L5 Linear Antenna Arrays 2023 Print PDF

EE4016 – Antenna Systems
L5. Linear antenna arrays
Alexander Yarovoy, Jan Puskely
28-02-23 1
EE4016 - Antenna Systems Feb-April 2023
Delft
University of
Technology
Challenge the future

Radiation patterns of 0.5m long dipole
Radiation patterns of dipole at 300MHz, 450MHz and 600MHz.
Dipole is (1/2)λ, (3/4)λ and λ long at these frequencies respectively.
Ldip = l/2 Ldip = 3l/4 Ldip = l

G=1.65 G=1.95 G=2.55
With frequency, the radiation patterns become more narrow.

Consequently the directivity of dipole increases. This however does
not mean stronger radiated field in the broad-side direction: radiated
electric and magnetic field strength is proportional to the current, and
the current goes down with frequency.
EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie
Feb-April 2023 2 2
From a dipole to antenna arrays
• Wire dipole antenna cannot be used for wireless systems
with high requirements either on power budget (high
antenna gain is required) or high spatial selectivity
(narrow beam is required) or directing the radiation to
particular direction.
• Smart combination of wire dipoles can help to achieve
these goals.
• Approach:
• We consider firstly ideal antenna elements within an
array as radiating independently and having no impact
on each other.
• Then we shall take into account interaction between
the elements.

Feb-April 2023 3 3
Antenna Arrays
Aim:
• Learn basics of antenna arrays:
• beamforming,
• array factor,
• grating lobes
• Develop understanding for the beam steering and
radiation pattern synthesis in antenna arrays
• Develop initial understanding for antenna coupling in
antenna arrays and its impact on the array performance

Feb-April 2023 4 4
Antenna Arrays
Flow:
• Two-dipole array
• Array factor of a linear N-element antenna array
• Broad side and endfire N-element antenna array
• Phased array antenna
• Mutual coupling
• Conclusions

Feb-April 2023 5 5
Antenna Arrays
Flow:
• Two-dipole’s array
• Mutual coupling
• Conclusions

Feb-April 2023 6 6
Two-element array
Far-field observation of two infinitesimal dipoles
Far field radiation of a single dipole
is
! ! khI 0 cosθ
E(r,t) = iη exp(−ikr)θˆ
4π r
Mind rotation of the dipole with
respect to the z-axis!
By exciting both dipoles with the phase difference (phase shift)

b one gets the following expression for the radiated field
! −i')kr1 −!# β $&*, ' ! β $*
−i)kr2 + # &, %
! ! ! khI 0 # e ( " 2 %+ e ( " %+
2 #!
E = E1 + E2 =iη " cosθ1 + cosθ 2 &θ
4π # r1 r2 #
$ '
Feb-April 2023 7 7
Far field region approximation -
distance
Far field region approximation
"
θ1 ! θ 2 ! θ $
$
d $
r1 ! r − cosθ # for phase variations
2 $
d $
r2 ! r + cosθ $
2 %
r1 ! r2 ! r for amplitude variations

Feb-April 2023 8 8
Two-element array
Expression for the total electric field in the far field region
! ' ! kdcosθ + β $ ! kdcosθ + β $ +

khI 0 e ) #" 2 &%
−ikr i −i# &)
, cosθ θˆ
2
E =iη (e +e " %
4π r )* )-
! khI 0 e −ikr ! kdcosθ + β $
E =iη 2cos # & cosθ θˆ
4π r " 2 %

