Professional Documents
Culture Documents
GEOLOGY
P recipitation refers to all form of liquid or solid water particles that form in
the atmosphere and then fall to the Earth’s surface.
Types of Precipitation:
Hail
Sleet
Snow
Rain
Drizzle
Formation:
The formation of precipitation may occur at temperatures above and below
the freezing.
Warm Precipitation-
is formed at temperatures entirely above freezing.
Cold Precipitation-
Involves ice and at stage of the process
Problems
1. Assuming rain falling vertically, express the catch of the gage inclined 20° from the vertical
as a percentage of the catch for the same gage installed vertically.
Solution:
% catch = 94%
2. With a z value of 300,000 mm / m , what are the rainfall rates, in mm/hr, indicated by z-R
relationships with a and b values of
Solution:
1|Page
z = aR
a. a = 200 b. a = 300
b = 1.6 b = 1.4
z = aR z = aR
3. Precipitation station X was inoperative for part of a month during a storm occurred. The
respective storm totals at three surrounding stations, A,B and C were 98, 80, and 110mm. The
normal annual precipitation amounts at stations X, A, B, and C are, respectively, 880, 1008, 842
and 1080 mm. Estimate the storm precipitation for station X.
Solution:
Px = 1/3 P + P + P
Nx N N N
Px = 86.27 mm
4. The average annual precipitation for the four sub-basins constituting a large river is 73, 85,
112, and 101 cm. The areas are 930, 710, 1090 and 1680 km² , respectively. What is the average
annual precipitation for the basin as a whole ?
Solution:
P A = PA+PA+PA+PA
P = 95.24 cm
5. Compute the mean annual precipitation for the data shown below. Use the arithmetic average
and Theissen network. Then compare your answers. Which of the two is the most accurate ?
2|Page
By Arithmetic average:
P = 76.5 mm
By Theissen Method:
P = PA + P A + P A + P A + P A
A
P = 75.98 mm
STREAMFLOW
WATER STAGE
Manual Gages
River Stage – is the elevation above some arbitrary zero datum of the water surface at
the station. The datum is sometimes taken as mean sea level but more often it is slightly
below the Point of zero flow in the stream.
The simplest way to measure the river stage is by means of staff gage, a scale set
so that a portion of it is immersed in water at all times.
If no suitable exist in a location accessible at all stages, a sectional staff gage may
be used.
Wire-weight gage – has a drum with circumference such that each revolution unwinds
30 cm of wire. A counter records the number of revolutions of the drum while a fixed
reference point indicates tenths of a millimeter on a scale around the circumference.
3|Page
Recording Gages
Continuous – chart recorder – motion of the float moves a pen across a long strip chart.
When the pen reaches the edges of the chart, it reverses direction and
records in the other direction across the chart.
Crest-stage Gage
- Crest gage provide low cost, supplementary records of crest stage at locations where
records are not justified and where manually read staff gages are inadequate. The
gage used by the U.S. Geological survey consists of a length of pipe containing a
graduated stick and a small amount of a ground cork.
DISCHARGE
Current Meters
Price meters – is the most common current meter in the United States.
- Consist of six conical cups rotating about a vertical axis.
Propeller –type – Current meters employ a propeller turning about a horizontal axis.
The location between revolution per second N of the meter cups and water velocity V is
given by an equation of the form.
V = a + bN
Where b is the constant of proportionality and is the starting velocity or velocity required
to overcome mechanical friction.
Current-Meter Measurements
A discharge measurement requires determination of sufficient point velocities to permit
computation of an average velocity in the stream. Cross sectional area multiplied by
average velocity gives the total discharge.
4|Page
Stage-distance relations
Rating curve or stage-discharge relations
- A calibration curve where periodic meter measurements of flow and simultaneous
stage observations provides data.
- The dispersion of the measured data about the mean rating curve should be small
(generally less than two percent)
- A larger dispersion indicates either
a. That the control shirts more or less continuously with scour and deposition in bed
and banks or the growth of vegetation
b. That the water surface slope at the control varies as the result of varying
backwater from tides, reservoirs fluctuations, or variable tributary inflow
downstream.
c. That the measurements are not carefully made
Shifting control
- Discharge is usually estimated by noting the difference between the stage
at a time of a discharge measurement and the stage on the mean rating
curve w/c shows the same discharge.
- If the correction changes between measurements, a linear variation with
time is usually assumed.
The basic approach is presented by:
Slope-stage-discharge relation
- Requires a base gage and an auxiliary gage
- Gages should be far enough apart for f to be at least 30cm to minimize the
effect of observational errors.
5|Page
- Can be used when fall varies over a wide range and is correlated with stage.
- Fo is determined from a curve or equation expressing the relation between
fall and stage.
- The discharge at dams can be determined from calibration of the spill way,
sluiceway, and turbine gates.
- If a record of gate and turbine operation is maintained, the discharged can be
computed.
- On small streams, flow measurements may be made w/ weirs or flumes.
6|Page
Slope-area computation
- Procedure used in estimating flow by application of hydraulic principles.
Q = 1/n ( AR2/8S1/2)
Where:
n = roughness coefficient
Average value for natural stream is about 0.035, an error of 0.001
represents about 3% in discharge
Ultrasonic method - sonic pulses are emitted from transducers on opposite banks and located on
a line about 450 from the direction of flow.
- The procedure is said to be capable of accuracies with in plus or minus 2%.
Planning and stream flow network
- The design of a stream flow network is a problem both of statistical sampling over
area and of the locations where data and most likely to be needed.
Operational Station – required for stream flow forecasting, project operation, water allocation,
etc.
Special Stations – installed to secure data for a project investigation, special studies or research
location is determined by the special need, and they are operated until the
study is completed.
Basic Data Stations – operated to obtained data for future used. The time and nature of this
future use are usually unknown when the station is established.
Bench Mark Stations – should be maintained permanently on all streams that are substantially
unaffected by people.
INTERPRETATION OF STREAMFLOW
Water Years
7|Page
It is desirable to treat annual stream flow data in such way that the flood season is not
divided between successive years. Various water years have been used for special purposes: the
U.S. Geological Survey uses the water year, October 1 to September 30, for data publication.
