What is voltage collapse?

(i) It is a system instability OR

(ii) Reduction in voltage

It involves many power system components

and variables of a particular section of a
power system.
 Where Voltage Collapse occurs?
(i) Heavily loaded transmission lines

(ii) Faulted line

(iii)Reactive power shortage

The nature/behavior of voltage collapse can

be studied by examining generation,
transmission and consumption of reactive
power.
 Where Voltage Collapse occurs?
Generation of reactive power is limited by
reactive power compensator limits.

Transmission of real/active power is limited

due to
(i) high reactive power losses on heavily
loaded lines.
(ii) Limited action of AVR
Reactive power demand of load increases due to
(i) Increase in load
(ii) Motor stalling
 Why Voltage Collapse Occurs?
(i) Increase in inductive loading
(ii) OLTC operation
(iii) Line outage
(iv)Generator outage
(v) Load recovery dynamics
(vi)Limit of reactive power compensator and
generators
 Possible measures to reduce voltage collapse
(i) Switching of shunt capacitors (by increasing
limit of reactive power compensators)
(ii) Blocking of OLTC operation
(iii) Generation rescheduling
(iv)Strategic load shedding
(v) Increasing reactive power of generators
 Voltage collapse
If change in load is gradual then the re-
stabilisation is faster and the system can come
back to stable operating point.

However, sudden change in load results in

dynamic fall of voltage and the system can
reach a stable operating point.
 Definition of Voltage Stability
Power System Stability (PSS): A characteristic
of power system to remain in a state of
equilibrium during normal conditions and also
to restore an acceptable state of equilibrium
after a disturbance.

PSS is related to rotor angle stability which is

related to synchronous operation.

Instability occur due to loss of synchronism.

It also occurs due to voltage instability.

 Definition of Voltage Instability
1st Definition
Voltage Instability (VIS): The ability of a power
system to become unstable during voltage
reduction due to outage of many equipments.

(i) Outage of Generator

(ii) Outage of Transformer
(iii) Outage of Busbar
(iv) Weakening of voltage control
(v) Decrement of production of reactive generation
 Definition of Voltage Instability
2nd Definition

Voltage Instability (VIS): When the attempt of

load dynamics to restore power consumption is
just beyond the capability of the combined
transmission and generation system, voltage
instability occurs.
Classification of power system stability

Time-Scale Generator-Driven Load-Driven

Short-term Rotor angle stability Short-term voltage stability
Steady Transient
State
Long-term Frequency stability Long-term voltage stability
Small Long
disturbances disturbances
 Classification of power system stability
Steady state stability present for small
disturbances in the form of un-damped
electromechnical oscillations.

Transient stability is due to lack of

synchronizing torque and is initiated by large
disturbances.

The time-frame of rotor angle stability is due to

electromechanical dynamics of power system.
This time-frame is called short-term time scale
because the dynamics last for a few seconds.
 Classification of power system stability
The voltage stability can be classified as
(i) short-term voltage stability
(ii) Long-term voltage stability

Short-term voltage stability occurs due to

(i) IMs
(ii) Excitation of synchronous generators or
(iii) CPD (TCR, TCSC, SVC, UPFC)
 Classification of power system stability
Long-term voltage stability comes under long
term time scale.
It lasts for several minutes.

Long-term voltage stability occurs due to

(i) OLTC
(ii) Delayed load restoration
(iii) Delayed corrective action of shunt
compensation device.
 Classification of power system stability
Long-term voltage stability can be classified
into
(i) Small disturbances
(ii) Long disturbances

(i) Small disturbance voltage stability:

It is the ability of power system to control
voltage after small disturbances.

Example: Change in load

 Classification of power system stability
(ii) Large disturbance voltage stability:
It is the ability of power system to control
voltage after large disturbances.

Examples:
(i) Faults
(ii) Switching
(iii) Loss of load
(iv)Loss of generation
 Mechanism of Voltage Collapse
Voltage collapse usually involves large
disturbances.
(including rapid increase in load or power
transfer)

It is mostly associated with reactive power

deficit.

Table shows the time-frame of the components

causing voltage instability.
 Mechanism of Voltage Collapse
Factors affecting transient voltage stability Factors affecting long-term
in time-scale voltage stability in time-scale
Sr. No. Example Time Example Time
(second) (minute)
1 Static VAR 1 OLTC operation 2
compensator
2 Switched capacitors 2 Generation 2
readjustment
3 Generator excitation 1.5 Line overload 5

4 IM dynamics 1 Distribution voltage 3

regulation
5 Under voltage load 10 - -
shedding
6 HVDC operation 1-2 - -
 Mechanism of Voltage Collapse
(i) Transient voltage stability: It is 0-10 second
in time-scale.