Feb-April 2023 9 9
Two-element array
Expression for the total electric field in the far field region
! ' ! kdcosθ + β $ ! kdcosθ + β $ +

khI 0 e ) #" 2 &%
−ikr i −i# &)
, cosθ θˆ
2
E =iη (e +e " %
4π r )* )-
! khI 0 e −ikr ! kdcosθ + β $
E =iη 2cos # & cosθ θˆ
4π r " 2 %
Total field = field of single element (at the origin)
! ! khI 0 cosθ
E(r,t) = iη exp(−ikr)θˆ
4π r
mutiplied by so-called “array factor” AF
Feb-April 2023 10 10
Far field region approximation
– phase shift
The total phase shift between two waves
radiated by both dipoles is the sum of
• b (difference in the phase excitation
between two neighboring elements)
and
• the propagation phase shift due to the
difference in propagation paths from
the dipoles to the observation point
kdcosθ
where kd is the electrical length of the distance between
two neighboring elements, and the angle 𝜃𝜃 is counted
from the array axis
resulting in the total phase shift of ψ = kdcosθ + β

Array factor
The array factor (and normalized array factor) equals to
æ kdcosθ + b ö
AF = 2cos ç ÷
è 2 ø
æ kdcosθ + b ö
AFn = cos ç ÷
è 2 ø
Array factor is a ratio of the array radiation patterns and

the element radiation patterns.
Array factor can be seen as the radiation patterns of an

array built from hypothetical isotropical radiators.

Array factor - 2
Mathematically the array factor is just a factor to be
multiplied by the radiation patterns of the antenna
element to get the array radiation patterns.
Physically the array factor describes interference of waves

radiated by separate antenna elements within the array.
There two parameters which control the array factor:

• the electric length between sources kd ;
• the phase shift between the sources b .
By varying these parameters it is possible to get different

angular dependences of the array factor.
Two-element array radiation
patterns
(d = l/4 , b= 90 0)
Elevation angle = 0
Ant 2, lead the other
with 90
l/4
Ant 1, lag the other

with 90
Elevation angle = 180

patterns
Elevation angle θ=0º: Elevation angle = 0
• Waves from antenna 1 Ant 2, lead the other
approach antenna 2 with a with 90
lagging phase of bl =
l/4
(2p/l)*(l/4) = p/2,
• Antenna 1 had already
phase lagging of p/2, Ant 1, lag the other
• Phase difference of p with 90
• They adds up destructively. Elevation angle = 180

patterns
Elevation angle θ=180º: Elevation angle = 0

approach antenna 1 with with 90
a lagging phase of bl =
(2p/l)*(l/4) = p/2, l/4
phase leading of p/2, Ant 1, lag the other
• Phase difference of 0 with 90
• They adds up Elevation angle = 180
constructively.

patterns
(d = l/4 , b= 90 0)
Elevation angle = 0
with 90
l/4

with 90

patterns
(d = l/4 , b= -90 0)
Similar to the previous
case, but up- and
down-radition is
exchanged

Antenna Arrays
Flow:
• Two dipoles array
• Mutual coupling
• Conclusions

N-element array factor
Approximations:
• Hypothetical isotropical
radiators
• Uniform amplitude and phase
distribution

N-element linear array with a
progressive shift
Progressive shift is a phase difference between neighboring
array elements.
Array factor with a progressive phase of b :

AF =1+e ( )
+e ( +…+e ( )(
i kdcosθ + β i 2 kdcosθ + β ) i N −1 kdcosθ + β )
e( )( )
N i N −1 kdcosθ + β
( )(
i n−1 kdcosθ + β ) −1
AF = ∑ e =
e( )
i kdcosθ + β
n=1 −1
) ⎡ i( N −1)(kdcosθ + β )/2 ) ⎤
e( )( ( )(
i N −1 kdcosθ + β /2 −i N −1 kdcosθ + β /2
⎢⎣ e − e ⎥⎦
=
i kdcosθ + β ) /2 ⎡ i ( kdcosθ + β ) /2 −i( kdcosθ + β ) /2 ⎤
e( ⎢⎣ e − e ⎥⎦
⎛ kdcosθ + β ⎞
sin ⎜ N ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
= e ( )(
i N −1 kdcosθ + β ) /2
⎛ kdcosθ + β ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Array factor of N-element linear array
The sum of geometric progression equals to :
' ! N $*
! N −1$ ) sin # ψ &,
i# &
" 2 % )
ψ
" 2 %,
AF = e , ψ = kdcosθ + β
) !1 $ ,
) sin # ψ & ,
( "2 % +
We neglect the phase of the AF and consider only its magnitude
é æ N öù
ê sin ç 2 y ÷ ú
AF = ê è øú
ê sin æ 1 y ö ú
êë ç ÷ú
è 2 øû
Array factor of N-element linear array
For small values of y (electrically small distance between
elements and small progressive shift) one gets
é æ N öù
ê sin ç 2 y ÷ ú
AF = ê è øú
ê y ú
êë 2 úû
Normalized array factor equals approximately
' ! N $* ' ! N $*
) sin # ψ & , ) sin # ψ & ,
1 ) " 2 %, ) " 2 %,
( )
AF =
n N)
≈
!1 $ , ) N ,
) sin # ψ & , ) ψ ,
( "2 % + ( 2 +

