Positive moment

Bending moment causing “sagging”, i.e. moment causing tension at the bottom of a beam

Shear Connector
A mechanical device producing interaction between steel and concrete.

Buckling Resistance
Limit of Force or Moment that a member can withstand without buckling.

Compact Cross-Section
A cross-section that can develop its plastic moment capacity , but in which local buckling prevents
rotation at constant moment.

Design Strength
The nominal yield strength of the material used in design , obtained by appling partial factors to the
specified minimum yield strength and tensile strength of the material.

Effective Length.
For a beam. Length between adjacent restraints against lateral-torsional buckling multiplied by a factor
that allows for the effect of the actual restraint conditions compared to a simple beam with torsional end
restrained.
For a compression member . Length between adjacent restraints against buckling about a given axis
multiplied by a factor that allows for the effect of the actual restraint conditions compared to pinned ends

Elastic Analysis
Structural analysis that assumes no redistribution of moments in a continuous member or frame due to
plastic hinge rotation.

Lateral Restraint
For a beam. Restraint that prevents lateral movement of the compression flange.
For a compression member ,Restraint that prevenst lateral movement of the member in a given plane.

Plastic Analysis
Structural analysis that allows for redistribution of moments in a continuous member or frame due to
plastic hinge rotation.

Plastic cross section

A cross section that can develop a plastic hinge with sufficient rotation capacity to allow redistribution of
bending moments within a continuous member or frame.

Plastic Load Factor

The ratio by which each of the factored loads would have to be increased to produce a plastic hinge
mechanism.

Plastic Moment
Moment capacity allowing for redistribution of stress within a cross-section.

Semi-Compact section
A cross section that can develop its elastic capacity in compression or bending , but in which local
buckling prevents development of its plastic moment capacity.
In the structural design process, “analysis” usually means the determination of
the stress resultants, which the individual structural members must be capable to resist.
“Design” can mean the development of the structural layout, or arrangement of members, but it usually
means the selection of sizes of members to resist the imposed forces and bending moments. Three
methods of analysis are available, i.e. elastic analysis, plastic analysis and advanced analysis.

Limit state design is a design method in which the performance of a structure is checked against various
limiting conditions at appropriate load levels.

The limiting conditions to be checked in structural steel design are ultimate limit state and serviceability
limit state.Limit state theory includes principles from the elastic and plastic theories and incorporates
other relevant factors to give as realistic a basis for design as possible.

Limit state design of beams

In the working stress or allowable stress method of design, the emphasis is on limiting a
particular stress in a component to a fraction of the specified strength of the material of the
component. The magnitude of the factor for a structural action depends upon the degree of
safety required. Further, elastic behaviour of the material is assumed. The main objection to the
permissible stress method is that the stress safety factor relating the permissible stress to the
strength of the material is not usually the same as the ratio of the strength to the design load.
Thus it does not give the degree of safety based on collapse load.

In the limit state method, both collapse condition and serviceability condition are considered. In
this method, the structure has to be designed to withstand safely all loads and deformations
likely to occur on it throughout its life. Designs should ensure that the structure does not become
unfit for the use for which it is required. The state at which the unfitness occurs is called a limit
state. Special features of limit state design method are:

• It is possible to take into account a number of limit states depending upon the particular
instance
• This method is more general in comparison to the working stress method. In this method,
different safety factors can be applied to different limit states, which is more rational than
applying one common factor (load factor) as in the plastic designmethod.

• This concept of design is appropriate for the design of structures since any new knowledge of
the structural behaviour, loading and materials can be readily incorporated.
Design of Steel Structures Indian Institute of Technology Madras
The limit state design method is essentially based on the concept of probability. Its basic feature
is to consider the possibility and probability of the collapse load. In this respect, it is necessary to
consider the possibility of reduced strength and increased load.
AISC Structural Steel connections.
1. All hot-rolled W-shapes with Fy 50 ksi are classified as flexural compact shapes?

False—A handful of W-shapes have flexural non-compact flanges for Fy = 50 ksi, but all have flexural
compact webs. Section F3 of the 2005 Specification includes a user note indicating ten W-shapes (and
one M-shape) with flexural non-compact flanges at Fy = 50 ksi. One of those W-shapes and the one M-
shape also have flexural non-compact flanges at Fy = 36 ksi. As indicated in last month’s Steel Quiz, all
elements of the section must be flexurally compact for the section to be considered compact to facilitate
plastic yielding.

2. What is the nominal flexural strength of a doubly-symmetric I-shaped compact flexural member bent
about the major axis, when Lb<Lp? What is the location and orientation of the line representing this
capacity on the “chart”?