Water years are customarily designated by the ending year, i.e., water year 1975 ends September
30, 1975.
Hydrographs
- is a graph of stage versus time
- a graph showing the change over time in the amount of water flowing down a river
Many different methods of plotting are used, depending on the purpose of the chart.
Monthly and annual mean or total flow is used to display the record of past run-off at a
station.
For detailed analysis, discharge hydrographs are plotted by computing instantaneous flow
values from the water stage recorder chart. The visual shape of the hydrograph is
determined by the scales used, and in any particular study it is good practice to use the
same scales for all floods on a given basin.
Mean Daily Flow
- Stream flow data are usually published in the form of mean daily flows from
midnight to midnight.
Adjustment of Stream flow Data
Before publication, stream flow data should be carefully reviewed and adjusted for errors
resulting from instrumental and observational deficiencies until they are as accurate a
presentation of the flow as it is possible to make.
Storage reservoirs, diversions, levees, etc., cause changes in either total flow volume or
rate of flow or both. An analysis of the effects on the record at a given stations requires a
careful search to determine the number and size of reservoirs, the number and quantity of
diversions, and the date of their construction.
Land-use changes, urbanization, deforestation, or reforestation affect streamflow and
cause apparent shifts in the flow record.
8|Page
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Problem No. 1
Determine the flow through a trapezoidal concrete lined canal having a side slope of 3H
to 4H and bottom width of 2m if the depth of floe is 2 m. The channel is laid on a slope of 3m
per 2 km. Use n = 0.013
x x
2m 4 5 y
3
2m
Sol:
Q = A(1/n)R2/3S1/2
y = (5/4)2
y = 2.5 m
By ratio and proportion:
(2.5/5) = (x/3)
x = 1.5
[2 + 2(1.5)] + 2
A= 2 (2)
A = 7 m2
R = A/P
P = 2 + 2(2.5) = 7 m
R = 7m2/7m = 1 m
S = 3/2000 = 0.0015
Q = (7)(1/0.013)(1)2/3(0.0015)1/2
Q = 20.85 m3/s ans
Problem No. 2
9|Page
Given the stream section shown in table and the following measurements, calculate the
total discharge and the average velocity throughout the station.
Section Sample 1 2 3 4 5
Depths
Velocity 0.5D 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.0 0.6
0.8D 0.3 0.6 1.3 1.2 0.6
(m/s)
Area(m2) 3 6 10 8 4
10 | P a g e
EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION
1. EVAPORATION
is restricted to the net rate of vapor transport to the atmosphere.
11 | P a g e
Effects of Water Quality. The effect of salinity, or dissolved solids, is brought about by
the reduced vapor pressure of the solution. The vapor pressure of sea water (35,000 ppm
dissolved salts) is about 2% less than that of pure water at the same temperature.
E = (S1-S2) + I + P - O – Og
Where:
E – evaporation
S – storage
I – surface inflow
O - surface outflow
Og – subsurface seepage
Qn – Qh – Qe = QӨ – Qv
Where:
Qn – net (all-wave)
Qh – sensible-heat transfer (conduction) to the atmosphere
Qe – energy used for evaporation
QӨ – increase in energy stored in the water body
Qv - advected energy (net energy content of inflow and outflow elements)
Another approach to the determination of net radiation involves the application of the
energy-budget to an insulated evaporation pan (radiation integrator).
12 | P a g e
Qir = Qir = Qn + εσ(Ťo)4
Where:
Qir – the incident minus reflected all-wave radiation for the tank
Qir – adjacent lake
Qn – net radiation
Ťo – absolute temperature.
σ – stefan-boltzman constant (5.67 x 10-8 W m –2 K-4)
ε = 0.97
The energy content per gram of water (with respect to 0 0C) is the product of its specific
heat and Celsius temperature. Assuming the values of density and specific heat of water are
1000 kg/cu.m and 4.19 x 10-3MJ/ kgoC.
When it becomes necessary to take advection and energy storage into account, the
adjusted lake evaporation EL, can be computed from
EL = E + α (Qv - Qθ)
Where:
E - evaporation
(Qv - Qθ) - net advection
Pan Observations. There are 3 types of exposures employed for pan installations -
sunken, floating, and surface – and divergent views on the best exposure persist.
Sunken pans collect more trash; they are difficult to install, clean and repair; leaks are not
easily detected; and height of vegetation adjacent to the pan is quite ethical.
Evaporation from Pan Floating in the lake more nearly approximates evaporation from the
lake than from an – on – shore installation, but even so, the boundary effects are appreciable.
Pans exposed above ground experience greater evaporation than sunken pans, primarily
because of the radiant energy intercepted by the wide walls, and heat exchange.
13 | P a g e
Pan Evaporation And Meteorological Factors.
Pan Coefficients. The ratio of the annual lake-to-pan evaporation. Water- budge, energy-
budget, and aerodynamic techniques can be use to estimate evaporation from existing reservoirs
and lakes.
2. TRANSPIRATION
Only minute portion of the water absorb by the roots systems of plants remain in the
plants tissues; virtually all is discharge to the atmosphere as vapor through transpiration.
This is the process where an air enters the leaf and the waters escapes through the open
stomata.
14 | P a g e
The relative transpiration is not proportional to cover density, however, for 2 reasons;
1) An isolated plant receives radiation on the side facing the sun which would fall on an
adjacent plant were there solid cover.
2) A portion of radiation reaching the ground is subsequently transmitted to the plants
(oasis effect).
PLANT TYPES:
Xerophytes – dessert species which have fewer stomata per unit area and less surface
area expose to radiation.
Phreatophytes – have root systems reaching to the water table and transpire at rates
largely independent of moisture contents in the zone of aeration.
Mesophytes – have some ability to reduce transpiration during periods of growth.
Hydophytes – cannot pumps water into the atmosphere at rates in excess of those
controlled by available radiant and sensible energy.
MEASUREMENT OF TRANSPIRATION
Measured by Phytometer, a large vessel filled with soil in which one or more
plants are rooted.
3. EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Total evaporation (or evapotranspiration) - the evaporation from all water, soil,
snow, ice, vegetation, and other surface plus transpiration.
