ENCULTURATION AND SOCIALIZATION

ENCULTURATION- the process by which an individual learns the traditional content of a culture.
- A process by which we learn about our culture. We learn about behaviors, valuesw, language and
morals which are acceptable in our society.
Example. You learned your values of being respectful, kind and obedient from your parents, you learned how to dress
from your friends

Socialization- refer to the process by which an individual is oriented and taught by his/her society`s norms. These norms
include beliefs, attitudes, practices, and behaviors.
- Interacting with friends and family, being told to obey rules, being rewarded for doing chores, taught
to behave in public places are examples of socialization.
IDENTITY FORMATION- the human personality. Combining what you have learned through enculturation and socialization
enables you to create your personal identity. This is a process in which humans develop a clear and unique view of
themselves and of their identity. Individuation is differentiation from the general social template meaning to say it is a
process of forming a stable personality.
 SOCIAL IDENTITY- Is a persons notion of who he or she is in the society. Who a person is in terms of the groups to
which he/she belong.
TWO PRIMARY TYPES OF IDENTITY
1. PRIMARY IDENTIY- consists of the roles and statutes that an individual learns as a child. Ex. Sex,age, ethnicity
2. SECONDARY IDENTITY– as the child gets enculturated and socialized he/she participates in the construction of
his/her secondary identity. Ex. Occupation, educational background, economic status, gender.
MODEL OF CONSCIOUSNESS- the upper I is the experiential life and identity, your existence
- The lower I is the cultural life and identity
- The upper ME is the behavioral life and identity
- Lower ME is the social life
2 THEORIES OF IDENTITY
A. Role learning theory- ex. Gender role, occupational role, family role.
B. Theory on symbolic interactionism- this is through social interactions performed in a society.
4 CATEGORIES OF NORMS
1. FOLKWAYS- includes the variety of actions constitute acceptable or expected behavior drawn from customs and
conventions. Ex.the practice of raising one`s hand to take turns speaking in a group. Concept of appropriate
dress.
2. MORES- are the norms related to moral convention these include the behaviors that are comsidered acceptable in
relation to religious practices. Ex. Use of artificial contraceptive, such as condoms and pills. Sa religious doctrine
kasi is bawal. A family should live together in one house.
3. TABOOS- behaviors that are absolutely forbidden in a specific culture. Ex. Cannibalism- eating of human flesh.
Incest- sexual intercourse between persons so closely related to each other.
4. LAWS- consist if the rules and regulations that are implemented by the state

SOCIAL CONTROL
SANCTIONS- are powerful in leading an individual to conform to social norms.
FOUR CATEGORIES OF SANCTIONS
A. FORMAL SANCTIONS- these are the rewards or forms of punishments that are formally awarded by an
institution such as government, a council, or an establishment
B. INFORMAL SANCTIONS- rewards and forms of punishments that are spontaneously given by an individual or a
group of people as a response to a behavior that was either accepted or disapproved.
C. POSITIVE SANCTIONS- actions and statements that reward a particular behavior, which reinforce its
repetition.
(review Table 6.1 page 75)

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
THREE TYPES OF HUMAN SOCIAL GROUPINGS
1. IN-GROUP- a social group in which an individual directly affiliates and expresses loyalty to.
Jejemon- this group is popular for their distinguishable dress code and language.
2. OUT-GROUP – negative attributes are usually associated with individuals who are part of this group.
3. REFERENCE GROUP- It is used by an individual as a standard to measure his or her actions.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROUPS
A. PRIMARY GROUPS- are direct sources of an individual`s social skills and knowledge.
Ex. Family, friends, peers, classmates
B. SECONDARY GROUPS- are more formal in context as the relationships and interactions in them are limited to a
particular role that an individual plays within the group. Relationships that are temporary.
Ex. Client and agent, tenant and landlord
SMALL GROUP- This type of interaction often forms exclusivity, as experiences and ideas are strictly shared within the
context of the small group
  A family is an example os mall group, and a village or barangay is an example of a large group.

KINSHIP
KINSHIP- refers to the “web of social relationships” that humans form as part of a family, which is the smallest unit of the
society.