N-element non-uniform linear array
Let us consider a nonuniform

amplitude distribution a(z)
over the array

Odd number of elements
• Progressive phase shift b = 0
( AF ) 2M +1
= 2a1 +a2 e ikdcosθ +a3 e 2ikdcosθ +iiii+aM +1e iMkdcosθ +
a2 e −ikdcosθ +a3 e -2ikdcosθ +iiii+aM +1e −iMkdcosθ
M +1
( AF ) 2M +1
( )
= 2 ∑ an cos "# n−1 kdcosθ $%
n=1
M +1
( AF ) 2M +1
Normalized
( )
= ∑ an cos "# n−1 kdcosθ $%
n=1
• Array factor is a discrete Fourier transform of amplitude

(and phase) distribution over the array aperture

Even number of elements
• Linear phase distribution b = 0, symmetrical around center
amplitude distribution
!1$ !3$ ! 2M −1 $
i# &kdcosθ i# &kdcosθ i# &kdcosθ
( AF ) 2M
= a1 e "2%
+a2 e "2%
+iiii+aM e " 2 %
+
!1$ !3$ ! 2M −1 $
−i# &kdcosθ −i# &kdcosθ −i# &kdcosθ
"2% "2% " 2 %
a1 e +a2 e +iiii+aM e
M (! 2n−1 $ +
( )
AF
2M
= 2∑ an cos *#
)" 2 %
& kdcosθ -
,
n=1
M (! 2n−1 $ +
( )
AF 2M
Normalized
= ∑ an cos *#
)" 2 %
& kdcosθ -
,
n=1
• Array factor is a discrete Fourier transform of amplitude

and phase distribution over the array aperture

AF for non-uniform
N-element linear array
Array factor
M+1
( AF ) ( even) = ∑ a cos ⎡⎣2 ( n−1) u ⎤⎦

2M n
n=1
M
( AF ) 2M+1
( odd ) = ∑ a cos ⎡⎣( 2n−1) u ⎤⎦
n
n=1
kdcosθ π d
u= = cosθ
2 λ

Antenna Arrays
Flow:
• Mutual coupling
• Conclusions

Maxima of the N-element linear array AF
⎡ ⎛N ⎞⎤
⎢ sin ⎜ ψ ⎟ ⎥
1 ⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎥
( )
AF n =
N⎢ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎥
⎢ sin ⎜⎝ 2 ψ ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
ψ 1
2 2
(
= kdcosθ + β ) = ± mπ
θ =θ n θ =θ m
Below in this lecture part we shall consider only m=0 case.

Beam steering - 1
Linear Antenna Array with Broadside Radiation
d d=𝜆𝜆/2
d=𝜆𝜆/4
N elements
Goal:
maximum at q = 90 deg.
Y = kd cosq + b = 0
Solution:
Progressive phase shift b = 0
Limit element separation d < λ to prevent grating lobes for broadside
antenna array
Broadside N-element linear array
For a large array, the integral (slide 51) can be approximated
by the solid angle of the main beam and the directivity for the
broadside will be describes by an approximate equation
D0 = Nkd / π = 2Nd / λ
How does this directivity
correspond to the total
electric field in the
broadside direction?
Amplitude patterns for broadside array

Broadside/endfire N-element
linear array
If d=nl Maxima also at q = 0°

and 180°
These maxima are grating lobes
End fire behavior
Largest spacing to avoid grating

lobes by broadside radiation is dmax < l

Broadside/endfire N-element
linear array
(d = l/4 and l, b= 00)
By d = l the grating lobes

appear in the endfire
direction.

