WEEK 4

CLASS 13
AREA-VELOCITY-METHOD
How can one tell how much water
is flowing in a river?
Can we simply measure how high
the water has risen/fallen?
The height of the surface of the
water is called the stream stage or
gage height.
Stream gaging generally involves 3 steps:
1. Measuring stream stage — obtaining a continuous record
of stage—the height of the water surface at a location along
a stream or river
2. The discharge measurement — obtaining periodic
measurements of discharge (the quantity of water passing a
location along a stream)
3. The stage-discharge relation — defining the natural but
often changing relation between the stage and discharge;
using the stage-discharge relation to convert the continuously
measured stage into estimates of streamflow or discharge
 The discharge measurement
Discharge is the volume of water moving down a stream or river per unit of
time, commonly expressed in cubic feet per second or gallons per day. In
general, river discharge is computed by multiplying the area of water in a
channel cross section by the average velocity of the water in that cross
section:

discharge = area x velocity

The most common method used for measuring velocity is with a current meter.

In the simplest method, a current meter turns with the flow of the river or stream.

The current meter is used to measure water velocity at predetermined points

(subsections) along a marked line, suspended cableway, or bridge across a river
or stream. The depth of the water is also measured at each point.

These velocity and depth measurements are used to compute the total volume of
water flowing past the line during a specific interval of time. Usually a river or
stream will be measured at 25 to 30 regularly spaced locations across the river or
stream.
Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP)
The ADCP uses the Doppler Effect to determine water velocity by
sending a sound pulse into the water and measuring the change in
frequency of that sound pulse reflected back to the ADCP by sediment or
other particulates being transported in the water.

The change in frequency, or Doppler Shift, that is measured by the

ADCP is translated into water velocity. The sound is transmitted into the
water from a transducer to the bottom of the river and receives return
signals throughout the entire depth.

The ADCP also uses acoustics to measure water depth by measuring

the travel time of a pulse of sound to reach the river bottom at back to
the ADCP.
To make a discharge measurement,
- ADCP is mounted onto a boat or into a
small watercraft, with its acoustic beams
directed into the water from the water
surface.
- The ADCP is then guided across the
surface of the river to obtain
measurements of velocity and depth
across the channel.

- Global Positioning System (GPS) is used

to track the progress of the ADCP across
the channel and provide channel-width
measurements.

- Using the depth and width measurements

for calculating the area and the velocity
measurements, the discharge is
computed by the ADCP using

discharge = area x velocity,

 AWAC
Acoustic Wave and Acoustic Current Profilers
DATA COLLECTION
 Stage-discharge relationship

Stage-Discharge Relation Example.

The continuous record of stage is converted to streamflow by applying a mathematical
rating curve. A rating curve, is a graphic representation of the relation between stage
and streamflow for a given river or stream. These site-specific rating curves to convert
the water-level data into information about the flow of the river.

The development of an accurate stage-discharge relation requires numerous

discharge measurements at all ranges of stage and streamflow. In addition, these
relations must be continually checked against on-going discharge measurements
because stream channels are constantly changing. Changes in stream channels are
often caused by erosion or deposition of streambed materials, seasonal vegetation
growth, debris, or ice. New discharge measurements plotted on an existing stage-
discharge relation graph would show this, and the rating could be adjusted to allow the
correct discharge to be estimated for the measured stage.
As we have seen in previous lessons, continuous records of discharge at gaging
stations are computed by applying a discharge rating to stage data. The
discharge rating curve transforms the stage data to a continuous record of
stream discharge. The rating curve is also used to transform forecasted flow
hydrographs into stage hydrographs. The discharge rating curve may be simple
or complex depending on the river reach and flow regime. The objective of this
lesson is to examine simple stage discharge concepts where the discharge is
only a function of stage. A typical simple stage discharge relationship is shown in
Figure 6.1.
Discharge models, also known as rating curves, stage ratings or stage-discharge
relations are typically developed empirically from periodic measurements of
stage and discharge. Discharge is computed current meter data. These data are
plotted versus the concurrent stage to define the rating curve for the stream. For
new gaging stations, many discharge measurements are needed to develop the
stage discharge relation throughout the entire range of streamflow data.
Generally periodic measurements are needed to validate the underlying stage-
discharge relationship and to track changes or shifts in the rating curve. The
USGS recommends a minimum of 10 discharge measurements per year, unless
it has been demonstrated that the stage discharge relation is invariant in time. Of
extreme importance is the capability of the stage-discharge relation to be
applicable for flood or extreme flow conditions and for periods when the rating
shifts as a result of ice formation.
Discharge measurements are usually lacking in the definition of the upper end of
the rating curve. As a result, the extrapolation of the lower parts of the rating
curve is used to "approximate" the higher stages of the river. The extrapolation of
these data are subject to serious error that can have significant implications for
flood planning and the attendant loss in human life and property. The
extrapolation issues can be circumvented if indirect methods of determining
unmeasured peak discharge are used.
Development of Rating Curves