Consumptive use is the total evaporation from an area plus the water use directly in
building plant tissue.
The concept of potential evapotranspiration introduced by Thornthwaite is widely
used. He defined the term as “water loss which will occur if at no time there is a
deficiency of water in the soil for the use of vegetation”.
15 | P a g e
The following equation for α, the portion of net advected energy contributing to
evaporation:
1
0.0066p
T0 273 108
α 1
0.177 0.00143v 4
0.00815T0 0.8912 7
Where:
p - pressure, Kpa
To - water temperature
v4 - 4-m wind movement, km/day
Where:
To - water temperature, ºC
vp - wind movement, km/day
16 | P a g e
Example Problem: Find the daily evaporating E from a lake for a day during which the
following mean values were obtained: air temperature 87˚F, water temperature 63˚F, wind speed
10 mph, and relative humidity 20%.
Table. Water Vapor Pressure at Various Temperatures
Vapor Pressure
Temp (in. Hg)
(˚F)
32 0.18
40 0.25
50 0.36
60 0.52
70 0.74
80 1.03
90 1.42
100 1.94
W
E C e0 ea 1 Where: C = 0.36; W = 10 mph
10
10
E = 0.36 (0.58 - 0.26) 1
10
E = 0.23 in/day x 2.54 cm/in x 10 mm/12 m = 5.85 mm/day
Example Problem: For a given month, a 300-acre lake has 15 ft3/s of inflow, 13 ft3/s outflow,
and a total storage increase of 16 ac-ft. A USGS gage next to the lake recorded a total of 1.3 in.
precipitation for the lake for the month. Assuming that infiltration is insignificant for the lake,
determine the evaporation loss, in inches, over the lake.
Given: I = 15 ft3/s
O = 13 ft3/s
P = 1.3 in.
∆S = 16 ac-ft
17 | P a g e
Req: E = ?
Solution:
15ft 3 s 3,600s hr 24 hr day 30 day month1month
300acre 43,560 ft 3 acre
I
ΔS
16ac ft 12 in ft 0.64 in.
300acre
E = I - O + P - ∆S
E = (35.70) - (30.94) + (1.3) - (0.64) in.
E = 5.42 in.
Example Problem: A clear lake has a surface area of 708,000 m2. In May, the building brook
flows into the lakes at an average rate of 1.5 m 3/s. The Meandering River flows out of clear lake
at an average rate of 1.25 m3/s. The evaporation rate was measured as 14.0 cm/mo. A total of
22.5 cm of precipitation fell in May. Seepage losses are negligible. The average depth in the lake
on May 1 was 19 m. What was the average depth on May 30th?
I
1.5 m3 s 3,600s hr 24 hr day 30 day month1month 5.49 m
708,000m2
O
1.25 m3 s 3,600s hr 24 hr day 30 day month 1month 4.58 m
708,000m2
Example Problem: Determine the evaporation rate per month of a lake 500,000m2, with a total
average inflow of 3.5 m3/s, outflow downstream is 3.2 m3/s. Before the large content is 180,700
18 | P a g e
m3/month, due to higher inflow it has increased to 220,000 m 3/month. Precipitation rate is 15 mm
/month.
Given:
I = 3.5 m3/s
O = 3.2 m3/s
S2 = 220,000 m3/month
S1 = 180,700 m3/month
P = 15 mm/month
Solution:
E = P + I - O - ∆S
E = 15 mm (1/1000)(500,000 m2) + 3.5 m3/s(60)(60)(24)(30) - (3.2 m3/s)(60)(60)(24)(30)
- (220,000(m3/month - 180,700 m3/month)
E = 7500 m3/month + 9,072,000 m3/month - 8,294,400 m3/month - 39,300 m3/month
745,800 m3 month
E=
500,000m 2
E = 1.492 m/month
19 | P a g e
SUBSURFACE WATER
6-1 Occurrence of subsurface
Water table – is the lows of points( in unconfined materials) where hydrostatic pressure
equals atmospheric pressure.
Vadose zone – Above the water table, soils pores may contain either air or water.
Phreatic zone – Below the water level interstices are filled with water.
-Local saturated zones sometimes exists as perched ground water above an impervious layer of
limited extent.
- Sometimes ground water is overlain by an impervious stratum to form confined or artesian
water.
Soil moisture may be present as gravity water in transit in the large pore spaces as
capillary water in the smaller pores, as hygroscopic moisture adhering in a thin film to soil grains
and as water vapor.
MOVEMENT OF GROUNDWATER
In 1856 Darcy confirmed the applicability of principles of fluid flow in capillary tubes,
developed several years earlier by Hagen and Poiseveille, to the flow of water in permeable
media.
Darcy’s Law:
20 | P a g e
V = ks
where
v = velocity of flow
k = coeffocient having the units of v
s = slope of the hydraulic gradient
where K = k w/ μ = Cd2 w
/μ
K = intrinsic permeability of the medium
w = specific weight of the fluid
μ = absolute viscosity
C = factor involving the shape, packing, porosity, and other characteristics of
the medium
d = average pore size of the medium
It is convenient to use the transmissibility (T) to represent the flow rate per day through
unit area under unit hydraulic gradient:
where T = KY
T = transmissibility
K = hydraulic conductivity
Y = saturated thickness of the aquifer
q = TBs
where
B = the width of the aquifer
Connate Water – present in the rock at its formation and is frequently highly saline.
Juvenile Water – formed chemically within the earth and brought to the surface in
intrusive rocks, occurs in small quantities.
21 | P a g e
Connate and juvenile waters are sometimes important sources of undesirable minerals in
groundwater.
Effluent Streams – streams intersecting the water tale and receiving groundwater flow.
Types of Springs:
Phreatophytes – plants deriving their water from groundwater, often have root systems
extending to depths of 12m or more.
Flow toward the well through a cylindrical surface at radius x must equal the discharge of
the well.
q = 2 ΠxyK dy/dx
Where
where
h = height of water table above the base of the aquifer at distance r from the
pumped well
In = logarithm to the base e
Assuming that the drawdown (Z) to be small compared with the saturated thickness
22 | P a g e
(h1 ≈ h2 ≈ Y):
Equations (6-9) and (6-9a) can be used to estimate T or K given q and z, provided that the
assumption of equilibrium is satisfied.