Beam steering - 2
Linear Antenna Array with End-Fire Radiation
N elements
Goal:
maximum at q = 0 deg,180 deg.
Y = kd cosq + b = 0
Solution:
b = - kd q = 0 deg
b = + kd q = 180 deg
• No grating lobes for element separation d < λ/2

End fire radiation
Similarly to the two element array, by the phase shift
between two neighboring elements equal to the
propagation phase delay, constructive interference of
radiated waves will be observed in one direction along the
array axis and destructive interference – in the opposite
direction.
Elevation angle = 0
approach antenna 2 with a with 90
lagging phase of bl =
(2p/l)*(l/4) = p/2, l/4
phase lagging of p/2, Ant 1, lag the other
• Phase difference of p with 90
• They adds up destructively.

patterns
(d = l/4 , b= 90 0)
Elevation angle = 0
with 90
l/4

with 90

Endfire N-element linear array
The maximum is along to the axis of the array.
• Along q=0°
y = kdcosq + b q =0 = kd + b = 0 ® b = - kd
o
• Along q=180°
y = kdcosq + b q =180 = - kd + b = 0 ® b = kd
o

Endfire N-element linear array
Directivity of the endfire
radiation is two times
higher than that for
broadside radiation as the
radiation happens only in
one hemisphere
D0 = 2Nkd / π = 4Nd / λ
Important observation:
The beamwidth of the broadside
array is less than that of the end-
fire array but the directivity of the
end-fire array is larger than the Array factor patterns of a 10 elements
broadside array. uniform amplitude end-fire, d = l/4

Antenna Arrays
Flow:
• Mutual Coupling
• Conclusions

Phased antenna array
In the desired direction q0 the waves radiated from all array
elements interfere constructively and in the remaining directions
interfere destructively
Controlling phased array:
• Number of elements N, element separation d, phase shift
between array elements b, excitation amplitudes
phase
shifter
combiner
Antenna element Antenna array Phased antenna array

Phased array antenna
Array with:
• Constant amplitude
distribution
• Progressive phase shift
between array elements
• Phase shift is used to point the
array radiation to a certain
direction

Maxima of the N-element linear array AF
' ! N $*
) sin # ψ & ,
1 ) " 2 %,
( )
AF =
n N) !1 $ ,
) sin # ψ & ,
( "2 % +
ψ 1
= ( kdcosθ + β ) =± mπ
2 θ =θ 2 θ =θ
n m
! λ $
θ m =cos #-1
" 2π d
(
−β ± 2mπ ) &, m = 0,1,2,3,......
%

Changing phase shift b will steer the main lobe (m=0)
of the array radiation to a certain direction q = q0
kdcosθ0 + β = 0 → β =− kdcosθ0 q0
-1⎛ λβ ⎞
θ 0 = cos ⎜
⎝ 2π d ⎟⎠
Array factor patterns: 10

elements, q0=60° d = l/4

Linear phased antenna array
- N = 10, d = l/4
Desired scanning angle q0 at given frequency f0
Y = k0d cosq + b = 0 b = -k0d cosq0 ; k0 = 2π f0 /c

Beamforming
Beamforming means “pointing” a radiation of antenna array
and shaping the beam
In short: by giving each antenna the right phase shift b and

weight

Principle of beamforming
Want fields to interfere constructively (add) in desired directions,
and interfere destructively (cancel) in the remaining space
d1
1
d2 d
2
d1
3
d4
4
Resulting radiation pattern

dN (d1 = d2 = … = dN)
N
same phase different phase

Principle of beamforming
Want fields to interfere constructively (add) in desired directions,
and interfere destructively (cancel) in the remaining space
different phase
d1
1
d2 d
2
d1
3
d4
4
Resulting radiation pattern
(d1 , d2 , … dN)
dN
N
same phase