FAMILY – social and economic unit that consists of one or more parents and their children. (Ferraro and Andreatta)

1. A family is a socioeconomic unit. – What makes a group of individuals a family is their dependency on one another
with regard to their social and economic activities.
2. A family can have one or more parents. – in the society that you grow up in, a family usually consists of two
parents- a father and a mother.
3. A family can have parents who are not married. Cohabitating couples or domestic partners.
4. A family can have parents with the same gender. – Some societies allow for the marriage of individuals with the
same sex.
5. A family should have at least one child. – One of the most crucial elements of a family is the existence of children

TWO PRIMARY PURPOSES OF A FAMILY

1. To orient the individual of the norms of the society

2. To provide physical support as the individual matures.

Two Types of Families

1. Family of Orientation
2. Family of Procreation
 KINSHIP BY BLOOD- This type of kinship links individuals based on their genetic relations.
- This is referred to as descent or the socially accepted connection between an ancestor and
its succeeding generation

DESCENT RULES

1. Unilineal Descent – this allows an individual to be affiliated to the descent of one sex group only- either male or
female.
a. Matrilineal Descent- leads an individual to trace kinship relations through the female`s line.
b. Patrilineal Descent – an individual traces his or her kinship through the male`s line.
2. Bilateral Descent – allows an individual to trace kinship ties on both sides of the family.
- An individual can recognize both his or her parent`s relatives as his or her own relatives.
 Kindred – this type of group is often united by a common relative, it risks of dissolution when connections to the
common relative is lost.

KINSHIP BY MARRIAGE

MARRIAGE is defined as the “socially or ritually recognized union or legal contract between spouses that establishes rights
and obligations between them, between them and their children, between them and their in-laws”

 It is believed that all societies have a form of marriage that makes it a cultural universal.

TYPES OF FAMILIES BASED ON MARRIAGE SYSTEMS

1. Patrifocal and Matrifocal – this type of family is focused on one parent. A father or a mother.
- Patriarchal - rule of the father
- Matriarchal- rule of the mother
2. Monogamous – this type of family consists of a single couple and their child or children. (nuclear family)
3. Polygamous – this type of family consists of several parents and their children.
 Two Types of Polygamy
a. Polyandry – marriage pattern wherein a woman is allowed to marry several men.
b. Polygyny – a marriage practice that allows a man to marry several women.

EXTENDED FAMILY- this type of family has several married couples and their children living in one household. Filipinos and
other Asian societies are known to practice extended family arrangements as a form of securing care for the elderly
members of the family.

RECONSTITUTED FAMILY – Consists of spouses and children whom the spouses may have had prior to their marriage or
union.
 - In this type of family, the current spouses were previously married and had children.
- Upon dissolution of their previous marriages, these individuals remarried and created a
new family by bringing in their children from their past

POSTMARITAL RESIDENCY RULES

Every society has its own rules and traditions on post-marital residency.

SEVEN MAJOR RESIDENCY PATTERNS

1. PATRILOCAL RESIDENCE- upon marriage, the woman is expected to transfer to the residence of her husband`s
father. Her children will be raised by her husband`s family.
2. MATRILOCAL RESIDENCE- upon marriage, the man is expected to take residence with his wife`s mother`s area,
where they are expected to raise their children.
3. NEOLOCAL RESIDENCE- this is an arrangement that requires both spouses to leave their households and create
their own at times even in a different locality.
4. AVUNCOLOCAL RESIDENCE- this is a complex residency pattern as it requires two residence transfers.
5. NATALOCAL RESIDENCE- this arrangement allows both spouses to remain with their own households after
marriage.
6. MATRIFOCAL RESIDENCE- this type of residency rules arises when the father is economically and physically unable
to provide support for the family, thereby ascribing the role of sole provider and caregiver to the woman.
7. AMBILOCAL RESIDENCE- this type of residence pattern allows the couple to choose to live either with the wife`s
mother`s area or the husband`s father`s area.
8. TRANSNATIONAL FAMILIES- families whose members reside separately across territories.
POLITICAL AND LEADERSHIP STRUCTURES
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION- is any entity that is participating in a political process.

FOUR TYPES OF SOCIOPOLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS

1. BANDS- is at least complex form of political organization, as it has neither a rigid form of governance nor a
structured form of leadership.
-typically consists of 20-50 individuals who are usually related to one another by virtue of kinship
-the eldest member is acting as a facilitator
2. TRIBE- a political organization that consists of segmentary lineages.
- the leaders that are chosen in this type of organization are individuals who are believed to possess special
skills or aptitudes that relate to the economic activity.
3. CHIEFDOMS- more complex than a tribe, as this political organization consists of a few local communities who
subscribe to the power and rule of a leader who has absolute power on them.
4. STATES AND NATION-
*state- politically organized body of people usually occupying a definite territory
- it uses absolute power in directing the path of society
- To attain societal goals and objectives, a state uses complete political coerciveness, which may
come in the form of armed personnel, strict laws, and rigid government policies.
*nation – a large of people united by common descent, history, culture, or language, in habiting a
particular territory or country.
Two types of rights that are enjoyed by individuals as members of state:
1. Natural Rights- are those that are enjoyed by individuals, regardless of citizenship
-Examples; right to life, right to liberty or freedom, right to property.
2. Legal Rights- those that are awarded to an individual by the state as part of its culture, traditions, and norms.
-Examples; right to vote, right to privacy, right to join formal organizations.

ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION
- Due to various and numerous technological improvements, the whole economic processes have also been
developed.

Hunting Farming Manufacturing Service Casino

ECONOMIC PROCESSES
RECIPROCITY – This economic process entails the exchange of commodities between parties, often on an individual
basis.
- There are no goods and services lost because it is a circular process wherein you just receive and return the favor.
SAHLIN`S TYPES OF RECIPROCITY

TYPE CHARACTERIZATION EXAMPLE

Generalized reciprocity Gift giving without any Giving birthday presents to a
expectation of immediate friend
return
Balanced reciprocity Expecting immediate return Selling goods and services in the
from any given favor. The value market
of the commodities is expected
to be equal
Negative reciprocity The exchange tends to favor A merchant selling fake
one party over the other, as the commodities at prices of the
value of the goods for exchange original and genuine items.
is unequal
TRANSFERS – THIS TYPE of economic process allows for the redistribution of resources within an economic system.- When
resources from one individual or organization are given to another with no expectation of return.

REDISTRIBUTION- economic redistribution occurs when the resources of one, several individuals, or groups are collected
and distributed proportionally or equally to participating members.
MARKET TRANSACTIONS- * Market is referred to as the exchange of goods and services that involves buying and selling
processed.
- However, it is not a simple process of exchanging materials, goods, and services.
- It involves several elements and transactions.
- After the production of goods and services, everything is brought to the market for the purpose of selling.
MARKET AND STATE – market involves all the human actions associated with economic aspects. On the other hand, the
state serves as the institution that protects and maintains economic balance through its economic
laws and policies.

TYPE OF ECONOMIC SUBSISTENCE

1. FORAGING – during the ancient times, people lived in the simplest way by being highly dependent on their
environment.
- Hunting for animals and gathering wild plants were their most common activities.

TYPES OF FORAGING PATTERNS

TYPE OF FORAGING CHARACTERISTICS AND DESCRIPTION

Pedestrian Hunting and gathering on foot was the
simplest way of living and survival.
Foragers mostly occupied riversides,
valleys, and grass lands. A simple
digging stick served as the tool of early
foragers.
Equestrian Foragers hunted large mammals while
on horseback, which served as their
mode of transportation. Equestrians
were larger and more mobile. This
society was dominated by men.
Aquatic Foragers hunted aquatic animals such
as fish, mollusks, and other marine
animals.
PASTORAL – Pastoralism is a subsistence pattern that is primarily focused on “ tending herds of large animals”

Various kinds of animals available in their environment became the biggest source of their survival.

TWO CLASSIFICATIONS OF PASTORALISM

1. PASTORAL NOMADS – they transfer from one place to another in search of fooad and resources that are not just
limited for their consumption alone but also for the consumption of their animals.
2. TRANSHUMANCE PASTORALISTS – they are not dependent on their animals for food. They are into planting and
vegetation, which serves as their foord.
- This pastoralists are also into trading their animals in exchange for grain or food from the market.

HORTICULTURE – a combination of small- scale farming and domesticating animals for the purpose of food and prestige.

- They participate in small surplus or selling in exchange of the goods they cannot produce.
- Swidden farming is one key example of this pattern.
AGRICULTURE- farming is one of the major sources of living and income in early societies.
- Most families are farmers who work together in agricultural lands.