The nominal flexural strength of a doubly-symmetric I-shaped compact flexural member bent about the
major axis, when Lb < Lp is that value obtained according to the limit state of yielding (plastic moment) as
stipulated in Equation (F2-1) of the 2005 Specification. Mn = Mp = FyZx. The limit state of lateral-torsional
buckling does not apply in this case. This nominal flexural strength in the region where Mn = Mp (plastic
capacity of the section), is represented
by a straight line at level Mp that extends from the ordinate line (Lb = 0) horizontally and parallel to the
abscissa
line (Mn = 0) to Lp (limiting laterally unbraced length for the limit state of yielding).

3. What is the nominal flexural strength of a doubly-symmetric Ishaped compact flexural member bent
about the major axis, when Lp < Lb < Lr? What is the location and orientation of the line representing
this capacity on the “chart”?

The nominal flexural strength of a doubly-symmetric I-shaped compact flexural member bent about the
major axis, when Lp < Lb < Lr is the lower value obtained according to the limit states of yielding (plastic
moment) and inelastic lateral-torsional buckling. This is the lower of Equat ions (F2-1) or (F2-2) of the
2005 Specification. This nominal
flexural strength in the region is represented by a straight line of diminishing capacity, proportional to
unbraced
length, and extending between Lp and Lr on the abscissa. The nominal flexural strength cannot exceed
the smaller of the capacities determined by (F2-1) or (F2-2), therefore the ordinate cannot be greater than
the horizontal line representing Mp or the sloping line representing (F2-2).The astute observer will
recognize that Equation F2-2 is simply a straight-line interpolation between Mp, Lp and Mr, Lr.

4. What is the nominal flexural strength of a doubly-symmetric I-shaped compact member bent about the
major axis when Lb > Lr? What is the location and orientation of the line representing the capacity on
the“chart”?

The nominal flexural strength of a doubly-symmetric I-shaped compact flexural member bent about the
major axis, when Lb > Lr is the lower value obtained according to the limit states of yielding (plastic
moment) and elastic lateral-torsional buckling. This is the lower of Equations (F2-1) or (F2-3) of the 2005
Specification. The nominal flexural
strength in the region is represented by a concave curve starting at Lr that diminishes in a decreasing
manner as
the unbraced length Lb increases.

5. What is the relationship between the available flexural strength and the nominal flexural strength of a
structural
member?

For LRFD, the available flexural strength is obtained by multiplying the nominal flexural strength Mn by a
resistance factor to result in a design flexural strength Mn. For ASD, the available flexural strength
is obtained by dividing Mn by a safety factor Ωto result in an allowable flexural strength Mn/Ω.
6. What is the effect of using a noncompact section as a flexural member

A flexurally noncompact section will be subjected to local buckling after initial yielding and the inability
to achieve a fully plastic section. Thus, the nominal flexural strength Mn cannot reach Mp=FyZx. Mn for
doubly symmetric I-shaped members with compact webs and noncompact or slender flanges is the lower
value obtained according to the limit states of lateral-torsional buckling (F2-2) or (F2-3) based on the
unbraced length,
and compression flange local buckling (F3-1) for sections with non-compact flanges ( p ≤rf ≤r) or
(F3-2) for sections
with slender flanges (rf > r). Mn for other I-shaped members with compact or noncompact webs bent
abouttheir major axes, is the lowest value obtained according to the limit states of compression flange
yielding (F4-1), lateral-torsional buckling (F4-2) or (F4-3) depending on unbraced length Lb, compression
flange local buckling (F4-12) for
sections with noncompact flanges or (F4-13) for sections with slender flanges, and tension flange yielding
(F4-14).

7. What is the effect of using a slender web section as a flexural member?

There are no hot-rolled structural shapes that have flexurally slender webs. Typically slender webs are
associated with plate girders. Section F5 of the 2005 Specification covers doubly symmetric and singly
symmetric I-shaped members with slender webs attached to the mid-width of the flanges, bent about
their major axes. The nominal flexural strength, Mn, for such members is the lowest value obtained
according to the limit states of compression flange yielding (F5-1), lateral-torsional buckling (F5-2),
compression flange local buckling(F5-7), and tension flange yielding (F5-10).

8. How are the nominal flexural strengths of members bent about their minor axes and shapes other than I-shaped
determined?

The nominal flexural strength, M n , of I-shaped members and channels bent about their minor axes is stipulated
in Section F6, and that for various other sections in Sections F7 through F13 of the 2005 Specification. It is important to note
that lateral torsional buckling does not apply to a member bent about the weak axis.