Grating lobes
For certain relation between electrical distance between
the elements and a progressive phase shift, the higher
order maxima (m=1,2,…) of the array factor happen for
real angles θ. These maxima are called grating lobes.
In the broadside direction:
! mλ $
-1
θ m =±cos # &, m = 1,2,3,......
" d %
If λ/d >1, no high-order maxima will be observed at real
angles.

Grating lobes forming
sin ⎡⎢ N π d sin θ ⎤⎥ Grating lobe
⎣ λ ⎦
AF θ =()
sin ⎡⎢π d sin θ ⎤⎥
⎣ λ ⎦
numerator
denominator

Grating lobes explanations
If d > λ , 0<kd sinθ<Δ, Δ>2π, so for a few different values

of θi, one can get kd sinθi= kd sinθj+2πn. This ambiguity is
a reason for grading lobes.

Grating Lobes
• A grating lobe or grating beam is a beam identical to the main
beam but in undesired direction.
• The power radiated by the array gets divided between the main
beam and the grating lobe. The power efficiency in the direction of
the main beam is consequently reduced.
• A grating lobe should be avoided in the radiation pattern.
Grating Lobes

Beamwidth of N-element linear array AF
Main lobe 3-dB beamwidth – the []2 function and

approximately sinc2 function reaches value 0,5 at the
argument value +-1.391:
2
' ! N $*
) sin # ψ & ,
2 " 2 %,
AF = )
( ) =0.5, Two ways to
) !1 $ ,
) sin # ψ & , decrease the
( "2 % + beamwidth:
N N 1.
2
ψ=
2
(
kdcosθ + β ) =± 1.391 2.
θ =θ h
Both are physically
' λ !
-1 2.782 $* related to increased
θ h =cos ) # −β ± &, …
( 2π d " N %+

Beamwidth dependence on the aperture
size
Normalized radiation patterns for array of N = 4, 8, 16 half-wave
dipoles with d/λ = 0.5:
Q3dB(θ0 = 0o) ~ 102o / N
𝛩𝛩
• In addition to the changes in the main beam, the side-lobes

also change in appearance and position
Change in beamwidth with scan angle
Radiation patterns for array of N = 8 half-wave dipoles with
d/λ = 0.5:
The beamwidth
is increasing
with the scan
angle

Change in beamwidth with scan angle
• The array beamwidth in the plane of scan increases as the
beam is scanned off the broadside direction inversely
proportional to the decrease of the apparent aperture
- the beamwidth is approximately proportional to 1/sinq0
• The half power beamwidth for uniform phased
antenna array of N elements is:
q0
Q3dB ~ 0.886l / Nd sinq0 [rad]
For linear array of N elements with d/λ=0.5:
Q3dB(q0 = 90o) ~ 102o / N

Nulls of N-element linear array AF
é æ N öù
ê sin ç y ÷ ú
1 è 2 øú
( )n
AF = ê
Nê æ1 öú
sin ç y ÷
êë è 2 ø úû
æN ö N N
sin ç y ÷ = 0 ® y = ± np , kdcosq + b = ± np
è2 ø 2 q =q n 2 q =q n
é l æ 2n ö ù
q n = cos ê
-1
ç - b ± p ÷ ú , n = 1,2,3 ,......
ë 2p d è N øû
n ¹ N , 2N,3N,.....

Nulls of N-element linear array
AF- analysis
• Reason for nulls
• Dependence on array size, number of elements and
scanning angle
⎡ λ ⎛
-1 2n ⎞⎤
θ n =cos ⎢ ⎜ −β ± π ⎟⎥,
⎣ 2π d ⎝ N ⎠⎦
n = 1,2,3,...... n≠ N ,2N,3N,.....

