HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING .

Hydrographic surveying is the processed employed in gathering information

concerning any body of water and its adjacent land areas.

PURPOSE:
 Hydrographic maps and Nautical charts
 Flood control, water supply, and Hydro- electric power development, Irrigations
 Elevations for design of Bridges, Drainages, Sewages, Culverts
 Volume of impound water
 Tidal datum
 Hazards such as submerged obstruction, sunken vessels, sand bars, rocks, shoals,
coral reefs.

HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING IN RELATION WITH HYDRAULICS

Hydraulics is a branch of science and engineering focusing on the properties of

water and other fluids and analyze as a moving fluids. Also known as Dynamics of Fluids.

Discharge (Q) known as volumetric flow rate, thus

Discharge (Q) = volume time (m3 sec)

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 MEASUREMENT OF STREAM DISCHARGE.

Measurements of stream discharge are usually made in connection with design of

water supply systems, flood protection works, hydroelectric power development,
irrigation systems, and fish farming structures. In the construction of a bridge, stream
discharge data is also needed in order to position the structure safely above flood
levels. It is also important to determine maximum discharge of a stream when
estimating size of culverts and waterway areas needed under some structures.

The principal information sought in a discharge measurement is the volume of water

flowing past a measuring section of a stream in a given period of time. The discharge of
streams, ditches, flumes, canals, and other waterways is expressed in cubic meters per
second (cu.m./sec). Discharge measurements are made on several occasions at times
of low, average, and flood stages. A single discharge figure is seldom useful. In the
analysis of an engineering problem a discharge measurement only becomes effective
after it is combined with several other measurements made at the same section at
various other stages. Accurate knowledge of stream flow can only be obtained if
regular observations are made, and these observations often extend over a period of
years.

METHODS OF DETERMINING STREAM DISCHARGE.

A. VELOCITY-AREA METHOD

The velocity-area method of measuring discharge is commonly employed in channels

and rivers. It consists essentially of making observations of velocity at selected depths
on several verticals or subsections along a line transverse to the direction of flow. The
result is quite accurate since the cross-section of the entire flowing body of water is
divided into several smaller subsections. The velocity at each subsection is determined
separately and multiplied by its area, and the sum of these products gives the total
discharge of the whole cross-section.

The current meter is used in the velocity measurements. The usual procedure involves
making the sounding along a vertical and observing the velocity by the two-point
method. The process is repeated at the other verticals that divide the stream’s cross-
section into a series of measuring subsections. The selected size of each subsection
depends upon the irregularity of the stream bed and the distribution of flow through the
cross-section. The total discharge (Q) is computed from the field observations by a
summation of the partial dischrages (q1, q2, q3, and etc.) determined for each
subsection. In this method of determining discharge, unless the sides of the channels
are vertical, it is assumed that the partial discharge in the two small end zones (near the
left and right water edges) are equal to zero. There is actually a small amount of
discharge in th two end zones, but if the verticals in these zones are taken fairly close to
the water’s edge, n significant error will be introduced in the computation of total
discharge.

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 B. SLOPE-AREA METHOD

The slope-area method of determining discharge is used primarily for obtaining the
peak flow of a stream after the stage has receded. A straight stretch of river of uniform
slope and cross-section is required. The fall and the distance between the points at
which it is measured should be sufficiently great that the inclination can be determined
without serious error. The survey work involved includes the determination of areas of
cross-sections at each end of the reach and the slope of the water surface in the
selected reach during the peak stage. It will also call for the selection of a coefficient of
roughness based on the physical characteristics of the channel.

The results obtained by this method are only approximate and are inferior in precision to
those in which the velocity is actually observed. The limitations of the method lie in the
difficulty of selecting a correct value of the roughness coefficient (n) and in measuring
flat slopes with precision. However, this method is useful in making tough estimates of
flood discharge in streams and open channels.

