CHAPTER 2

Life in a small village

The Harshacharita is a biography of Harshavardhana, the ruler of Kanauj, composed in Sanskrit

by his court poet, Banabhatta (c. seventh century CE). This is an excerpt from the text, an
extremely rare representation of life in a settlement on the outskirts of a forest in the Vindhyas :
The outskirts being for the most part forest, many parcels of rice-land, threshing ground and
arable land were being apportioned by small farmers...it was mainly spade culture owing to the
di culty of ploughing the sparsely scattered elds covered with grass, with their few clear
spaces, their black soil sti as black iron... There were people moving along with bundles of
bark...countless sacks of plucked owers, loads of ax and hemp bundles, quantities of honey
peacocks' tail feathers, wreaths of wax, logs, and grass. Village wives hastened en route for
neighbouring villages, all intent on thoughts of so and bearing on their heads baskets lled with
various gathered forest fruits.

Q1- Who was the author of Harshacharita?

Banabhatta was the author of Harshacharita.

Q2- Describe the outskirts of a forest in Vindhyas?

The outskirts of the Vindhayas are mainly forested. However, rice is grown in many parts of the
forest land. Mostly arable land was occupied by farmers for agricultural purposes.

Q3- Describe the activities of the people of that area?Mention two main activities of the
farmer of that time and today?
(i) People in the area were gathering goods such as sacks of plucked owers and quantity of
honey. At that time, farmers used spades for ploughing land and were also involved in
gathering goods such as wax and logs of wood.

(ii) Now farmers in many parts of the country use modern machinery such as tractors to plough
their land, but many farmers in tribal regions use spades to plough their elds.

Q4- Mention two activities of the village women?

Women in villages collected fruits and went to nearby markets to sell them.

The Sudarshana (beautiful) Lake in Gujarat

The Sudarshana, lake was an arti cial reservoir. We know about it from a rock inscription (c.
second century CE) in Sanskrit, composed to record the achievements of the Shaka ruler
Rudradaman. 8 Marks The inscription mentions that the lake, with embankments and water
channels, was built by a local governor during the rule of the Mauryas. However, a terrible storm
broke the embankments and water gushed out of the lake. Rudradaman, who was then ruling in
the area, claimed to have got the lake repaired using his own resources, without imposing any tax
on his subjects.

Another inscription on the same rock (c. fth century) mentions how one of the rulers of the Gupta
dynasty got the lake repaired once again.

1. Mention about the irrigation system of the Mauryan Empire.

In the Mauryan period, irrigation was mainly carried out through wells and tanks. Canals were
also used for irrigation.

2. Explain about the achievements of Rudradaman during the 2nd century CE.
I. Rudradaman, a Shaka ruler in 2 CE, repaired Lake Sudrashan when its embankments were
broken by a storm.

II. He did not impose any taxes on the people for repairing this lake.

3. Mention the values demonstrated by Rudradaman that can be seen from the passage.
I. Rudradaman demonstrated the values that an enlightened despot should have.

II. He repaired Lake Sudarshan without imposing any taxes on its people.

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 A prayer to Agni
Here are two verses from the Rigveda invoking Agni, the god of re : Bring, O strong one, this
sacri ce of ours to the gods, O wise one, as a liberal giver. Bestow on us, O priest, abundant
food. Agni, obtain, by sacri cing, mighty wealth for us. Procure, O Agni, for ever to him who
prays to you (the gift of) nourishment, the wonderful cow, May a son be ours, o spring that
continues out line... Verses such as these were composed in a special kind of Sanskrit, known as
Vedic Sanskrit. They were taught orally to men belonging to priestly families.

(14.1)Why was Vedic Sanskrit signi cant ?

14.1 Vedic Sanskrit is signi cant because :

i. It was used to compose verses from the Vedas.

ii. It was a special kind of Sanskrit taught to men belonging to priestly families. (Two points)

(14.2) Explain any two Vedic traditions of religious beliefs and practices.
14.2 Two Vedic traditions of religious beliefs and practices :

i. Sacri ces or Yajnas

ii. Ashwamedha

iii. Vajapeya

iv. Rajasuya

v. Chanting of mantras

vi. Prayers to Gods, Agni, Varuna and Indra (Any two points)

(14.3) Why were sacri ces performed during Vedic Period ?

