie. itis stationar) Wit “eat Tespect to field excitation, The machine equivalently offers a dirt #0 lea. ‘ reactance whose value reduces from subtransiont reactance (Wg) f@ C2 | ga reactance (X4,) ard finally to steacy state (synchronous) react@ee 405 j | Din short citcuit transient progresses in time. If armature resistance toes nepligible, the- positive Vequerce impedance of the muchine yyy | / 42> iXH (6 1 cycle transient is of interest) ios | = \ = JX) (if 3-4 cycle’ transient is of interes!) a8) sl GQ = JX; (if steady State value is of interes? sel coi y : tie-sachine-shomt circuit takes place from unloadet er terminal voltage constitutes the positive sequence VolUBS “a ae a [5 a “This can be shoven to be so by synchronous machine theo S K bhthe short circuit occurs from | reactance (subtransient, tran: sequence voltage. Figure 10.12a“Shows the three-pha: Ps synchronous machine. Z, does not appear in the model as J, = 0 for positive sequence currents. Since it is a balanced network it can be represented by the single-phase network model of Fig. 10.12b for Purposes of analysis, The reference bus for a positive sequence network is at neutral potential, Further, icutral, the neutral is at ground potential. ppropriat it_or synchronous) constitutes the Positive ve sequence network model of a since no current flows from ground to n hes Ls qd; 2 9 - ‘ oy e =r (2) Three-phese mode. (b) Single-phase mode| Fig. 10.12 Positive sequence network of synchronous machine With reference to Fig. 10.12b, the positive sequence voltage of terminal a with respect to the reference bus is given by Va= b= Sik (10.49) Negative Sequence Impedance and Network ''has already been said that a synchronous machine has Zero ne; induced voltages. With the flow of ne; stating field is created which rotate Positive sequence field and, therefore, ater Currents at double the stator gative sequence gative sequence currents in the Stator a s in the opposite direction to that of the at double synchronous Speed with respect frequeney are therefore induced in rotor field and damper winding. In sweeping over the rotor Surface, the negative — ‘mmf is alternately presented with reluctances of direct and quadrature ie ®. The negative Sequence impedance presented by the machine with msideration given-to the damper windings, is often defined as peal Ze oe 12) < lz (1050) na Bet | uence network models of & synchrorous machi : : Bees ‘ ine, On a three. Tefen Siigte-phase basis are shown in Figs. 10.134 and b, respect f ae tal, #8 Of course” at-neutral potential which We cane ae oo’ Et eround| ___Modem Power System Analysis > voltage of terminal a with respect From Fig, 10.13b the negative sequen to reference bus is Vs Zhen (10.51) | —3 Reference bus h a Za Veg 2 2 > ia te (0) Single-phase model (a) Three-phasa model ynchronous machine Fig. 10.13 Negative sequence network of a 5) Zero Sequence Impedance and Network We state once again that no zero sequence voltages are induced in a synchronous machine. The flow of zero sequence currents creates three mmfs which are in time phase but are distributed in space phase by 120°. The resultant air gap field caused by zero sequence currents is therefore zero Hence, the rotor windings present leakage reactance only to the flow of zero sequence currents (Zy, < Z>< Z;) ' bo 1 a Reference bus Whe = 5, he A oa eae, Pe 9 ot — dn Va & Log to 5 i sm bs i. i (3) Three-phase model (seve rtace nail 10.14 Zero sequence retwork of a synchronous machine __ Zero sequence network models on a three-and single-phase basis art show? in Figs. 10.14a and b. In Fig. 10.14a, the current flowing in the imped 7 between neutral and ground is 1, = 3f4. The zero sequence voltage of teri a With respect to ground, the reference bus, is therefore Yay = ~ 32ylap ~ Zola = ~ GZ, + Zohn where Z;, is the zero sequence impedance per phase of the machine. Since the single-phase zero sequence network of Fig. 10.140 cues oa!” phase zero sequence current, its total zero sequence impedance must = —— (1052) JESS FRE AI9 08Ze 3%, + y in order for it to have the same Voltage from @ to reference bu, bus here is, of Course, at ground potential From Fig. 10.148 zero sequence voltage of point @ wih respect to. reference bus is ro (10.54), Order of Values of Sequence Impedances of Synchronous Generator Typical walues of sequence impedances of 8 turbo-generator rated 5 MVA. 6.6 KV, $000 rpm are: 2, = 12% (subtransient) Z, = 20% (transient) 2; = 110% (synchronous) Z, = 12% % For typical values of positive, negative and zero Sequence reactances of a ‘ynchronous machine refer to Table 9.1 10.7 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF TRANSMISSION LINES A fully transposed three-phase line is completely symmetrical and therefore the Fer phase impedance offered by it is independent of the phase sequence of a balanced set of currents. In other words, the impedances offered by it to Positive Sative sequence currents are identic: The expression for its Per phase tive reactance accounting for both self and mutual linkages has been stum via the ground, while the rest return through the overhead Bound wires. The s1ound wires being grounded at Several towers, the retum SuTeats in the ground Wires are not necessarily uniform along the entire length.