9. What is the designation and purpose of the modification factor for non-uniform moment diagrams?

C b is a lateral-torsional buckling factor used to account for non-uniform moment diagrams of the flexural member when both
ends of the unsupported segment are braced. The nominal flexural strength as defined by M n based
on C b =1.0 corresponds to a uniform moment in the braced segment and can be used conservatively for all moment
diagram shapes. However, when there is a moment gradient, C b >1 can be determined by Equation (F1-1) based on the moment
diagram of the applied load and support conditions, and is permitted to be used to modify M n in the applicable capacity equation
involving lateral torsional buckling. Note that C b cannot be used to increase the nominal flexural strength in excess of M p ,
however. ★
A572/A572M-04 Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy
Columbium-Vanadium Structural Steel.

All structural steel sections shall be hot rolled with a minimum grade of A36 in accordance with AISC manual

Grade 50 with minimum specified yield strength of 300 MPa for turbine buildings and A36 for other buildings

Structural steel material conforming to one of the following ASTM specifications

is approved for use under this Specification

Hot-rolled structural shapes

ASTM A36/A36M
ASTM A529/A529M
ASTM A572/A572M
ASTM A588/A588M
ASTM A709/A709M
ASTM A913/A913M
ASTM A992/ A992M
Stress–Strain Behavior of Structural Steel

Structural steel is a construction material that possesses attributes such as strength, stiffness,
toughness, and ductility that are desirable in modern constructions. Strength is the ability of a material to
resist stress.
It is measured in terms of the material’s yield strength Fy and ultimate or tensile strength Fu . Steel used
in ordinary constructions normally have values of Fy and Fu that range from 36 to 50 ksi (248 to345 MPa)
and from 58 to 70 ksi (400 to 483 MPa)

Stiffness is the ability of a material to resist deformation. It is measured in terms of the modulus of
elasticity E and modulus of rigidity G.

Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy before failure. It is measured as the area under
the material’s stress–strain curve.

Ductility is the ability of a material to undergo large inelastic (or plastic) deformation before failure. It is
measured in terms of percent elongation or percent reduction in area of the specimen tested in uniaxial
tension
Ductility generally decreases with increasing steel strength The ability of structural steel to deform
considerably before failure by fracture allows an indeterminate structure to undergo stress redistribution.

Ductility also enhances the energy absorption characteristic of the structure, which is extremely important
in seismic design.
Design Philosophy
Structural design should be performed to satisfy the criteria for strength, serviceability, and economy.

Strength pertains to the general integrity and safety of the structure under extreme load conditions. The
structure is expected to withstand occasional overloads without severe distress and damage during its
lifetime.

Serviceability refers to the proper functioning of the structure as related to its appearance,
maintainability, and durability under normal, or service load, conditions. Deflection, vibration, permanent
deformation, cracking, and corrosion are some design considerations associated with service-ability.

Economy concerns with the overall material, construction, and labor costs required for the design,
fabrication, erection, and maintenance processes of the structure.

Stiffness is the ability of the material to resist deformation.

Toughness is the ability of the material to absorb energy before failure

Ductility is the ability of a material to undergo large inelastic or plastic deformation before failure

Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

In allowable stress (or working stress) design, member stresses computed under service (or working)
loads are compared to some predesignated stresses called allowable stresses. The allowable stresses
are often expressed as a function of the yield stress (F y ) or tensile stress (F u ) of the material divided
by a factor of safety. The factor of safety is introduced to account for the effects of overload,
understrength, and approximations used in structural analysis.

Plastic Design (PD)

PD makes use of the fact that steel sections have reserved strength beyond the first yield condition.
When a section is under flexure, yielding of the cross-section occurs in a progressive manner,
commencing with the fibers farthest away from the neutral axis and ending with the fibers nearest the
neutral axis. This phenomenon of progressive yielding, referred to as plastification, means that the cross-
section does not fail at first yield. The additional moment that a cross-section can carry in excess of the
moment that corresponds to first yield varies depending on the shape of the cross-section. To quantify
such reserved capacity, a quantity called shape factor, defined as the ratio of the plastic moment
(moment that causes the entire cross-section to yield, resulting in the formation of a plastic hinge) to the
yield moment(moment that causes yielding of the extreme fibers only) is used. The shape factor for hot-
rolled I-shaped sections bent about the strong axes has a value of about 1.15. The value is about 1.50
when the sections are bent about their weak axes.