14.3 Sacri ces were performed

i. To appeal to Gods for abundant food.

ii. To appeal to Gods for cows.

iii. To appeal to Gods for abundant wealth.

iv. To appeal to God for nourishment.

v. To append to God for Sons.

vi. To appeal to God for long life. (Any two points)

CHAPTER 3
A tiger-like husband
This is a summary of a story from the Adi Parvan of the Mahabharata: The Pandavas had ed into
the forest. They were tired and fell asleep, only Bhima, the second Pandava, renowned for this
prowess; was keeping watch. A man-eating rakshasa caught the scent of the Pandavas and sent
his sister Hidimba to capture them. She fell in love with Bhima, transformed herself into a lovely
maiden and proposed to him. He refused. Mean while the rakshasa arrived and challenged Bhima
to a wrestling match. Bhima accepted the challenge and killed him. The others woke up hearing
the noise. Hidimba introduced herself, and declared her love for Bhima. She told Kunti; "I have
forsaken my friends, my dharma and my kin; and good lady, chosen your tiger-like son for my
man...whether you think me a fool, or your devoted servant, let me join you, great lady, with your
son as my husband." Ultimately, Yudhisthira agreed to the marriage on condition that they would
spend the day together but that Bhima would return every night. The couple roamed all over the
world during the day. In due course Hidimba gave birth to a rakshasa boy named Ghatotkach.
Then the mother and son left the Pandavas. Ghatotkach promised to return to the Pandavas
whenever they needed him. Some historians suggest that the term rakshasa is used to describe
people whose practices di ered from those laid down in Brahmanical texts.

1. Who was Hidimba? Why was she sent to Pandavas and what did she do? Explain.
i. Hidimba was the sister of a man-eating Rakshasa.

ii. He got the scent of the Pandavas and sent his sister to capture them. Hidimba began to love
Bhima and proposed to him.

2. Why were Pandavas sent to the forest?

i. Duryodhana sent the Pandavas to the forest. He conspired to kill them.

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 3. How did Hidimba plead with Kunti for her love?
i. Hidimba pleaded with Kunti and declared her love for Bhima. She told Kunti, “I have forsaken
my friends, my dharma and my kin; and good lady chosen your tiger-like son for my man…

ii. whether you think me a fool, or your devoted servant, let me join you, great lady, with your son
as my husband”.

4. On what conditions did Bhima agree for marriage with Hidimba?

Conditions on which Bhima agreed to marry Hidimba:

(a) Bhima and Hidimba would spend the day together; however, Bhima would return every night.
(b) During the day, both Bhima and Hidimba would roam all over the forest.

“Proper” social roles "Proper"

social roles Here is a story from the Adiparvan of the Mahabharata : Once Drona, a Brahmana
who taught archery to the Kuru princes, Was approached by Ekalavya, a forest dwelling nishada
(a hunting community). When Drona, who knew the dharma, refused to have him as his pupil,
Ekalavya returned to the forest, prepared au image of Drona out of clay, and treating it as his
teacher, began to practise on his own. In due course, he acquired great skill in archery. One day,
the Kuru princes went, hunting and their dog, wandering in the woods, came upon Ekalavya.
When the dog smelt the dark nishada wrapped in black deer skin, his body caked with dirt, it
began to bark. Annoyed, Ekalavya shot seven arrows into its mouth. When the dog returned to the
Pandavas, they were amazed at this superb display of archery. They tracked down Ekalavya, who
introduced himself as a pupil of Drona. Drona had once told his favourite student Arjuna, that he
would be unrivalled amongst his pupils. Arjuna now reminded Drona about this. Drona
approached Ekalavya, who immediately acknowledged and honeyed him as his teacher. When
Drona demanded his right thumb as his fee, Ekalavya unhesitatingly cut it o and o ered it. But
thereafter, when he shot with his remaining ngers, he was no longer as fast as he had been
before. Thus, Drona kept his word : no one was better than Arjuna.

1. Why did Drona refuse to have Ekalavya as his pupil?

Drona refused to have Ekalavya as his pupil because he (Drona) believed in ideologies propagated
by Dharmashastras. He did not want to teach archery to a person of low social rank.

2. How did Ekalavya react to the demand of his Guru?

Ekalavya reacted very calmly to the demand of Drona. Without any hesitation, he cut his thumb o
and o ered it to Guru Drona.

3. Mention two versions of Guru-Shishya Parampara mentioned in the given extract.

(1) Drona demanded Ekalavya's thumb as his fee, so Ekalavya cut o his thumb. By doing so, he
honoured the Guru Shishya Parampara literally.

(2) Drona had once told his favourite student Arjuna that he would be unrivalled among his pupils.
By demanding Ekalavya's thumb, Drona kept his word, ‘no one would be better than Arjuna’.