METHODS OF DETERMINING THE VELOCITY of APPROACH (V)

Chezy formula for open channels with Kutter’s coefficient is generally used. The Chezy
formula is expressed as follows:
V = C √RS

Thus substituting to the Discharge equation,

Q = A (C√𝑹𝑺 )

Where:
Q = the discharge of the stream (cu.m./sec)
V = mean velocity of the stream (m/sec)
A = the mean cross-sectional area in the reach (sq.m.)
C = Kutter’s variable coefficient
R = the hydraulic mean depth, or hydraulic radius (m)
S = longitudinal slope of the water surface (m/m)

Kutter’s coefficient (C) is a variable coefficient whose value depends principally upon
the roughness of the bed and also upon the inclination, and the hydraulic mean depth.
In practice, the value of C is commonly derived tables or diagrams based upon the
formula of Kutter and Ganguillet which is expressed as follows:
𝟏 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟓
𝟐𝟑
C= 𝒏
𝒏
𝑺
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟓
𝟏 ( )(𝟐𝟑 )
√𝑹 𝑺

The roughness coefficient (n) in the above formula is a retardation factor that will
depend on the character and shape of the stream bed.

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 A straight and clean channel will have a low value of “n”, whereas, a rough and
irregular channel will have a high value. For example, the value of “n” varies from 0.020
for irrigation canals with a well trimmed bed in perfect condition to over 0.035 for canals
in very bad order with a lot of weeds and stones. For streams where the banks and
bottom are very smooth, n = 0.030 and when its banks and bed are especially rough,
n= 0.040. The selection of the “n” value for a stream calls for the exercise of personal
judgment and this comes primarily from experience. For those who do not as yet have
the necessary experience, a hydraulic handbook should be referred to when
estimating the value of the roughness coefficient.

The hydraulic radius (R) is determined by dividing the cross-sectional area of the stream
by the wetted perimeter or length of the bed under water. The wetted perimeter is the
actual length of the line in the water cross-section when the water and the ground are
in contact.

In the formulas of Chezy and Kutter, S is the longitudinal slope or inclination of the water
surface. It is determined by dividing the fall in a measured distance by the horizontal
distance. Both the fall and the length should be expressed in the same units. The slope is
measured by careful leveling and should be determined on each side of the stream
and at the center. Since the center slope is usually steeper than the sides, the average
slope is used. In shallow streams a graduate rod is held at about 30 m intervals along
the middle of the stream, and rod readings are taken from the shore with the level. The
observed elevations are plotted on paper and the mean slope is determined from the
plotted elevations. In large streams the slope of the stream bed is approximated by
measuring the slope of the stream’s surface.

CAPACITY OF LAKES ND RESERVOIRS

In the design of water supply systems, irrigation projects, structures for aquaculture
development, and hydroelectric power generating stations, it is necessary to determine
the volume of water which could be contained and generated by a supporting
reservoir or lake. The capacity of the body of water is always determined prior to any
constructions and subsequent filling. When the streams emptying into a reservoir or lake
is silt-laden, periodic resurveys are necessary to determine the remaining effective
capacity for water storage.

METHODS IN DETERMINING THE CAPACITY OF LAKES AND RESERVOIRS.

1. CROSS-SECTION METHOD

The cross-section method is commonly used when a moderate degree of precision is

required in determining the effective capacity of a body of water. It is well suited in the
survey of lakes and reservoirs with a uniformly defined cross-section and where a
reference base line could easily be established along the shore and parallel to the
center of the length of the body of water.

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 Where:
D = horizontal distance between cross sections (meters)
RL = range line established perpendicular to the base line.
A = area of a cross section which is determined by soundings (square meters)
v = volume of prismoid between any two sections (cubic meter)

In this method, the following steps are performed:

a) Lay out parallel ranges across the body of water at selected points. The range
lines should be established as nearly perpendicular as possible to the reference
base line. Take soundings at various points on each of these ranges. Where the
bottom of the lake or reservoir is fairly regular, the spacing of the soundings on
each range may be uniform. Sounding, however, may have to be taken as
nearly as possible at significant changes in the slope of the bottom. In shallow
areas soundings may be performed with the use of soundings rods and by
wading through the water. A sounding line released from a small boat is used in
deeper sections of the lake. When the length of a range line is significantly long,
the process of locating soundings by stretching a rope may no longer be
feasible. Other methods of locating soundings should be employed.

b) Determine the area of the cross-section on each of several parallel ranges from
the soundings and the horizontal distances between the soundings.