(a) IM and dc converter may lead to voltage

collapse. Hence, reactive power demand of
IM increases which further leads to voltage
collapse.

(a) If one IM is not able to accelerate during

post-disturbance period then it leads to
stalling of adjoining IM.
 Mechanism of Voltage Collapse
(b) Islanding: Electrical islanding and under
frequency load shedding may lead to
voltage collapse particularly when power
imbalance between the areas is more than
50%.
(c) The use of HVDC links may affect the
transient voltage stability.
(ii) Steady-state Voltage Stability
It is for several minutes.
 Mechanism of Voltage Collapse
It involves high loads and high power imports
from neighboring areas following a large
disturbance and involving high reactive power
loss and voltage dip in the receiving side.

(a) Tap changing transformer and distribution

voltage transformer sense this low voltage
and act to restore the distribution voltage
restoring load power. This load restoration
causes further voltage sag in the
transmission voltage.
 Mechanism of Voltage Collapse
(b) If adjacent generators are overexcited and
overloaded then it leads to voltage collapse
due to increase in reactive power loss.
(c) Due to large load demand or large rapid
magnitude of power transfer, reactive power
demand increases and voltage reduces.
Remedy:
Strategic load shedding and fast acting reactive
compensators can reduce voltage instability.
Analytical concept of voltage stability for a two-
bus system
E −V
S = VI * , where I =
X
VE * VV *
S= * − *
X X

Taking V as reference vector and after

simplification of above equation,
VE EV V2
S= sin δ − j ( cos δ − )
X X X
EV
P= sin δ
X
EV V2
Q= cos δ −
X X
 Analytical concept of voltage stability for a two-
bus system
Elimination of δ results in the steady-state
receiving end voltage equation given by,
V + V (2QX − E ) + X ( P + Q ) = 0
4 2 2 2 2 2

This is a quadratic equation given by,

 − 2QX + E 2
1 2 
V =
2
± (2QX − E ) − 4 X ( P + Q ) 
2 2 2 2

 2 2 
Since imaginary value of V carries no physical
significance, the positive real root is given by,
Analytical concept of voltage stability for a two-
bus system
1
 − 2QX + E
2
1 2 
2
V = ± ( 2QX − E ) − 4 X ( P + Q ) 
2 2 2 2

 2 2 
For UPF, the above equation is given by,
1
E 2
1 2 2 
2
V = ± E −4X P 
4

 2 2 

Assuming E=1.0 pu at sending end,

1
1 1  2
V = ± 1−4 X 2P2 
2 2 
 Analytical concept of voltage stability for a two-
bus system
Both the real roots of V are equal when the
expression under the radical sign is zero. This
is when
1
X = = X cri
2P
Thus, the final equation is given by,
1
1 1 X 2
2
V = ± 1−( ) 
2 2 X cri 
 Analytical concept of voltage stability for a two-
bus system
(i) For X<Xcri, roots are real.
(ii) For X>Xcri, roots are imaginary.
(iii) For X=Xcri, the value of V is known as
Critical receiving end voltage (Vcri).
1
1 1 X 2
2
V = ± 1−( ) 
2 2 X cri 

It’s value is given by Vcri=0.7 pu for an

uncompensated, loss less line at UPF.
 Analytical concept of voltage stability for a two-
bus system
(i)The critical value of the receiving end voltage
(Vcri) is obtained when X=Xcri.
(ii) This state represents voltage stability limit of
a loss less transmission line.
(iii)Mathematically, voltage stability limit is
obtained when the two real roots of the
system voltage equation converge to a
particular point and the Jacobian of the LF
equation becomes singular.
 Analytical concept of voltage stability for a two-
bus system
(iv) Therefore, the voltage stability limit can
be defined as the limiting stage in a power
system beyond which no amount of
reactive power injection will elevate the
system voltage to its normal state.
(v) The system voltage can only be adjusted
by reactive power injection till the system
voltage stability is maintained.
 Expression for critical system reactance at
voltage stability limit for any PF
1
 − 2QX + E 1 2
2 
2
V = ± ( 2QX − E ) − 4 X ( P + Q ) 
2 2 2 2