In 1935 theis is presented a formula based on the heat flow and which accounts for the
effect of time and the storage characteristics of an aquifer.
Where:
The integral in equation, written as W(u) and called the well function of u, can be
evaluated from the series
r2 / t = 4Th / Sc
When u is small, the terms of equation (6-12) following in u are small and may be
neglected. Equation (6-11) indicates that u will be small when t is large, and in this case a
modified solution of the theis method is possible by writing:
23 | P a g e
T = 2.3q / 4TΔZ log t2 / t1
Where:
ΔZ = change in drawdown between t, and t2.
to = intercept (in days) if the straight – line portion of the curve is extended z – 0
When several are close together, their cones of depression may overlap or interfer.
When wells are located too close together, the flow from the wells is impaired and the
drawdowns increased.
Resultant cone of depression – found by subtracting the drawdown caused by image well
from that caused by real well (assuming mo boundaries)
Hele-shaw Apparatus
- consisting of closely spaced glass plates with a viscous fluid between them
- often convenient for solving two-dimentional ground flow problems.
Three – dimensional problems are commonly treated with a digital; or analog computer
In finite-difference form using the grid notation of fig. 6-14 this becomes
24 | P a g e
h2 + h4 - 2h1 + h3 + h5 - 2h1 = h2 + h4 + h3 - 4h1
a2 a2
Y ←↑ 0 →
0
↓
3
Where: a = the grid size
2 1 4
Potential of a Groundwater Reservoir
5
x
6.14 SAFE YIELD
Safe yield – is defined by Menzer [16] as “The rate at which water can be withdrawn for
human use without depleting the supply t such an extent that withdrawal at this
rate is no longer economically feasible”
- Kazmann has suggested that it be abandoned because of its frequent
interpretation as a permanent limitation on the permissible withdrawal.
- Must be recognized as a quantity determined for a specific set of controlling
conditions and subject to change as a result of changing economic or physical
condition.
The safe yield of a grounded basin is governed by many factors, one of the most important being
the quantity of water available. This hydrologic limitation is often expressed by the equation
G = P – Qs – ET + Qg – ΔSg – ΔSs
Where:
G = safe yield
P = precipitation on the area tributary tot he aquifer
Qs = surface stream flow from the same area
ET = evapotranspiration
Qg = net groundwater inflow to the are
Sg = change in groundwater
Ss = change in surface storage
Hint: if the equation is evaluation on a mean annual basis, __ Sg will usually be zero
25 | P a g e
6.15 SEAWATER INTRUSION
Ghyben – Herzberg Lens – the lens of fresh water floating on salt water
About 1/40 unit of fresh water is requires above sea level for each unit of fresh water
below sea level to maintain hydrostatic equilibrium.
If the permeability of the aquiclude confining an Artesian Aquifer is 0.04 m/day and the
hydraulic gradient is unity, the daily seepage would amount to 40,900 m3/km2.
Hantush - has demonstrated a procedure which accounts for such leakage in the analysis of
pumping tests on artesian aquifers.
Flow rates in the groundwater are normally extremely slow, and considerable time may
be involved in groundwater phenomena.
Werner – suggested that several hundreds years might be required for a sudden increase
in water level in the recharge area of an extensive artesian aquifer to be
transmitted through the aquifer.
Jacob – found that the water levels on long island were related to an effective
precipitation which was the sum of the rainfalls for the previous 25 years.
26 | P a g e
STREAMFLOW HYDROGRAPHS
Hydrograph – is a continuous graph showing the properties of streamflow with respect to time
q1 = q0Kr
where:
q0 - is the flow at any time
q1 - is the flow one time unit later
27 | P a g e
Kr - is a recession constant which is les than unity
where:
qt - is the flow t after q0
e - is the napierian base
α - -ln Kr
St = - qt / ln Kr = qt /α
where:
St - is the storage remaining in the basin at time t
7-3 Hydrograph Separation
Hydrograph separation or hydrograph analysis – the division of hydrograph into direct and
groundwater runoff as a basis for subsequent analysis
N = bA 0.2
where:
N = time in days
A = is the drainage area (in sq. km)
b = is the coefficient maybe taken as 0.8
7-4 Analysis of Complex Hydrographs
- This type of event easier to analyze than the complex hydrographs resulting from two
or more closely spaced bursts of rainfall.
- Some other methods have been developed may also have some advantages where
groundwater is a relatively important component of runoff and reaches the stream
fairly quickly.
HYDROGRAPH SYNTHESIS
1. Duration of rain
- theoretically, the ideal unit hydrograph has a duration approaching zero, the
instantaneous unit hydrograph.
28 | P a g e
2. Time-intensity pattern
- if one attempted to derive a separate unit hydrograph for each possible time-intensity
pattern, an infinite number of unit hydrographs would be required
- unit hydrograph can be based only on an assumption of uniform intensity of runoff
3. Arial distribution runoff
- the areal pattern of runoff can cause variations in hydrograph shape
- if the area of high runoff is near the basin outlet, a rapid rise and sharp peak usually result
- higher runoff in the upstream portion of the basin produces a slow rise and a lower
broader peak
4. amount of runoff
- Inherent in the unit hydrograph concept is the assumption that ordinates of flow are
proportional to volume of runoff for all storms of a given duration that the time bases of
all such hydrographs are equals
The unit hydrograph is best derived from the hydrograph of the storm of reasonably
uniform intensity, duration of desired length, and a relatively large runoff volume.
The steps are:
1. separate the base flow from direct runoff
2. determine the volume of direct runoff, and the ordinates of the direct runoff hydrograph
3. then, divide by the runoff depth
4. the adjusted unit ordinates form a unit hydrograph
The proper procedure is to compute the average peak flow and time to peak.
The average unit hydrograph is the sketched to confirm to the shape of the other graphs,
passing through the computed average peak, and having the required unit volume.
