Explain/Define

- Pacemaker - delivers electrical impulses to heart to regulate heart rate, may detect missed beats, may be
used to slow or speed up, lead fed through vein to right atrium

- Defibrillation - fibrillation is a spasm (improper blood flow to cells), controls electrical current to the heart,
depolarizes the heart tissue to reestablish normal sinus rhythm by SA node

- Hypertension - caused by diet high in salt/fat/alcohol/tobacco, kidney diseases, medications, leads to

narrower blood vessels

- Thrombosis - clot blocking artery due to atheromas (fat) plaque build up, causes increased blood pressure,
may become embolism (travels), coronary thrombosis = heart attack, brain thrombosis = stroke

- Measuring blood pressure -120/80 is normal (systolic over diastolic, cut off blood pressure at brachial
artery, measured with a sphygmomanometer) in mmHg, cardiac output is in L/min (blood volume per
minute, contractions) → both measure health of heart

- Emphysema - disease where alveoli are progressively destroyed (lose elasticity, abnormal enlargement b/c
they merge), caused by smoking/coal dust/pollution, leads to less SA for gas exchange so limits amt O2 to
blood (shortness of breath, phlegm production)

- Lung cancer - high mortality rate, prone to metastasizing, cause by carcinogens that mutate healthy cells,
treatment more successful if caught early, leads to weight loss, wheezing

- Cooperative binding of Hb - Hb has quaternary structure with 2a and 2b chains, its conformation changes
as each O2 binds to 1 of the heme groups, thus subsequent binding is easier (higher O2 affinities in O2 rich
areas, vice versa)

- Adaptations at high altitudes - increased RBC production, RBCs make more Hb (to hold onto more O2),
muscles produce more Mb/have increased vascularization (ppl living permanently at high altitudes have
greater lung capacity, more alveoli, and larger chest sizes)

- Tropic Hormones - hormone that travels to another gland to cause a diff hormone to be released

- Urinalysis - compare composition of blood, filtrate, and urine (blood has proteins, blood cells, glucose,
urea, water; filtrate has glucose, urea, water; urine has urea, water)

- Dialysis - temporary (while waiting for kidney transplant, can be performed 3x/week for 4 hours, filters
blood like a kidney (dialyzer, removes blood from body, cleans with dialysate, returns to body w/o wastes)

- PKU - ​Phenylketonuria​, an autosomal recessive genetic disease due to mutation to gene that codes for
enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH), which is needed to break down excess AA phenylalanine to
tyrosine → converted instead to phenylpyruvate AKA phenylketone, buildup leads to health problems
(cognitive impairment), asymptotic at birth, test right away, strict diet

- William Harvey - debunked Aristotle’s Seed and Soil theory, shot deer during mating season, dissections,
fertilized egg took months to develop, better understanding of embryology
- William Beaumont - the ‘father of gastric physiology’, established role of gastric acid in digestion while
observing process of digestion in an open wound caused by gunshot = mechanical to also chemical
digestion viewpoint

- Calories, calories, kcal, KJ, J - 1 Calorie = 1 kcal = 4.184 kJ (1000J in a kJ, 1000 cal in a Cal)

- PPI - proton pump inhibitors prescribed if pH too low (heartburn), irreversibly bind to proton pumps
(which maintain stomach pH, found in parietal cells of gastric pits, pump H+ with active transport to
combine with Cl- to form HCl) + prevent H+ secretion, increase pH, but may lead to increased gastric
infections, cells regenerate quickly

- Villi - adapted for max. absorption in intestine, lined with microvilli to increase SA, dense capillary
network surrounds for rapd transport, single layer epithelium to min. diffusion distance b/n lumen/blood,
lacteals to absorb lipids to lymphatic system, intestinal glands to release digestive juices, membrane
proteins for transport → epithelial have ​tight junctions​ (impermeable barrier b/n 2 cells) to maintain [c]
gradient + separate digestive fluids from tissues + more mitochondria to provide E for active transport

- Cholera - caused by ​Vibrio cholerae​ (release toxin, binds to receptors on intestinal epithelium, endocytosis,
triggers production of cAMP (2nd messenger) which opens ion channels so influx of ions and water
follows), a bacterial infection of intestines = diarrhoea + dehydration, can kill in hours unless treated with
rehydration therapies

- Ulcers - inflamed areas of stomach wall (caused by exposure to gastric acids), positive correlation with
Helicobacter pylori​ (bacteria that can survive acidic environment in stomach, anchors to mucous lining,
loss exposes to acid) infection and stomach ulcer development, thus treated with antibiotics, NSAIDs
(non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like aspirin + ibuprofen) associated with GI mucosal injury, daily
does of PPIs is most effective way to reduce risk of ulcers caused by NSAIDs

- Fibre + role in egestion - dietary fibre = “roughage” is indigestible (cellulose, chitin, lignan) b/c humans
lack enzymes (ex. cellulase), certain herbivores have bacteria in GI to break down, fibre keeps material
moving through gut + absorbs water (softer bowel movements, less constipation, lowers cholesterol, aids in
weight management b/c few calories by vol)

- Purposes of stomach acid (3) - ph 1.5-2, purposes: kill pathogens, some enzyme-facilitates hydrolysis,
activate pepsinogen (duodenum pH 7-8 b/c neutralized by HCO3- from pancreas)

- Plasma protein synthesis + components - synthesized by RER in hepatocytes, contains 60% albumin for
osmotic pressure of plasma, 35% globulins for antibodies/transport proteins, 4% fibrinogens for blood
clotting, <1% other for various roles (ex. aggulation factors)

- Why gestation length varies (+ terms for longer and shorter) - greater size/mass, more developed at birth =
longer gestation period (positively correlated, but there are exceptions), categories for animals (not
humans) = ​altricial mammals​ have shorter gestation periods b/c need more E to parental care after birth
(rodents, marsupials), ​precocial mammals​ have longer gestation periods (cows, rhinos) b/c born almost
fully developed