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 Where the distance between verticals is “I”, depth of a vertical is “d”, and the length of
a cross section is “L” which is measured from the right water edge (RWE) to the left
water edge (LWE). The whole section is subdivided into a series of triangles and
trapezoids.

For a typical cross section, the area of each partial section is determined as follows:
a1 = (1/2)(d1) I1
a2 = (1/2) (d1 + d2) I2
a3 = (1/2) (d2 + d3) I3
a4 = (1/2) (d3 + d4) I4
a5 = (1/2) (d4 + d5) I5
a6 = (1/2) (d5 + d6) I6
a7 = (1/2) (d6) I7

The total area of the range cross-section is then

A = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7

Note:
The same process of computation is performed in determining the areas of the
remaining cross sections.

a) Compute the volume of the prismoids between these sections. The volume of
water between successive ranges is determined by averaging the areas of the
two cross-sections and multiplying by the distance between ranges. The volume
of the prismoids between successive cross-sections are then computed as
follows:

vab = D1 ( ) (volume of water contained between ranges A and B)

vbc = D2 ( ) (volume of water contained between ranges B and C)
vcd = D3 ( ) (volume of water contained between ranges C and D)
vde = D4 ( ) (volume of water contained between ranges D and E)

The horizontal distance (D) between the cross-sections must be known or specified.
These distances are defined by the markers set up along the reference base line.

b) The volume (V) of the entire body of water can then be determined by adding
the partial volumes of the general of the general prismoids into which the body is
assumed to be divided by the cross sections or

V = vab + vbc + vcd + vde

2. CONTOUR METHOD
The elevation of the water surface is determined by leveling from a bench mark. On a
prepared map of the reservoir or lake, the subaqueous contour are then plotted from
the sounding elevations covering the area below the water surface. The area enclosed
by the water line and by each contour is determined by the use of a planimeter or, by

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 counting full and partial squares as enclosed by the contour when plotted on cross-
section paper. The average of the enclosed area at two consecutive contours
multiplied by the contour interval or vertical distance between them gives the volume
of water lying between the two contours. This is actually similar to computing the
volume of a prismoid. A summation of partial volumes between successive contours up
to the maximum water level gives the capacity of the lake or reservoir. The volume
between the bottom contour and the deepest part is usually small and may either be
estimated or neglected. The accuracy of the measurement will depend largely on the
manner by which soundings are taken, the plotting of the subaqueous contours, and
the determination of the areas enclosed by each contour.

The volume of water contained between consecutive contours is determined by using

the following formula:

𝑨𝒍 𝑨𝒉
v=h( )
𝟐

Where:
v = volume of the prismoid or volume between any two consecutive contours (cu.m.)
h = contour interval or vertical distance between two consecutive contours (m)
Al = area enclosed by the lower contour (sq.m.)
Ah = area enclosed by the higher contour (sq.m.)

The total volume of water contained in the reservoir or lake is the sum of the volumes of
the prismoids. In general the approximate volume can be computed by using the
formula.

𝑨𝒐 𝑨𝒉
V=h( + Ai + )
𝟐 𝟐

Where:
V = total volume (cu.m.)
h = contour interval (m)
Ao = area enclosed by boundary at water surface (sq.m.)
Ai = sum of areas enclosed by all intermediate contours considered (sq.m.)
An = area enclosed by contour at lowest level (sq.m.)

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS-

1. The right and left water edges of a stream are 3.0 and 32.0 m respectively from an
initial reference point. Verticals are located at distances 5.5, 8.5, 11.5, 14.5, 17.5,
20.5, 23.5, 26.5, and 29.5 m from the reference point. Depths of verticals are 0.6, 1.2,
1.4, 2.4, 2.6, 2.7, 2.5, 2.0, and 0.9 m. Mean velocities in the verticals are 0.2, 0.5, 0.7,
0.9, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 0.6, and 0.2 m/sec, respectively. Assuming that the discharge in the
end sections of the stream to be zero, determine the following:

a. Cross-sectional area of the stream (sq.m.)