- There is frequently a need to convert an existing unit hydrograph for one storm duration
to another-shorter to better scope with spatial and intensity variations, or longer to
reduce required computations and possibly in recognition of the coarseness of available
data.
qe = 2.78A / tR
where:
qe = equilibrium at flow (m3/s)
29 | P a g e
- the flow is determined by weighing the antecedent rainfall excess, where the weight
applied to rainfall occurring to τ hour ago is the IUH ordinate τ hour after the beginning
of rainfall.
qt = ∫ f(τ) i e(t – τ) d τ
where:
f(τ) = IUH ordinate at time τ
i e = intensity of rainfall at time (t – τ)
τ = time in the past.
- By analogy with the S-curve technique for deriving a short-duration unit hydrograph, it
will be seen that the IUH ordinates are the function of the slope of the S-curve and its
duration:
f(τ) = tR (dq/dt)
- the required ordinate at any time is simply the average flow during the previous tR hr.
- This requires a relation the physical geometry of the area and the resulting hydrographs
three approaches the have venues formulas relating hydrograph features to basin
characteristics, transposition of unit hydrograph and storage routine.
- in a study of basins in the Appalachian Mountain region, Snyder [14] found the basin log
(in hours) to be a function of basins size and shape:
tp = C (LLc)0.3
where : L - main stream distance from outlet to divide and L c is the stream distance
from outlet to a point opposite the basin centroid.
qp = CpA / tp
where: A - drainage area. The coefficient Cp range from 0.15 to 0.19 with A in square kilometers
qp in m3 / sec
T = 3 + 3 ( tp / 24)
tpR = tp + [ ( tR – tr)/4 ]
- from Eq. 7-8 a general expression for basin lag might be
expected to take the form
tp = Ct (LLc / √ s) n
30 | P a g e
7-12 Application Of Units Hydrographs
- The unit hydrograph has been a main stay of the hydrologist even though some of the
techniques may offer more flexibility and accuracy in many applications.
- Care should be taken not to apply the unit hydrograph without considering the advantages
and the disadvantages of the other techniques.
Use Snyder’s method to develop a unit hydrograph for the area of 100 mi square described
below. Sketch the approximate shape. What duration rainfall does this correspond to?
Ct = 1.8 L = 18 mi
Cp = 0.6 Lc = 10 mi
SOLUTION
tP = Ct(LLc)0.3 = 1.8(18-10)0.3 hr
tP = 8.6 hr.
Qp = 640CpA/tp
Qp = 640(0.6)(100)/8.6
Qp = 4465 cfs.
Tb = 4(8.6)
Tb = 34.4 hr.
D = tp / 5.5
D = 8.6/5.5
D = 1.6 hr
Convert the direct runoff hydrograph shown into (a) a 2-hr Unit Hydrograph the Rainfall
hyetograph is given i8n the figure and the diameter index for the storm was 0.5in/hr. The base
flow in the channel was 100 cfs constant. What are Tp and tb for the storm?
0 100 0 0
1 100 0 0
2 300 200 100
3 700 600 300
4 1000 900 450
31 | P a g e
5 800 700 350
6 600 500 250
7 400 300 150
8 300 200 100
9 200 100 50
10 100 0 0
11 100 0 0
The 2 hr UH graph as shown in figure . Tb, the time of this storm is, is 9 hr and the time
to peak tp, measured from the center of mass of rainfall is 2 hr.
Convert the following tabulated 2-hr unit hydrograph to a 3-hr unit hydrograph using the
S-curve method.
TIME 2-HRUHORDINATE
(hr) (cfs)
0 0
1 75
2 250
3 300
4 275
5 200
6 100
7 75
8 50
9 25
10 0
Solution:
32 | P a g e
TIME S-CURVE S-CURVE LAGGED DIFFERENCE D/D’ 3-HR UH
(hr)
ORDINATE 3 HR ORDINATE
0 0 0 2/3 0
1 75 75 2/3 50.0
2 250 250 2/3 166.7
3 375 0 375 2/3 250.0
4 525 75 450 2/3 300.0
5 575 250 325 2/3 216.7
6 625 375 250 2/3 166.7
7 650 525 125 2/3 83.3
8 675 575 100 2/3 66.7
9 675 625 50 2/3 33.3
10 675 650 25 2/3 16.7
11 675 675 0 2/3 0
33 | P a g e
RELATION BETWEEN PRECIPITION AND
RUNOFF
SURFACE RETETION
A part of storm precipitation retained on or above the ground surface.
Trimble and Weitzman found that mixed hardwood about 50 years old and typical of
considerations are in the Southern Appalachian Mountain interest about 20% of the rainfall both
summer and winter.
It is likely that net interception is nearer 18% for storm with rainfall in the order of 13-
mm.
Qualitative, it can be said that annual interception by a well-developed forest canopy is
10 to 20 percent of the rainfall
The storage capacity of the canopy is range from 0.8 to 1.5-mm.
34 | P a g e
Horton derived a series of empirical formulas for estimating interception (per storm)
by various types of cover. Applying these formulas to 25-mm storm and assuming normal cover
density give values of interception.
Vi =Si + EtR
Where;
Si –storage capacity per unit of projected area,
E –evaporation rate,
tR –duration of rainfall.
Assuming that the interception given is approached exponentially as the rainfall increase
from zero to some high value, then
Where;
e –napierian base,
P –amount of rain,
k –equal to 1/ (Si + EtR)
Blind drainage ➨ is individual depressions of appreciable area relative to the drainage basin
under consideration.
Where;
Sd –depression-storage of the basin, Sd –the value most basin lie between 10 and 50mm.
35 | P a g e
Pe – value of precipitation
The eq. neglects evaporation from depression storage during, a factor w/c is usually unimportant.
RUNOFF MECHANISMS
Most hydrologists considered that all storm runoff was generated by this mechanism.
“Hortonian overland flow” is one of several mechanisms, and that is not necessarily the
dominantone.
Infiltration
Two Phenomena
1. Infiltration is the passage of water through the soil surface into the soil.
2. Percolation is the gravity flow of water within the soil.
Infiltration Capacity is the max. Rate w/c water can enter the soil at a particular pt. under a
given set of conditions.
Infiltration capacity depends on many factors such as soil type, moisture content, organic
matter, vegetative cover, and season.
Of the soil characteristics affecting infiltration, noncapillary porosity is perhaps the most
important.