(14.1) Why did Drona refuse to have Ekalavya as his pupil?

Ans. 14.1 i. Ekalavya was a forest- dwelling nishada. ii. Drona (a Brahmana), knew the dharma, so
he as following the Dharma refused to have Ekalavya as he was a person of low origin- Nishada.
iii. Drona had once told his favourite student Arjuna, that he would be unrivalled amongst his
pupils.

(14.2) How had Drona kept his word given to Arjuna?

14.2 i. Drona approached Ekalavya, who immediately acknowledged and honoured him as his
teacher.

ii. Drona demanded his right thumb as his fee,Ekalavya unhesitatingly cut it o and o ered it.

iii. But thereafter, when he shot with his remaining ngers, he was no longer as fast as he had
been before. Thus, Drona kept his word that no one was better than Arjuna.

(14.3) Do you think Drona’s behaviour with Ekalavya was justi ed? If so, give reason

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 14.3 (This is an open-ended question. The student should be given due weightage for their
logical reasoning and understanding). The answer could be as follows:

i. No, I don’t think that Drona was justi ed. His behaviour was partial to Arjun who was his
disciple.

OR
ii. Yes, Drona knew his Dhamma. Since he was a brahmana and the Guru of the royal families, he
could not take a disciple form a low origin. The Dharmasutra's and Dharmashastras also
contained rules about the ideal “occupations” of the four categories or varnas. Brahmanas were
supposed to study and teach the Vedas. Shudras were assigned only one occupation– that of
serving the three “higher” varnas.

Draupadi's Marriage
Drupada, the king of Panchala, organised a competition where the challenge was to string a bow
and hit a target; the winner would be chosen to marry his daughter Draupadi. Arjuna was
victorious and was garlanded by Draupadi. The Pandavas returned with her to their mother Kunti,
who, even before she saw them, asked them to share whatever they had got. She realised her
mistake when she saw Draupadi, but her command could not be violated. After much
deliberation, Yudhisthira decided that Draupadi would be their common wife. When Drupada was
told about this, he protested. However, the seer Vyasa arrived and told him that the Pandavas
were in reality incarnations of Indra, whose wife had been reborn as Draupadi, and they were thus
destined for each other. Vyasa added that in another instance a young woman had prayed to
Shiva for a husband, and in her enthusiasm, had prayed ve times instead of once. This woman
was now reborn as Draupadi, and Shiva had ful lled her prayers. Convinced by these stories,
Drupada consented to the marriage.

1. How does this story reveal that mother was considered as the highest guru? (2)
Mother was considered the highest guru. This is because in this story when mother Kunti asks
the ve Pandavas to share their belonging (who was actually Draupadi), the ve sons obey her
order as her command cannot be violated.

2. Why didn't Kunti save Draupadi from the dire situation? (2)
Kunti did not save Draupadi from the dire situation because mother was held in high regard during
those times and her command could not be violated.

3. Why did Drupada and Sage Vyasa decide Draupadi's strange marriage with ve men?
(2)
Drupada and Sage Vyasa think Draupadi’s marriage with ve men as strange because the latter
stressed on the fact that the Pandavas were actually the incarnations of Lord Indra whose wife
had been reborn as Draupadi.

CHAPTER 4
Rules for monks and nuns
These are some of the rules laid down in the Vinaya Pitaka: When a new felt (blanket/rug) has
been made by a bhikkhu, it is to be kept for (at least) six years. If after less than six years he
should have another new felt (blanket/rug) made, regardless of whether or not he has disposed of
the rst, then — unless he has been authorised by the bhikkhus — it is to be forfeited and
confessed: In case a bhikkhu arriving at a family residence is presented with cakes or cooked
grainmeal, he may accept two or three bowlfuls if he so desires. If, he should accept more than
that, it is to be confessed. Having accepted the two or three bowlfuls and having taken them from
there, he is to share them among the bhikkhus. This is the proper course here. Should any
bhikkhu, having set out bedding in a lodging belonging to the sangha — or having had it set out
— and then on departing neither put it away nor have it put away, or should he go without taking
leave, it is to be confessed.

1. Name any two Buddhist texts in which the rules for the monks have been laid down.
I. Sutta Pitaka

II. Vinay Pitaka

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 2. Why were these rules framed?
These rules were framed to maintain simplicity and Dhamma mainly among monks and nuns.

3. What was the sangha? Explain.

I. Sangha was a body of monastic order or disciples of the Buddha.

II. It was an organisation of monks who became teachers of dhamma.

4. State any three rules mentioned in the passage, for the bhikkhus.

I. A new felt blanket/rug made by a bhikkshu is to be kept for (at least) six years.

II. In case a bhikkshu arrives at a family residence, he should accept only 2 or 3 bowlfuls of
cooked grain meals. This should be shared with other bhikkhus.