Figure 6.2. Hand drawn rating curve.

The discharge and stage measurements are plotted on either rectangular

(arithmetic) coordinate or logarithmic plotting paper. Discharge is plotted as the
abscissa; gage height or stage, the ordinate.

The discharge measurements are numbered consecutively in chronological order

to facilitate the identification of time trends.

Hand drawn curves are typically used to fit the stage and discharge measurements
to produce a rating curve. Considerable judgement is normally exercised to decide
on the best curve.

A hand drawn curve is shown in Figure 6.2. Each point represents a stage
discharge pair.
After the hand drawn curve is established, representative points
that lie exactly on the curve are extracted.

These points define the rating curve.

The number of points extracted can range from two for a very
simple channel with a single control to 20 points or more for
channels with many controls.
 Interpreting the Rating Curve
In practice, ratings curves are often extended or extrapolated beyond the
range of discharge measurements. The extrapolation of the rating data can
lead to considerable uncertainty in the prediction of discharge.

Paired stage and discharge data are commonly plotted on logarithmic

paper (log scale for both the ordinate and abscissa) since this scaling tends
to produce a nearly linear (or at least piece-wise linear) fit to the observed
data.
Extrapolation of rating curve
The following procedures may be considered to extrapolate the stage-
discharge relation (ISO, 1982):

•Double logarithmic straight line extrapolation.

If the hydraulic characteristics of the control section do not change beyond the
measured range, the power type stage-discharge relation is assumed to
remain valid in the lower and upper end.

•Extension of the stage-area (h-A) and stage-velocity (h-v) curve beyond

the measured range.
This procedure is based on the observation that the h-v relation has little
curvature under normal circumstances. The product of A and v can be used to
obtain values of Q in the lower and upper end.

•Extrapolation based on the Manning or Chezy equation for steady flow .

Low Flow Extrapolation
Low flow extrapolation of rating curves is often required in the management of
surface water supply for domestic, industrial, or agricultural uses. Although low
flow extrapolation can have important consequences

The benefit of using rectangular-coordinate paper for rating analysis is that

trends and changes in the low flow portion of the curve are more apparent and
that zero flow conditions can be identified. Zero flow cannot be described in the
log scale. For flood forecasting, however, logarithmic plotting is preferable
because of its ability to identify control changes. This is very useful during real-
time flood monitoring.

In most cases, low flow extrapolation is not very accurate. If the existing trend
in the rating curve is extended to the zero discharge point, the curve will rarely
pass through the zero stage point. Forcing the rating curve through the
zero/zero stage-discharge point usually requires a different shaped curve then
in the observed portion of the rating curve. Under these conditions, an
adequate understanding of the relationship between low stage and discharge
can only be achieved with additional low flow discharge measurements.
High Flow Extrapolation

The ramifications of high flow extrapolation are potentially more severe than
low flow extrapolation.

Errors in high flow extrapolation can underestimate flood peaks with the
consequent loss of human life and property. Five methodologies are used for
high flow extrapolation:

1.indirect determination of peak discharge

2.conveyance-slope method
3.area comparison of peak runoff rates
4.step backwater method
5.flood routing