Where;
The equation is applicable only when Is ≥ƒp throughout the storm. Phillip suggested the eq.;
ƒp = ( bt-1/2 )/2 + a
Infiltration capacity depends on many factors such as soil
type, moisture content, organic matter, vegetative cover, and season.
36 | P a g e
Of the soil characteristics affecting infiltration, noncapillary porosity is perhaps the most
important.
THE RUNOFF CYCLE is the descriptive term applied to that portion of the hydrologic cycle
between incident precipitation over land areas and subsequent discharge of this water through
stream channels or evapotranspiration.
In other words, the soil moisture should decrease logarithmically w/ time during periods of
no precipitation;
t
It= Iok I1=kIo Io – I1= Io (1 – k)
Where;
STORM ANALYSIS
The storm rainfall w/c produced runoff being considered only included.
37 | P a g e
Shower occurring before the rain storm should be excluded from the storm rainfall and
included in the antecedent-precipitation index.
Runoff also depends upon rainfall intensity, an average intensity as reflected by amount and
duration is usually adequate.(≥250km2 Rainfall). In this case duration can be estimated with
suffusion accuracy from 6-hr rainfall data.
Analytical Correlation Technique/method it have result generally slightly better tan the
graphical solution.
n n 1/n
Ips=c + (a+dIs) e-bl Q= (P +I ps) - Ips
Where;
I – antecedent-precipitation index.
E – base of napierian logarithmic.
P – storm rainfall.
Q – direct runoff.
a, b c, d and n –statistically derived coefficients.
38 | P a g e
3. Infiltration
When the supply rate, Is, is at or in infiltrating capacity, surface runoff is equivalent to the
storm rainfall less surface retention and the area under capacity curve.
If is <ƒ p, the increment of soil mixture is lea than assume and the drop in the infiltration
curve correspondingly less.
Applicable infiltration capacity curve-varies from point depending on soils, vegetation, and
antecedent moisture.
INFILTRATION INDEXES
Infiltration index sample, and the approach is cloaked in an aura of logic.
The W index is the average infiltration rate during the time rainfall intensity exceeds the
capacity rate, i.e.,
W = F/t = (1/t)(P – Qs – S)
Where:
t- time
P- total precipitation
Qs- surface runoff
S –effective surface retention.
PHYSICAL OF SNOWMELT
Snow and evaporation (including sublimation) are both thermodynamic processes, and
both are amenable to the energy-balance approach.
39 | P a g e
1. The energy for snowmelt is derived
2. Net radiation
3. Conducting and water vapor from the transfer of sensible heat from the overlying
air.
4. Condensation of water vapor from the overlying air,
5. Conduction from the underlying soil,
6. Heat supplied by incident rainfall.
kh = ke –exchange coefficient.
To =℃
e =0.611kPa.
Mr = 4.19 P Tw / 334
Where;
P- rainfall in mm.
Tw –wet-bulb temp. in ℃.
PRECIPITATION-RUNOFF RELATIONS
A simple plotting of annual precipitation versus annual runoff will often display good
correlation, particularly in areas where the major portion of the precipitation falls in the
winter months.
40 | P a g e
Example:
The Infiltration rate for excess rain on a small area was observed to be 4.5 in/hr at the
beginning of rain, and it decreased exponentially to an equilibrium of 0.5 in/hr after 10 hr, A
total of 30in of water infiltrates during the 10-hr internal, Determine the value of k in,
Given:
t = 10 in
Fc = 0.5 in/hr
Fo = 4.5 in/hr
F = depth = 30in =3in/hr
Time 10hr
Solution:
F = Fc + (Fo-Fc)e -kt
2.5in/hr = e –k(10hr
(4in/hr)
ln 0.625 = -k(10hr)
-k =0.47 /10
k= - 0.047
Example:
The initial infiltration capacity of a watershed is estimate as 1.5 in/hr, and the time
constant is taken to the 0.35 hr -1. The equilibrium capacity fc is 0.2in/hr. Use the Horton’s
Equation to find a.) the values of fo at t =10min, 30min, 1hr, 2hr, and 6hr, b.) The total values of
infiltration over the 6hr period.
Given:
fc = 0.2in/hr
fo = 1.5in/hr
41 | P a g e
k = 0.35 hr -1
t = 10min (1hr/60min) =0.167hr
Solution:
a.)f = fc + (fo-fc)e –kt
Substituting Values:
f = 0.2in/hr + (1.5 -0.2) e –0.35 hr -1 (0.167 hr)
f = 1.43in/hr
HYDROLOGIC ROUTING
Wave movement in naturals channels traditionally has been treated in design and prediction by
applying HYDROLOGIC ROUTING procedures. Such procedures solve the continuity
equation (or storage equation) for an extended reach of the river, usually bounded by selected
gauged points.
STREAMFLOW ROUTING
- is a general term applied to methods used to predict unsteadily flow in streams.
42 | P a g e
Given the flow at an upstream point, routing can be used to compute the flow at a downstream
point. The principles at routing apply also to computation at the effect of a reservoir on the slope
of a flood wave. Hydrologic storage occurs not only in channels and reservoirs but also as water
flowing over the ground surface.
One of the simplest wave form is the monoclinal rising wave in a uniform channel. Such a wave
consists of an initial steady flow, a period pf uniformity increasing flow, and a continuing steady
flow at the higher rate. From the flow of continuity and assuming negligible effects from any
changes in wave shape, the difference between inflow and outflow must equal the change in
storage within the reach:
Where U and V are velocities of the wave and water, respectively and A is the cross-sectional
area of the channel. Solving EQ. (9-1)for the wave velocity and substituting the discharge q for
AV gives
The velocity of a monoclinal wave is thus a function of the area-discharge relation for the
stream. Since velocity usually increases with stage, area-discharge curves are usually concave
upward.
Where B is the channel top with. Equation (9-3) is known as seddons law after the man who first
demonstrated its validity on the Mississippi River.
From the Chezy formula for flow in a wide, open channel (assuming depth equal to hydrologic
radius)
V = cy1/2 s1/2
And
Q = ∆V = UBY = CBY1/2S1/2
Where S is water-surface slope.