 2 2 
The expression for Xcri at voltage stability limit
for any PF can be obtained by equating the
above equation with the radical sign to zero.
( 2QX − E 2 ) 2 = 4 X 2 ( P 2 + Q 2 )
4 X 2 P 2 + 4 XQE 2 − E 4 = 0
− 4QE 2 ± 16Q 2 E 4 +16 P 2 E 4
X =
8P 2
 Expression for critical system reactance at
voltage stability limit for any PF
Using, Q=P*tanθ, the final equation is given by,

E2
X cri = ( − tan θ + sec θ )
2P
Method-II
In a loss less line, the expression of reactive
power flow is given by,
V 2 B +VEB cos δ + Q = 0
E 1 1 
V = cos δ ± E cos δ −4 P tan θ 
2 2

2 2 B

E2
X cri = ( − tan θ + sec θ )
2P
 Analytical concept of voltage stability for a two-
bus system
But the receiving end voltage at voltage
stability limit is given by,
 
 E 
δcri =cos −1  
4 P tan θ 1 2
( 2 E −
2
) 
 B 

The above equation gives the value of power

transfer angle at voltage stability limit in terms
of E, P, B and PF.
 Graphical representation

Fig. shows the characteristic of receiving end

voltage (V) for varying system reactance (X).
 Graphical representation

(i) The receiving end voltage falls with the

increase in X at any fixed value of P till the
voltage stability limited is attained.
(ii) For X=Xcri, V=Vcri beyond which real power
demand can not be increased as otherwise
voltage collapse and voltage instability
occurs.
(iii) For X≠Xcri, load requires large current from
the source and voltage instability occurs.
 Graphical representation

(iv)Higher value of receiving end voltage

indicates “voltage stable state”.
(v) At knee point of the curve, there is a sharp
increase in transmission line current which
leads to heavy series reactive loss of the
line that may lead to voltage collapse.
 Graphical representation

Fig. shows the characteristic of receiving end

voltage (V) v/s X at fixed value of P for varying
PF.
 Graphical representation

Fig. shows the characteristic of δ cri v/s X at

different PFs.
 Graphical representation

As X increases, δ cri decreases. This offers

an
inherent limitation of operation of PS. This is
because voltage stability
δ limited is attained at
much lower value of at higher value of X
 Summary

(i) Vcri at voltage stability limit is governed by

Xcri at any specific amount of power flow.
(ii) Due to low short-circuit capacity (high X),
Vcri and power angle (δ ) are low at stability
limit.
(iii) As PF is low (lagging), the stability limit and
critical power angle ( δ cri) reduces.
(iv) δ Cri is limited by X and load PF.
 Summary

(v) Shunt capacitor compensation increases

the
δ
cri and receiving end voltage magnitude
as it injects capacitive reactive power at
load bus.
(v) However, this may lead to decrease in
voltage stability margin.
(vi)Proper selection of shunt compensation
device is desired to achieve an acceptable
voltage profile.
 Expression for Vcri andδ cri at voltage stability
limit for two-bus system

The basic power flow equations in a two-bus

system being given by
EV
P= sin δ
X

EV V2
Q= cos δ −
X X
The Jacobian can be obtained as
1  EV cos δ E sin δ 
J = − EV sin δ - 2V + E cos δ 
X  
Voltage stability limit is obtained when the
Jacobian becomes singular the determinant of
J is zero.
E V cos δ − EV cos δ + E V sin δ = 0
2 2 2 2 2

E 2V − 2 EV 2 cos δ = 0

E
V =
2 cos δ (1)
In this equation V represents Vcri at voltage
stability limit when δ = δ cri ,

EV
Q = P tan θ = sin δ tan θ (a)
X
 EV V2
Q= cos δ − (b)
X X

Comparing both equations (a) and (b) we get,

EV EV V2
sin δ tan φ = cos δ −
X X X

V = E ( cos δ − sin δ tan φ ) (2)

Comparing equation (1) and (2), we finally get,
π θ
δ= −
4 2
Since δ represents the power angle at critical
state of voltage stability. At δ = δ cri and,

V=Vcri

E π θ
Vcri , = , where δ cri = −
2 cos δ cri 4 2
 At unity power factor (UPF) operation,
we find δ cri = 45°[θ = 0°] and Vcri = 0.707p.u. with
, ,

deterioration in power factor and

δ
cri ,
would
Vcri ,

further reduce.
 Relation between Voltage Stability and rotor
angle stability
(i) Rotor angle stability and Voltage stability
are affected by reactive power control.
(ii) The small disturbance voltage stability
increases rotor angle.
Difference between Voltage Stability and rotor
angle stability

Sr. Rotor Angle Stability Voltage Stability

No.
1 It is located near to the It is located in
generator. the load area.
2 It may also involve voltage It may or may
collapse. not involve rotor
angle stability.
3 It is for Generator Stability It is for load
voltage stability.
 Factors affecting Voltage Stability

(i) Reactive Power Capability of a Synchronous

Generator
Synchronous generators are the primary device
for voltage and reactive power control in PS.