Secondary maxima of N-element linear
array AF - sidelobes
• There is one side lobe between two adjacent nulls except the
main beam.
• Whenever the numerator of the AF has maximal value, there is
a side-lobe in the radiation pattern. Generally, the directions of
the side-lobes are taken approximately half way between the two
adjacent nulls. !N $ 'N *
"2 % (2
(
sin # ψ & = sin ) kdcosθ + β , !± 1
+ θ =θ
)
s
N ! 2s+1 $
2
(
kdcosθ + β ) =± #
" 2 %
&π
θ =θ s
' λ ' ! 2s+1 $ **

θ s =cos -1 ) )−β ± # & π ,,, s=1,2,3,....
)( 2π d ( " N % +,+

First sidelobe
The first secondary maximum happens at the angle
N N 3π ) λ # 3π &,
2
ψ=
2
(
kdcosθ + β ) !±
2
→ -1
θ s =cos + % −β ± (.
* 2π d $ N '-
θ =θ s
The array factor at this angle equals

N N 3π
2
ψ=
2
(
kdcosθ + β !±
2
)
⎡ ⎛ N ⎞⎤
⎢ sin ⎜ ψ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎥ 3π ⎛ 3π ⎞
( )
AF !
n ⎢ N ⎥
=
2
⇒ 20 log10 ⎜ ⎟ = −13.46 dB
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎢ ψ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ θ =θ s
s=1

Sidelobe level (SLL)
SLL is very important parameter of the array. For

equivalent excitation of the array, SLL will be -13.46dB.
How to decrease SLL?
Think about relation between antenna radiation

patterns and current distribution over antenna aperture.

Amplitude Weighting of Array Elements
Uniform phased antenna array :
- Constant amplitude distribution
- First side-lobe level at about -13.46 dB
To design an array with lower side-lobes there are many

different types of array distributions available to us. The
commonly used amplitude distributions for the design of linear
array are both:
• Dolph-Tchebyschev distribution - all equal side-lobes at any
level
• Taylor distribution – only the close side-lobes are below the
given level. Further side-lobes are at increasingly lower levels.
Price of amplitude weighting – widening of the main beam.

Dolph-Tchebyschev distribution

Taylor distribution

Directivity
The Directivity (Array factor gain) of the uniform array of
isotropic radiators is given by
* radiation in
4p éë AF (q0 , f0 ) ùû éë AF (q0 , f0 )ùû specific direction
D0 = 2p p max
* total radiated power

ò ò éë AF (q ,f )ùû éë AF (q ,f )ùû
0 0
0 0 0 0 sinq dq df from the array
For a large array and electrically small distance between the

elements, the integral can be approximated by the solid angle of the
main beam and the directivity in broadside direction is given as
D0 ~ 2Nd / l ; D0,dB = 10log D0

As the Array Factor does not have any losses, the Array factor gain
equals to the array factor directivity.

Antenna array gain
𝛩𝛩
Increasing array gain by adding elements N
Linear broadside array of dipoles (d/l = 0.5)
Doubling of
number of the
elements with
fixed element
spacing
increases the
array gain
(without the
mutual coupling)
by 3dB
Gain ~ Gdipole* 2Nd/l [-] for a long broadside array
Antenna array gain
The array gain of N elements for the same aperture size
Linear broadside array of dipoles (d/l = 0.125; 0.25; 0.5)

Antenna array gain: link with the
element gain
The array gain of N elements (isotropic or dipoles)
While in the broadside direction, the array gain is equal to the

product of the array factor gain and the element gain, this is not
true for the end-fire radiation.
Antenna Arrays
Flow:
• Mutual coupling
• Conclusions

Mutual Coupling
• The electromagnetic interaction between the antenna elements
in an antenna array is called mutual coupling. Current in one
element depends on amplitude and phase of current in
neighboring elements; as well as current in the element under
consideration.
• Mutual coupling is inversely proportional to the spacing between

the different antenna elements in an array d.
Impact of mutual coupling on array
element input impedance
• In reality, by excitation on a dipole, the current will be

excited at other dipole too. This phenomenon is called
mutual coupling.
• Input impedance of an antenna element in an array while
other elements are also excited is called the active
impedance.
• As induced by other array elements current depends on
the phase shift between array elements, active impedance
changes with it as well. Phase shift changes direction of
array radiation. So, the active impedance is changing with
scanning angle.