Differentiating give
dq/ dy = 3/2 CBY1/2S1/2 = 3/2 BV
Substituting Equation (9-6) into Equation (9-3),
U = 3/2V
The derived ratio between water and wave velocities depends on channel shape and the flow
formula used, and involves the implicit assumption that discharge is a single-valued function of
area.
43 | P a g e
Simple mathematical treatment of flood waves is necessarily limited to uniform channels with
fairly regular cross-section. The hydrologist must deal with non-uniform channels of complex
section with non-uniform slope and varying roughness. Most flood waves are generated by non-
uniform lateral inflow along all the channels at the stream system. Thus natural flood waves are
considerably more complex than the simplified cases which yield to mathematical analysis, but
theoretical treatment is particularly useful in studies of surges in canals, impulse waves in still
water (including seiches and tides), and waves released from dams.
Natural flood waves are generally intermediate between pure translation and pondage, which
occurs in a broad reservoir or lake. Most natural flood waves move under friction control and
have time bases considerably exceeding the dimensions of the stream system.
or I – O = ds /dt
∆s =S2 – S1 = ∫ Idt - ∫ O dt
Where I is inflow rate, O is outflow rate, S is storage ( all for a specific reach of a stream), and t
is time. To provide a form move convenient for hydrologic routing, it is commonly assumed
that the average of the flows at times t1 and t2, the beginning and end of the routing period, t
equals the average flow during the period:
Most storage routing methods are based on Eq. (9-10). It is assumed that I 1, I2, O1 and S1 are two
unknown, a second relation between storage and flow is needed to complete a solution. The
assumption that ( I1 + I2/2 = I implies that hydrograph is a straight line during the routing period
t.
Before a relation between storage and flow can be established, it is necessary to determine the
volume of water in the stream at various times. The obvious method for finding storage is to
compute volumes in two channel from cross-sections by using the prismoidal formula. The
water surface is usually assumed to be leveled between cross-sections. Storage elevation curves
for reservoirs are usually computed by plain metering the area enclosed within successive by
the contour interval gives the increment of volume from the midpoint of the next higher interval.
One of the most annoying problems in flood routing is the treatment of local inflow which enters
the reach between the inflow and the outflow stations.
If the local inflow occurs primarily near the downstream end of the reach, it may be subtracted
from the outflow before storage is computed.
44 | P a g e
9-6 RESERVOIR ROUTING
A reservoir in which the discharge is a function of water-surface elevation offers the simplest of
all routing situations.
I1 + I2 + ( 2S1/t – O1 ) = 2S2/t + O2
Routing in a reservoir with gated outlets depends on the method of operation. A general
equation is obtained by modifying Eq. (9-10) to
STORAGE COMPUTATIONS
1. Sample problem
Inflow and outflow for a reservoir are depicted in fig. E4.1 (a).
a.) Determine the average storage for each one day period (t =1 day).
Graph storage vs. time for the reservoir for the event. Assume that So = 0 (the reservoir is
initially empty.
b.)What is the (approximate) maximum storage reached during this storm event?
SOLUTION
a.) the rate of change in storm in storage is equal to inflow minus outflow. First we tabulate
values of I and Q and take their difference. Storage is equal to the area between the inflow and
outflow curves. Or S = ƒ (I – Q) dt.
This integral can be simply approximates by S = (I – Q) t.
Q (cfs)
45 | P a g e
10,000 Inflow
Storage change for day 3
Outflow
5,000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Time (Days)
where I and Q are average for each day. This method id used in Example 2.1 to determine
volumes under hydrographs. To minimize error, I and Q values are averaged at noon each day.
Using t = 1 day, storage at the end od the first day, S1, S2, is S1 = So + (I1 – Q1) t
= 496 ac-ft
46 | P a g e
50,000
25,000
0 1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Time day
S2 = 0 + 496 + (2500) (24) (3600) (1/ 43560) ac-ft
= 5455 ac-ft
The procedure is shown completed in the following table and the storage curve in Fig. E4.1(b).
Time Storage
(Day) (Ac-ft)
1 496
2 5455
3 17,356
4 27,769
5 32,232
6 29,256
7 23,306
8 17,356
9 11,405
10 6,446
11 3,471
12 1,488
13 0
14 0
b) The maximum storage, as seen from the table in figure, is 32,232 ac-ft. This occurs at day 5
for this event, as seen from the equation.
dS =1 – Q
dt
Smax will occur when dS/dt equal zero. At this point, 1 = Q which occurs at day 5 on their
inflow-outflow hydrographs.
Muskingum Routing
Route the inflow hydrograph tabulated in the following table through a river reach for whigh x =
0.2 and k = 2 days. Use a routing period t= 1 day and assume that inflow equal outflow for the
first day.
47 | P a g e
1 4,000
2 7,000
3 11,000
4 17,000
5 22,000
6 27,000
7 30,000
8 28,000
9 25,000
10 23,000
11 20,000
12 17,000
13 14,000
14 11,000
15 8,000
16 5,000
17 4,000
18 4,000
19 4,000
20 4,000
SOLUTION
First we determine the coefficients C0 , C1 and C2 for the reach (Eq. 4.9):
Co = - Kx + 0.5 ∆t
D
C1 = Kx + 0.5 ∆t,
D
C2 = K – Kx – 0.5 ∆t
D
D = K – Kx + 0.5 ∆t
For K = 2 days ,∆t = 1 day , and x = 0.2
D = 2 – 2(0.2) + 0.5 (1)
= 2.1
Co = - (2)(0.2) + (0.5)(1)
(2.1)
= 0.0476,
C1 = (2)(0.2) + (0.5)(1)
(2.1)
= 0.4286,
C2 = 2 –(2)(0.2) – (0.5)(1)
(2.1)
= 0.5238,
We may check our computations by seeing if the coefficients sum to 1;
48 | P a g e
(0.0476) + (0.5238) = 1.0000
We substitute these values into Eq. (4.6) to obtain
02 = (0.0476)12 + (0.4286)11 + (0.5238)01
For 1 = 1 day.
01 = 11 = 4000 cfs.
For 1 = 2 days.
02 = (0.0476)(7000) + (0.4286)(4000) + (0.5238)(4000)
= 4143 cfs.