EDUCATION
- the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment,
and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life.
- the act or process of imparting or acquiring particular knowledge or skills, as for a profession.
- a degree, level, or kind of schooling:
Formal education  is the term used when a student learns inside the classroom. A student follows a curriculum and is being
graded on his or her performance.
Nonformal Education (NFE) is any organized educational activity that takes place outside the formal
educational system. Usually it is flexible, learner-centered, contextualized and uses a participatory approach.
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN THE SOCIETY
Productive Citizenry- being a productive citizen requires critical thinking. One must have the ability to understand his or
her duties and be able to respond to them by making decisions.
Self-Actualization- Education develop one`s sense of self. As a huge part of the discovery process of oneself, education
encourages having the vision to become self-actualized

PRIMARY EDUCATION AS A HUMAN RIGHTS

- Primary education is essential to the early stages of human life. Humans need education to enable them to adapt to
the dictates of their society.
Education allows individuals to exercise all their rights
Being illiterate means not being able to:
o find directions to take a bus
o understand the label on a medication bottle
o help your child with homework
o read programs of political candidates and cast an informed vote.
*A basic education is important to ensure that all individuals are aware of their rights. Without an education it is less
likely to get a good-paying job and decent housing, participate in the democratic process or value education for future
generations. There is evidence that educated citizens care more about the environment, are more tolerant of others who
are not like them, and are more likely to strive for gender equality.

HEALTH
- The concept of health is not universal, as it is constrained by cultural- specific understanding of the body.

THEORIES ON SOCIAL HEALTH

- Social health is one of the most contested territories in public policy as questions on equality, quality, and
availability of health care remain submerged in international and local political dialogues among stakeholders.
 - The concept of being well, or being healthy, varies among groups of people, as each group subscribes to its own
versions of explanations that aim to answer for health-related circumstances.

CULTURE-SPECIFIC SYNDROME AND ILLNESSES

- Pwera usog..--- this is a catch phrase often heard from elderly Filipinos when they compliment an infant for its
weight and size. This is at times accompanied by the marking of a cross on the foot of the child using a saliva-
coated fingertip. Is there a scientific truth to this?

- Science provides a universal understanding of diseases. However, despite the breadth of scientific discoveries on
diseases and their cures, some scientific truths on diseases remain obscured by local interpretations of them.

SYSTEM OF DIAGNOSIS, PREVENTION, AND HEALING

1. TRADITIONAL MEDICINE – this includes not only morality but also the spititual perspectives that are held true by
its members.
- Crucial in the practice of traditional medicine is the belief that health conditions are interrelated to human and
divine interactions.

SIX TYPES OF TRADITIONAL HEALERS BASED ON THE SCOPE OF THEIR HEALING FUNCTIONS

A. SHAMANS – cures the sick using special powers that he has received during state of trance.
B. MAGIC-BASED HEALERS – uses magic to counter the illness experienced vy an individual who is believed to have
such condition due to black magic and curses.
C. FORUNE TELLERS- some individuals believe that their disease has some underlying spiritual explanation that, if
learned, can be addressed and promote healing.
D. TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANTS –these healers do not only assist expecting mothers in their process of giving
birth, they also perform traditional massages on individuals who are complaining of physical pain that may also
be rooted in psychological issues.
E. TRANCE-BASED HEALERS- these healers provide relief for sickness and pain through meditation and trance-based
activities.
F. TRADITIONAL MEDICINE EXPERTS – these healers closely resemble the Western concept of healers, such that the
TMEs ask the sick individual of the symptoms that he/she is experiencing.

2. WESTERN MEDICINE – the primary characteristic of Western medicine is its reliance on science as the sole
source of knowledge and information for health-related issues.
- The science-based approaches of this system allow for strict and calculated approaches to diseases.
- Laboratory tests are made to confirm the symptoms narrated by the sick.
- In most cases, it is highly depersonalized due to the expected practice of professionalism among practitioners.
- This type of healing system is most commonly practiced in urban societies.
3. ALTERNATIVE HEALING SYSTEM – this is also known as complimentary alternative medicine (CAM).
- Unlike traditional medicine that competes with Western medicine, CAM recognizes the latter`s importance and
efficiency by accepting its prescriptions and techniques while creating alternative forms of healing.
- One of the most accepted forms of CAM is acupuncture, which is believed to release negative energies through
the cleansing of pressure points.
- Similar to traditional healing, CAM is often without concrete scientific basis, but it has been practiced through time
by its followers.

HEALTH AS HUMAN RIGHTS

- WHO (2013) has defined the “ right to health” as the fundamental right of every human to be able to live healthy
through equal “ access to timely, acceptable, and affordable health care of appropriate quality”
- An individual right to health is not only focused on access to health care but is also embedded with underlying
determinants (UDs) such as water, sanitation, and food.
- Such inclusiveness of the definition presents the argument that without proper and acceptable access to the UD,
an individual`s health will be vulnerable to diseases.

- Maam Anabelle 