In voltage stability studies, active and reactive

power capability of generator is considered
accurately to achieve the best results.

The limit of active and reactive power of

generator are commonly shown on P-Q
diagram.
 Factors affecting Voltage Stability

Active power limits are due to design of the

turbine and boiler. They are constant.

Reactive power limits are voltage dependent

and
have a circular shape.

Reactive power limits should be taken into

account in these studies.

The limitation of reactive power has three

different causes.
 Factors affecting Voltage Stability

(i) Stator current

(ii) Overcurrent excitation
(iii) Under excitation
When the excitation current is limited to
maximum value, the terminal voltage is the
maximum excitation voltage minus the voltage
drop in Xs.

The PS becomes weaker as the constant

voltage
moves away from the load.
 Factors affecting Voltage Stability

The voltage dependent limit of excitation current

is calculated by,
2
V V2 Emax 2
I s max =− 2 + 2
− Pg
Xd Xd

Where, Pg=active power of generator

Emax= the maximum electromotive force
Xd=synchronous reactance
V=terminal voltage
 Factors affecting Voltage Stability

The reactive power limit corresponding to stator

current limit can be calculated by,
2 2
Qs max = V 2 I s max − Pg

Reactive power capability increases when

terminal voltage decreases.

The stator current limiter is used to limit reactive

power output in order to avoid stator
overloading. However, at the same time, it also
reduces voltage.
 Factors affecting Voltage Stability

The generator reactive power capability is

generally much less than that indicated by
manufacturer’s reactive capability curve.

This is due to constraints imposed by power

plant auxiliaries. It’s operation is threatened
when system voltage is low.
 Factors affecting Voltage Stability

(ii) Automatic Voltage Control of Synchronous

Generator
The automatic voltage controllers maintain
constant voltage when generators are operated
inside P-Q diagrams.

AVC also includes the excitation current limiters

(Over and under) and stator current limiter.
 Factors affecting Voltage Stability

(ii) Automatic Voltage Control of Synchronous

Generator
Due to overheating of the excitation circuit, the
excitation current must be limited after a few
seconds.

The overloading capability of generator may be

improved by making the cooling of generator
more effective.
 Factors affecting Voltage Stability
Fig. shows the action of automatic rotor and
stator current limiters of generator.
 Factors affecting Voltage Stability

When the generator is regulating the voltage,

the curves for the constant terminal voltage (Vt)
are flat.

This indicates large change in Q.

If network voltage becomes sufficiently low,

either rotor current limit or stator current limit is
hit. This will change the generator characteristic
drastically.
 Factors affecting Voltage Stability

Since the slope of rotor current limit is almost

vertical, it is clear that the generator is on the
verge of losing the voltage control capability if
rotor current limit is hit.

In this situation, the reactive power from the

generator reduces fast which ultimately leads to
voltage instability.
Role of Transformer on Voltage control of a PS

By changing transformation ratio, the voltage on

secondary side of any bus can be changed.

Change in transformation ratio is manual or

automatic.

Automatic change is done by OLTC.

Role of Transformer on Voltage control of a PS

Objective:

To determine the tap-changing ratio needed to

completely or partially compensate the voltage
drop in line so that desired voltage control at
receiving end is obtained.
Role of Transformer on Voltage control of a PS

1:ts = sending end tap ratio

tr:1 = receiving end tap ratio
t s E1 = At r E2 + BI

The receiving end current is given by,

P P
IR = −j tan θ
E2 E2
Role of Transformer on Voltage control of a PS

The line current is given by,

IR P
I= = (1 − j tan θ )
tr t r E2
P
t s E1 = At r E2 + B (1 − j tan θ )
t r E2

Put A = A∠α, B = B∠β

P
t s E1 = At r E2 (cos α + j sin α ) + B (1 − j tan θ )(cos β + j sin β )
t r E2
P P
t s E1 = { At r E2 cos α + B cos β + B sin β tan θ } + j
t r E2 t r E2
P P
{ At r E2 sin α − B cos β tan θ + B sin β }
t r E2 t r E2
Role of Transformer on Voltage control of a PS