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 b. Discharge of the stream (cu.m./sec)
c. Average velocity of flow of the stream (m/sec)

Where:
IRP = Initial reference point
LWE = left water edge
RWE = right water edge
d = Depth of vertical (m)
L = Distance of left water edge from initial reference point (m)
lo = Distance of right water edge from initial reference point (m)
v = Mean velocity in the vertical (m/sec)
q = Discharge in the section (cu.m./sec)

a) Determining the area of each section and the cross sectional area of the stream.
a1= (1/2)(2.5+3.0)(0.6)= 1.7 sq.m
a2= (1/2)(3.0+3.0)(1.2)= 3.6
a3= (1/2)(3.0+3.0)(1.4)= 4.2
a4= (1/2)(3.0+3.0)(2.4)= 7.2
a5= (1/2)(3.0+3.0)(2.6)= 7.8
a6= (1/2)(3.0+3.0)(2.7)= 8.1
a7= (1/2)(3.0+3.0)(2.5)= 7.5
a8= (1/2)(3.0+3.0)(2.0)= 6.0
a9= (1/2)(3.0+2.5)(0.9)= 2.5

Atotal= 48. 6 sq.m

b) Determining the partial discharge in each section and the total discharge of the
stream.
q1= 1.7(0.2)= 0.3 cu.m/sec q6= 8.1(1.0)= 8.1
q2= 3.6(0.5)= 1.8 q7= 7.5(1.1)= 8.3
q3= 4.2(0.7)= 2.9 q8= 6.0(0.6)= 3.6
q4= 7.2(0.9)= 6.5 q9= 2.5(0.2)= 0.5

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 q5= 7.8(0.9)= 7.0

Qtotal= 39.0 cu.m/sec

c) Determining the average velocity of the stream

V(ave)= 39.0/48.6 = 0.8 m/sec

2. Given the following data for a stream of uniform flow:

A = 6.97 sq.m. (average stream cross section)

P = 9.76 m (wetted perimeter)
S = 0.007 (slope of stream bed)
n = 0.025 (roughness coefficient)

Assuming a constant stream bed slope and little variation in the cross section and
condition of the bed, determine the following:

a) Hydraulic radius
b) Average velocity of the stream using Manning’s coefficient, and the
corresponding discharge.
c) Average velocity of the stream using Kutter’s coefficient, and the corresponding
discharge.

Solutions:

a) R= 6.97/9.76
R= 0.714 m

b) C= (0.714)1/6/ 0.025
C= 37.816

V=(37.816) (0.714)(0.007)
V= 2.67 m/sec

Q= 6.97(2.67)
Q= 18.61 cu.m/sec

.
. .
c) C= . .
( )( )
√ . .
C= 37.48
V= (37.48) (0.714)(0.007)
V= 2.65 m/sec

Q= 6.97(2.65)
Q= 18.47 cu.m/sec

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 3. In the accompanying plot the boundary of the water surface of a reservoir is shown
by irregular outline ABCDEFGH. Soundings were taken on parallel ranges BH, CG,
and DF for the purpose of determining the volume of water in the reservoir. The
numbers on the plot show the horizontal distances (m) which were measured for
locating the ranges and the soundings, and also the depth (m) which were
measured where soundings were taken. Calculate the following:
a. Areas (sq.m.) of the cross-sections of ranges BH, CG, and DF. Assume that the
cross-sectional areas of ranges A and E are negligible or nearly zero.
b. Volume (cu.m.) of water between ranges.
c. Total volume (cu.m.) of water contained in the reservoir.

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 4. The area bounded by the water line of a lake and the contours 1,2,3,4 and 5 are as
follows:
A1= 10250sq.m
A2= 8350sq.m
A3= 7750sq.m
A4= 6900sq.m
A5= 5250sq.m
If the contour interval is 2m, calculate the volume of water in the lake in cu.m using
the End- Area Method.

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