Array without mutual coupling - 1
Stand alone parameters
- Half-wave dipole antenna
Radiation
properties
l/2
Impedance
properties

Analysis based on simple model – no interaction between radiating
elements
S-parameters are the same

for all elements in the array
element separation d = λ/2

Impact of mutual coupling on array element
Analysis with mutual coupling MC element separation d = λ/2
Full wave solution
S-parameters (theta = 0deg)

Mutual Coupling
• Mutual coupling in an array causes:
- changes in the radiation pattern of the array (antenna gain,
beam shape, side lobe level)
- changes in the input impedance of the individual antenna
elements in an array
• To characterize mutual coupling, you can use:

- mutual impedance
- active S-parameters
- coupling matrix
- embedded element pattern

Mutual Coupling
Active S-parameters
- Active impedance is the input impedance of each antenna
element in an array, when all elements are excited.
- The active impedance of an array depends on:
• Array configuration
• Spacing between elements
• Phase shift applied at each element

Mutual Coupling q
Active S-parameters of finite array N = 8

Mutual Coupling
Stand alone VS. Active VS. Infinite Active S-parameters
Stand alone S-parameters is the input impedance of single
antenna element
Active S-parameter is the input impedance of each antenna element
in a finite array, when all elements are excited
Infinite Active S-parameters is the input impedance of antenna
element in a infinite array, when all elements are excited

Mutual Coupling
Stand alone VS. Finite 8x8 VS. Infinite Active S-parameters
q = 0o
q = 30o
q = 60o

Mutual Coupling
Measurement of Active S-parameters
The Active S-parameters at #A1 is the sum of its passive return loss,
plus the mutual coupling between #A1 and all other elements in the
array:
S11,A = S11,P + S12 exp(iβ ) + S13 exp(2iβ ) + ... S1N exp((N −1)iβ ) ,
where N is the number of elements in the array, and the other
elements are terminated into RF loads during the M1N measurements.
S14 S13
S12
#A6 #A5 #A4 #A3 #A2 #A1
S11
Network
Analyser
p2 p1
Mutual Coupling
Embedded element pattern
- The pattern of a single element embedded in a finite array. The
rest of the array elements are terminated using reference
impedance
- This method is useful for large array because the effect of mutual
coupling on the individual element is captured
- Due, to the size of the array the radiation pattern of the element in
the array can be approximated with the embedded element
pattern. Radiation pattern of large array is then given by the
multiplication of the array factor and embedded radiation pattern of
a single element in an infinite array
! !
E(r,t) = AF(θ )∗ Embedded radiation patterns
q
Analysis based on simple model
Pattern multiplication element separation d = λ/2

calculates the complete array
pattern as a product of a
single element pattern and
array factor. Pattern
multiplication assumes that all
elements in an array have the
same radiation pattern.

Impact of mutual coupling on array element
q
Analysis with mutual coupling MC
element separation d = λ/2
Full wave solution

Mutual Coupling
Embedded element patterns
Radiation pattern of
stand alone element
#1
#3
#2 #4
Embedded radiation patterns

Mutual Coupling q0 = 30deg
Radiation pattern of array (N = 8)

from embedded element patterns
q0 = 0deg
q0 = 60deg
For the radiation patterns calculation

central element in the array has to
be considered

Mutual Coupling
Comparison:
Radiation patterns of embedded
element pattern (dashed pink)
VS.
Full wave solution of finite
antenna array of N = 8 (black)

Antenna Arrays
Flow:
• Mutual coupling
• Conclusions

Conclusions on arrays - 1
• To shape the radiation patterns antenna arrays can
be used
• Radiation patterns are result of interference on
radiation from different (fully independent) antenna
elements
• The array radiation patterns can be represented as a
product of the array factor and the (embedded) element
radiation patterns.
• Array factor can be seen as the radiation patterns of
an array built from hypothetical isotropical radiators.
• In this lecture firstly the mutual coupling between
array elements is neglected, only the Array Factor is
treated. Then impact of the coupling is studied.