For t = 3 days.
03 = (0.0476)(11,000) + (0.4286)(7000) + (0.5238)(4143)
= 5694 cfs.
1 4,000 4,000
2 7,000 4,143
3 11,000 5,694
4 17,000 8,506
5 22,000 12,789
6 27,000 17,413
7 30,000 22,121
8 28,000 25,778
9 25,000 26,693
10 23,000 25,792
11 20,000 24,319
12 17,000 22,120
13 14,000 19,539
14 11,000 16,758
15 8,000 13,973
16 5,000 10,934
17 4,000 8,061
18 4,000 6,127
19 4,000 5,114
20 4,000 4,583
The values listed in the table for inflow, outflow and storage were measured for a particular
reach of a river. Determine the coefficients K and x for use in the Muskingum routing equations
for this reach.
49 | P a g e
SOLUTION
Avg. Avg.
TIME INFLOW OUTFLOW STORAGE
(Days) (cfs) (cfs) (cfs – days)
1 59 42 17
2 93 70 40
3 129 76 94
4 205 142 157
5 210 183 184
6 234 185 233
7 325 213 345
8 554 293 606
9 627 397 836
10 526 487 875
11 432 533 774
12 400 487 687
13 388 446 629
14 270 400 499
15 162 360 301
16 124 230 195
17 102 140 157
18 81 115 123
19 60 93 90
20 51 71 70
50 | P a g e
0 0 0
0 500 1000 0 500 1000 0 500 1000
for a natural stream. Therefore, we assume that x must lie between 0.1 and 0.3
using the values listed in the following table.
(xI + (I – x) Q) (cfs)
STORAGE __________________________________
(cfs – days) x = 0.1 x = 0.2 x = 0.3
17 43 45 47
40 72 74 77
94 81 86 92
157 148 155 161
184 186 188 191
233 190 195 200
345 224 235 247
606 319 345 371
836 420 443 466
875 491 495 499
774 523 513 503
687 478 470 461
629 440 434 429
499 387 374 361
301 340 320 301
195 219 209 198
157 136 132 1298
123 112 108 105
90 89 86 83
70 69 67 65
The design inflow hydrograph shown in Fig. E4.5(a), developed for a commercial area, is to be
routed through a reservoir. Assume that initially the reservoir is empty (S0= 0) and there is no
initial outflow (00 = 0). Using the depth , storage, and outflow relationships given in the table,
route the hydrograph through the reservoir. What is the maximum height reached in the reservoir
for this inflow? Use ∆t = 10 min.
0 0 0
1.0 1.0 15
2.0 2.0 32
3.0 3.0 55
51 | P a g e
4.0 4.0 90
5.0 5.0 125
6.0 6.0 158
7.0 7.5 185
8.0 10.5 210
9.0 12.0 230
10.0 13.5 250
11.0 20.0 270
12.0 22.0 290
SOLUTION
First, we develop a storage indication curve for the reservoir. This is a plot of (2S/ ∆t) + Q vs. Q.
For instance, at Q = 90 cfs, S = 4.0 as-ft and
Graphical and tabulated results for the storage indication curve are given and the following
table.
Q 2S/∆t + Q
(cfs) (cfs)
0 0
15 160
32 322
55 491
90 671
125 851
158 1,029
185 1,274
210 1,735
230 1,972
250 2,210
270 3,174
290 3,484
Governing Equations
52 | P a g e
1. Water density is constant;
2. Stream length affected by the flood wave is many times greater than the depth
of flow;
3. Flow is essentially one-dimensional.
X2
∫ X1 [A(x,t2) - A(x,t1)]dx = ∫ t2t1 [Q(x1,t) + I (t) - Q(x2,t)]dt
(all other forms of the shallow-water equation are derived from eq.10-1 and eq.10-2)
53 | P a g e
4. small channel slope,
5. uniform velocity distribution; and
6. Friction losses in unsteady flow which can be approximated by the losses in steady
uniform flow.
Numerical Techniques
Numerical scheme – the assumptions and the numerical methods used to define
the discrete equation.
Type of scheme:
1. Consistent – in the limit, the discrete equations become the continuous
equations as time and distance steps approach zero.
2. Convergent – the solution of the discrete equations approaches the solution of
the continuous equations as the time distance steps approach zero.
3. Conservative – it mimics the conservation properties of the governing
equations.
4. Dissipative – the attenuation of a wave in the discrete solution is greater then
the attenuation of a wave of similar length in the continuous solution.
5. Non dissipative – it shows no attenuation.
Boundary conditions must be specified to permit a solution at the boundary points. With
supercritical flow, velocity exceeds celerity and the trajectories have slopes of the same sign. The
interval of dependence of the downstream point is wholly within the solution domain, and no
boundary condition is needed. If one is specified, the solution will be unstable. Conversely, two
boundary condition must be supplied at the upstream boundary where the interval of dependence
falls outside the solution domain.
54 | P a g e
Explicit scheme – permits solution of the equations node by node using information within one
or two distance steps from the unknown node.
- one for which the order of computation of the unknown at the nodes may be
arbitrary.
∆t ≤ ∆x/u
Where:
u - the wave velocity
u∆t/∆x - Courant number
Courant condition- it requires that the time step be less than the time required for a small
amount disturbance to transverse ∆x.
- does not apply to implicit schemes but the time step may be limited by
stability.
Diffusing or Lax scheme – not consistent with the governing equation since the limit of the
discrete equations contains terms dependent on ∆t and ∆x.
- useful in representing flows containing an abrupt water.
Preissman weighted four-point scheme – an implicit scheme widely used for various forms.
Kinematic Routing
- Frequently used as the overland flow and stream flow routing component of
catchments models.
- Major forces affecting unsteady flow are pressure, gravity and friction.
55 | P a g e
- the kinematic flow approximation results if all factors other than friction and
gravity are ignored in the motion Equation
So =Sf = Q2/K2
Zero-Inertia Routing
- A less radical simplification of the complete equations results if only the inertial
terms are neglected in the momentum equation.
∂y/∂x = So - Sf
- Approximation has been applied to border irrigation
applications and routing in streams
56 | P a g e