Equating only magnitudes and squaring both

sides
P P
t s E1 = { At r E2 cos α + B cos β + B sin β tan θ }2 + j
2 2

t r E2 t r E2
P P
{ At r E2 sin α − B cos β tan θ + B sin β }2
t r E2 t r E2

The minimum transformer tap ratio for

coordination between two transformers is
achieved when ts.tr =1

ts=1/tr
Role of Transformer on Voltage control of a PS
2
E1 P P
2
= { At E
r 2 cos α + B cos β + B sin β tan θ }2
+j
tr t r E2 t r E2
P P
{ At r E2 sin α − B cos β tan θ + B sin β }2
t r E2 t r E2

E1 E2 = A2t r E2 cos 2 α + B 2 P 2 cos 2 β + B 2 P 2 sin 2 β tan 2 θ +

2 2 4 4

A2t r E2 sin 2 α + B 2 P 2 sin 2 β + B 2 P 2 cos 2 β tan 2 θ

4 4

2 ABt r E2 cos α cos β + 2 B 2 P 2 cos β sin β tan θ +

2 2

2 ABPt r E2 cos α sin β tan θ − 2 ABPt r E2 sin α cos β tan θ

2 2 2 2

− 2 B 2 P 2 cos β sin β tan θ + 2 ABPt r E2 sin α sin β

2 2
Role of Transformer on Voltage control of a PS
E1 E2 = A2t r E2 + B 2 P 2 (1 + tan 2 θ ) +
2 2 4 4

2 ABPt r E2 cos(α − β ) − 2 ABPt r E2 sin(α − β ) tan θ

2 2 2 2

4 2
C1t r + C2t r + C3 = 0
4
C1 = A2 E2
C2 = 2 ABPE2 [ cos(α − β ) − sin(α − β ) tan θ ]
2

C3 = B 2 P 2 sec 2 θ − E1 E2
2 2

1
 − C ± (C 2 − 4C C ) 1
2  2

tr =  2 2 1 3

 2C1 
Role of Transformer on Voltage control of a PS

Conclusion:
(i) It is to be noted that the transformer doesn’t
improve the reactive power flow position and
only redistributes it.
(ii) The current in transmission line increases as
transformation ratio increases.
 Effect of OLTC on Voltage Stability

The secondary voltage of a transformer is

maintained near to nominal value by tap
changer when primary system voltage drops.

This is possible when the system does not have

shortage of reactive power (system is capable to
provide sufficient reactive power).

During heavy load demand, the secondary

voltage may become unstable even with tap
changing.
 Effect of OLTC on Voltage Stability

In this situation, raising tap position in order to

raise secondary voltage will not work and the
bus voltage will gradually collapse.
Role of Transformer on Voltage control of a PS

The secondary voltage is given by,

R
V = aE
R + (a X )
2 2 2

To obtain sensitivity of the voltage with tap

change we have to take rate of change of
V with respect to a.
∂V R ( R + a 2 X )( R − a 2 X )
= E
∂a ( R + (a X ) )
2 2 2
3
2
Role of Transformer on Voltage control of a PS

To have a stable voltage state,

∂V
>0
∂a
The above condition is true only and only if
R > a2 X
Hence, the secondary voltage drops if the tap
position is raised in order to boost up the load
bus voltage.

The voltage stability is lost when R < a 2

X
P-V characteristic with static impedance load at
the receiving end bus
 Working
Initially the system is operated at A0 (a=1).
Raising tap position (a=1.015), shifts the
operating point to A’0.

At this point, the voltage is enhanced and the

system is capable to transmit more power
(PA1 to PA1). New stable operating point is A’1.

If tap position is further raised, (a=1.02),

voltage is further enhanced and the system is
capable to transmit more power (PA2 to PA3).
New stable operating point is A’.
 Working
If tap changing operation is done is stable zone
of characteristic then the system may settle at a
new operating position with higher voltage at
load bus.

If it is carried out in unstable zone then bus

voltage collapses even though tap position is
increased and system becomes unstable.
 Working
If dynamic loading (IM) is assumed at load bus,
P-V characteristic is shown below.
Stable zone

Unstable zone