For an indeterminate structure, failure of the structure will not occur after the formation of a plastic hinge.
After complete yielding of a cross-section, force (or, more precisely, moment) redistribution will occur in
which the unyielded portion of the structure continues to carry some additional loadings. Failure will occur
only when enough cross-sections have yielded rendering the structure unstable, resulting in the formation
of a plastic collapse mechanism.

In PD, the factor of safety is applied to the applied loads to obtain factored loads. A design is said to have
satisfied the strength criterion if the load effects (i.e., forces, shears, and moments) computed using
these factored loads do not exceed the nominal plastic strength of the structural component.

Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

LRFD is a probability-based limit state design procedure. A limit state is defined as a condition in which a
structure or structural component becomes unsafe (i.e., a violation of the strength limit state) or
unsuitable for its intended function (i.e., a violation of the serviceability limit state). In a limit state design,
the structure or structural component is designed in accordance to its limits of usefulness, which may be
strength related or serviceability related.

In developing the LRFD method, both load effects and resistance are treated as random variables. Their
variabilities and uncertainties are represented by frequency distribution curves. A design is considered
satisfactory according to the strength criterion if the resistance exceeds the load effects by a comfortable
margin.
The concept of safety is represented schematically in Figure 4.2. Theoretically, the structure will not fail
unless the load effect Q exceeds the resistance R as shown by the shaded portion in the figure. The
smaller this shaded area, the less likely that the structure will fail. In actual design, a resistance factor f is
applied to the nominal resistance of the structural component to account for any uncertainties associated
with the determination of its strength and a load factor g is applied to each load type to account for the
uncertainties and difficulties associated with determining its actual load magnitude. Different load factors
are used for different load types to reflect the varying degree of uncertainties associated with the
determination of load magnitudes. In general, a lower load factor is used for a load that is more
predicable and a higher load factor is used for a load that is less predicable.
Allowable Stress Design
The computed tensile stress ft in a tension member shall not exceed the allowable stress for tension, Ft ,
given by 0.60Fy for yielding on the gross area and by 0.50Fu for fracture on the effective net area.
While the gross area is just the nominal cross-sectional area of the member, the effective net area is the
smallest cross-sectional area accounting for the presence of fastener holes and the effect of shear lag. It
is calculated using the equation

where U is a reduction coefficient

Tension Members
Tension members are designed to resist tensile forces. Examples of tension members are hangers, truss
members, and bracing members that are in tension.
Cross-sections that are used most often for tension members are solid and hollow circular rods, bundled
bars and cables, rectangular plates, single and double angles, channels, WT- and W-sections, and a
variety of built-up shapes

For tension members, it is well known that the stability phenomena is not a criterion of the design, but is
required to prevent sagging of a tension member if it is too long. It is also utilized to support vibrating
equipment; in that case, the slenderness ratio (λ = L/r), here L is the tension member length and
r is the radius of gyration, should be not higher than 300.

The tension capacity Pt of a member should generally be obtained from:

Pt = pyAe
in which Ae is the sum of the effective net areas ae of all the elements of the cross-section, determined
from 3.4.3, but not more than 1.2 times the total net area An.
Deflections

The deflections of a building or part under serviceability loads should not impair the strength or efficiency
of the structure or its components, nor cause damage to the finishings. When checking for deflections the
most adverse realistic combination and arrangement of serviceability loads should be assumed, and the
structure may be assumed to behave elastically.
Design Strength- Py
The design strength py should be taken as 1.0Ys but not greater than Us /1.2 where Ys and Us are
respectively the minimum yield strength ReH and the minimum tensile strength Rm specified in the
relevant product standard. For the more commonly used grades and thicknesses of steel from the
product standards specified in BS 5950-2 the value of py may be obtained from Table 9. Alternatively, the
values of ReH and Rm may be obtained from the relevant product standard.
S275 is an unalloyed low carbon mild steel grade supplied as hot rolled. As a low carbon steel
specifications S275 provides low strength with good machinability and is suitable for welding.

ASTM A36 S275JR are common used steel materials in construction. ASTM A36 steel is produced
according to ASTM A36/ A36M standard, while S275JR steel is produced according to EN10025-2
standard. Both ASTM A36 S275JR steel materials are mild steel. They have a lot in common and also
many differences.

Pipe Rack
Dead Load on Pipe Rack
Unless more determinate load information is available in PROJECT documents and requires otherwise,
for pipes up to 8" (200mm) diameter, the empty dead load of piping on pipe racks shall be considered as
a minimum 1.0 kN/m2 over the plan area including empty and future spaces of each tier of pipe rack.
Loads from pipes larger than or equal to 10" (250 mm) diameter shall be considered as actual
concentrated loads at their actual locations.
A uniformly distributed dead load of 1.0 kN/m2 per level of cable trays shall be considered for cable trays.