III. Should any bhikkshu, having set out bedding in a lodging belonging to the Sangha or having
had it set out and then on departing neither put it away nor have put it away; or should he go
without taking leave, it is to be confessed.

(14.1) Who were the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis?

Ans. They are disciples of Budha. They are the monks and nuns living in the Sangha. Since they
live on alms they are known as Bhikhus /Bhikhunis.

(14.2) Explain any two rules framed for them.

1. When a new blanket is made by a bhikhu it is to be kept for at least six years regardless of the
fact that he disposed of the rst or not.

2. If a bhikhu arrives in a family and is presented with cakes or cooked grain, he should accept
only 2 or 3 bowl full and share it among others.

(14.3) Why was the status of all the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis equal in the ‘Buddha Sangha’?
1. The Buddhist followers came from di erent backgrounds like kings, wealthy people, slaves
and craftsman.

2. But once in a Sangha they are treated equal because they have to shed their earlier social
identities.

Buddhism in practice
This is an excerpt from the Sutta Pitaka, and contains the advice given by the Buddha to a
wealthy householder named Sigala : In ve ways should a master look after his servants and
employees ... by assigning them work according to their strength, by supplying them with food
and wages, by tending them in sickness; by sharing delicacies with them and by granting leave at
times ... In ve ways should the clansmen look after the needs of samanas (those who have
renounced the world) and Brahmanas: by a ection in act and speech and mind, by keeping open
house to them and supplying their worldly needs. There are similar instructions to Sigala about
how to behave with his parents, teacher and wife.

(14.1) In what ways should a master look after his servants and employees?
Answer 14.1 (i) A master should look after his servants and employees by assigning them work
according to their strength, by supplying food and wages, by looking after them during sickness,
by sharing delicacies with them and also by granting Leaves at times.

(14.2) In what ways should the clansmen look after the needs of samanas?
Answer 14.2 (i) The clansmen should look after the needs of samanas by displaying a ection in
acts, speech and mind, by keeping open house to them and by supplying them with their worldly
needs.

(14.3) Explain the main aspects of Buddhist philosophy.

Answer 14.3 Main aspects of the Buddhist philiosphy are:

(i) The world is transient (annica) and constantly changing. It is also soulless (anatta).

(ii) Nothing is permanent or eternal on it. Sorrows (Dukkha) are intrinsic to human existence.

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(iii) Path of moderation between self penance and self- indulgence should be followed to rise
above worldly pleasures. Person can attain salvation from the cycles of rebirth by the virtue of
his/her right actions.

The Therigatha
This unique Buddhist text, part of the Sutta Pitaka, is a collection of verses composed by
bhikkhunis. Punna, a dasi or salve woman, went to the river each morning to fetch water for her
master's household. There she would daily see a Brahmana performing bathing rituals. One
morning she spoke to him. The following are verses composed by Punna, recording her
conversation with the Brahmana:

I am a water carrier:

Even in the cold

I have always gone down to the water

Frightened of punishment

Or the angry words of high class women.

So what are you afraid of Brahmana,

That makes you go down to the water (Though) your limbs shake with the bitter cold?

The Brahmana replied:

I am doing good to prevent evil;

Anyone young or old Who has done something bad

Is freed by washing in water.

Punna said: Whoever told you

You are freed from evil by washing in the water?...

In that case all the frogs and turtles Would go to heaven,

and so would the water snakesAnd crocodiles! (Instead) Don't do that thing,

The fear of which Leads you to the water.

Stop now Brahmana! Save your skin from the cold….

(28.1) Explain the ideas of Punna with two examples. 2

(28.1) Two examples given by Punna, the slave-girl, to highlight her views, are:

i. Frogs and turtles, who live in waters every day, would be free from sins

ii. Water snakes and crocodiles, who hurt humans and other beings, would also attain salvation
just because they live in the waters daily

(28.2) What justi cation did the Brahmana give for his daily dip in river? 2
(28.2) – According to the Brahmana, he took dip in the river in order to prevent evil.

In his view, anyone who sinned would be cleansed by taking bath in the water.

(28.3) Explain the core of Buddhist philosophy that is being conveyed through their Gatha. 2
(28.3) – The message given under this passage is that unless one conducts oneself through right
actions, words and mindset, one could not free oneself of sin.

Hence, conducting rituals, like washing oneself in water to be cleansed of sins, is pointless.