• The Array Factor describes the main lobe, sidelobes
and in some cases grating lobes.
• Position of the main lobe is determined by the
progressive phase shift between array elements. This is
a direction in which fields radiated by all elements is
added coherently.
• Width of the main lobe is determined by the total
array size and by the amplitude distribution along the
array.
• The sidelobes are formed by the array factors zeros
– directions in which fields radiated by all elements is
added destructively (phase difference between fields
radiated by the first and the last element of the array is
approximately proportional to 2p).
• Grating lobes appear periodically at certain angles,
which depends on the array period. For the array period
equals to lambda/2, this angle is 180degrees; for the
array period equals for lambda – 90degrees.
• Can be seen as consequence of Nyquist
discretization: if the discretization is too sparse than the
spatial spectrum has “leakage” of the non-propagating
harmonics into the “visible” spectrum – propagating
harmonics.

• Radiation patterns is spatial FT of the current
distribution. Propagating harmonics (radiative field) are
visible in propagation patterns, non-propagating harmonics
(reactive field) are outside of the “visible” spectrum.
• Spatial distribution of the current on dipoles is a

product from the periodic elements and tapering profile.
Periodic structure gives spatial harmonics; tapering
determines level of the sidelobes; aperture size – lobes
width.

Literature
C. Balanis, “Antenna Theory. Analysis and Design”, Ch. 6.1-6.7
Sophocles J. Orfanidis, “Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas”

, ch.20 and 21.9
Hubregt Visser, “Antenna Theory and Appications”, Ch 8.1-8.7
M. Skolnik “Radar Handbook”, ch. 13.1 – 13.7
Extra reading:
Randy L. Haupt and Yahya Rahmat-Samii, “Antenna Array
Developments: A Perspective on the Past, Present and Future”,
IEEE APS Magazine, 2015

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EE4016 – Antenna Systems

L5. Linear antenna arrays

Alexander Yarovoy, Jan Puskely

Challenge the future

Ldip = l/2 Ldip = 3l/4 Ldip = l

With frequency, the radiation patterns become more narrow.

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

By exciting both dipoles with the phase difference (phase shift)

r1 ! r2 ! r for amplitude variations

! ' ! kdcosθ + β $ ! kdcosθ + β $ +

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

! ' ! kdcosθ + β $ ! kdcosθ + β $ +

resulting in the total phase shift of ψ = kdcosθ + β

Array factor is a ratio of the array radiation patterns and

Array factor can be seen as the radiation patterns of an

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

Physically the array factor describes interference of waves

There two parameters which control the array factor:

By varying these parameters it is possible to get different

Ant 1, lag the other

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

Elevation angle θ=180º: Elevation angle = 0

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

Ant 1, lag the other

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

Array factor with a progressive phase of b :

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

Let us consider a nonuniform

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

• Array factor is a discrete Fourier transform of amplitude

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

• Array factor is a discrete Fourier transform of amplitude

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

( AF ) ( even) = ∑ a cos ⎡⎣2 ( n−1) u ⎤⎦

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

Below in this lecture part we shall consider only m=0 case.

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

Amplitude patterns for broadside array

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

If d=nl Maxima also at q = 0°

These maxima are grating lobes

End fire behavior

Largest spacing to avoid grating

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

(d = l/4 and l, b= 00)

By d = l the grating lobes

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

Ant 1, lag the other

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie

EE4016 - Antenna Systems Titel van de presentatie