Operating (Product) Load (Live Load)

Unless more determinate load information is available in PROJECT documents and requires otherwise,
for pipes up to 8" (200mm) diameter, the operating (product) load of piping on pipe racks shall be
considered as 1.0 kN/m2 minimum over the plan area including empty and future spaces of each tier of
pipe rack. Loads from pipes larger than or equal to 10" (250 mm) diameter shall be considered as actual
concentrated loads at their actual locations.

Test Load (Dead Load)

The test medium shall be as specified in the contract documents or as specified by COMPANY. Unless
otherwise specified, a minimum specific gravity of 1.0 shall be used for the test medium or a distributed
load of 2.0 kN/m² (dead plus content) over the plan area including future spaces of the supporting piping
tier for pipes less than or equal to 8” (200mm) diameter.
Operating dead load (Do) -The PIP Structural Design Criteria recommends a uniformly distributed
load of 40 psf ( 1.91 kN/m2 )for pipe, which is equivalent to 8-in.-diameter schedule 40 pipes filled with
water at 15-in. spacing. Other uniform loads may be used based on client requirements and engineering
judgment. For cable tray levels, a uniform distributed load of 20 psf ( 1.0 kN/m2 )for a single level of
cable trays and 40 psf ( 1.91 kN/m2 ) for a double level of cable trays may be used unless actual loading
is greater

Empty dead load (De): The empty weight of piping, piping insulation, cable tray, process
equipment and vessels. When using approximate uniform loads, 60% of the operating dead load
for piping levels is typically used. Engineering judgment should be used for cable tray levels.

Test dead load (Dt): The empty weight of the pipes plus the weight of the test medium

Thermal Loads (T )
The self-straining thermal forces caused by the restrained expansion of the pipe rack structural
members. •

Pipe anchor and guide forces (Af):

Pipe anchors and guides restrain the pipe from moving in one or more directions and cause
expansion movement to occur at desired locations in a piping system. Anchor and guide loads
are determined from a stress analysis of an individual pipe. Beams, struts, columns, braced
anchor frames and foundations must be designed to resist actual pipe anchor and guide loads. •

Pipe friction forces (Ff):

These are friction forces on the pipe rack structural members caused by the sliding of pipes in
response to thermal expansion due to the design (operating) temperature of the pipe. For friction
loads on individual structural members, use the larger of 10% of the total piping weight or 40%
of the weight of the largest pipe undergoing thermal movement: 10% of the total piping weight
assumes that the thermal movements on the individual pipes do not occur simultaneously; 40%
of the largest pipe weight assumes steel-on-steel friction.

Wind Loads (W)

The PIP Structural Design Criteria prescribes that wind loads for pipe racks are determined in
accordance with ASCE 7 and the following:

Wind drift with the full wind load should not exceed the pipe rack height divided by 100

Calculate wind on the pipe rack structure, neglecting any shielding. Use a force coefficient of Cf
=1.8 on structural members, or alternatively use Cf=2.0 below the first level and Cf = 1.6 above
the first level.
Calculate transverse wind on each pipe level. The tributary height for each pipe level should be
taken as pipe diameter (including insulation) plus 10% of the pipe rack transverse width. The
tributary area is the tributary height times the tributary length of the pipes. Use a minimum force
coefficient of Cf = 0.7 on pipes.

Calculate transverse wind on each cable tray level. The tributary height for each pipe level
should be taken as the largest tray height plus 10% of the pipe rack transverse width. The
tributary area is the tributary height times the tributary length of the cable tray. Use a minimum
force coefficient of Cf = 2.0 on cable tray

Drift
Drift limitations for wind loads are typically limited to the lesser of either a drift limit ratio as a
function of pipe rack height or the amount of displacement that the piping can tolerate. The
acceptable drift limit ratio varies based on the specifi c industry or owner. A typical drift limit ratio
is the pipe rack height divided by 100.

Column Bases
Column base plates in the transverse (moment frame) direction may be designed as either fixed
or pinned. Fixed column bases must be used for unstrutted pipe racks.
In general, the fixed base condition results in smaller structural steel sections and larger
foundations with smaller calculated lateral frame deflections.
Pinned base conditions result in heavier structural steel sections and smaller foundations with
larger calculated lateral frame deflections. The most common practice is to assume that the
base of the column acts as a pinned connection