A Demon?
This is an excerpt from a poem by Karaikkal ammiyar in which she describes herself:

The female Pey (demoness)

With … bulging veins, protruding eyes, white teeth

and shrunken stomach.

Red haired and jutting teeth

Lengthy shins extending till the ankles, shouts and wails

While wandering in the forest.

This is the forest of Alankatu,

Which is the home of our father (shiva) Who dances ….

With his matted hair Thrown in all eight directions, and with cool limbs.

29.1 Analyze how Karaikkal Ammaiyar had depicted herself di erent from the traditional
nature of beauty. 2
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 (29.1) – According to the above source, Karaikkal Ammaiyar depicts herself as a demoness, with
bulging veins, protruding eyes, white jutting teeth, shrunken stomach and red hair.

29.2 Analyze how this compotion of Ammaiyar pose a challenge to patriarchal norms. 2
(29.2) – According to patriarchal norms, women should con ne themselves within their homes.
However, in this composition, Karaikkal Ammaiyar openly challenges this notion by describing
herself as a woman who lives outside the comforts of her house, and within the wild forest.

29.3 Analyse any two aspects of renunciation of her social obligations.

(29.3) Two aspects of renunciation of social obligations by Karaikkal Ammaiyar:

i. De ance of her traditional roles as a woman – daughter, wife, husband

ii. Venturing out of the settled householder life and leaving for the wild forest

CHAPTER 5

The child sati

This is perhaps one of the most poignant descriptions by Bernier: At Lahore I saw a most
beautiful young widow sacri ced, who could not, I think, have been more than twelve years of
age. The poor little creature appeared more dead than alive when she approached the dreadful
pit; the agony of her mind cannot be described; she trembled and wept bitterly; but three or four
of the Brahmanas, assisted by an old woman who held her under the arm, forced the unwilling
victim towards the fatal spot, seated her on the wood, tied her hands and feet, lest she should run
away, and in that situation the innocent creature was burnt alive. I found it di cult to repress my
feelings and to prevent their bursting forth into clamorous and unavailing rage.

Q1- Describe what Bernier saw at Lahore?

At Lahore, Bernier saw a beautiful young widow being forced to burn alive on the pyre of her
husband.

Q2- How had the agony of the girl been described here?
The agony of the girl has been described by Bernier in the passage. He has described how the
young widow appeared more dead than alive while she was being forced to her husband’s pyre.
She trembled and wept bitterly.

Q3-How and why was the girl forced towards the fatal spot?
(i) The girl was forced towards the fatal spot because her husband had died.

(ii) In India, the custom of sati was practised in which the widow was burnt on the pyre of her
husband. In the narration, the widow is forced by the Brahamanas and the elderly lady into
committing sati.
OR

1. How has Bernier described the practice of sati?

I. Bernier has elaborated about the practice of sati in the above passage. He describes a
beautiful young woman, not more than 12 years of age, was forcibly taken to her husband’s
pyre.

II. Three to four Brahmins along with an elderly lady tied the hands and feet of the young widow
on a wooden pyre of her husband so that she could not run away from the spot.

2. Describe the feelings of Bernier that he has expressed in the passage.

I. Bernier found it di cult to suppress his feelings and emotions at the sight of a young woman
being burnt alive.

3. Explain how Bernier has highlighted the treatment of women as a crucial marker of
di erence between Western and Eastern societies.

I. Bernier chose the practice of sati to highlight the treatment of women in eastern societies.
This practice was absent in the West.

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II. This helped Bernier in portraying the women in the East as a suppressed human being burned
alive when her husband dies. He wanted to show that Eastern societies were brutal and
primitive in nature.

4. What role did the Indian patriarchal society play towards this social evil?
The Indian patriarchal society had no compassion for widows. Widows were forcibly burned along
the pyre of their husbands.

5. Compare the condition of the women of the era mentioned above to that of today. (2)
I. The condition of women has considerably improved today. The sati system has been legally
banned, and widows are allowed to remarry.

II. Girls are being educated, and the number of working women is steadily rising in society. This
is in sharp contrast to the conditions which existed about three to four centuries ago.

Travelling with the Mughal army

Bernier often travelled with the army. This is an excerpt from his description of the army's march
to Kashmir : I am expected to keep two good Turkoman horses, and I also take with me a
powerful Persian camel and driver, a groom for my horses, a cook and a servant to go before my
horse with a ask of water in his hand, according to the custom of the country. I am also provided
with every useful article, such as a tent of moderate size, a carpet, a portable bed made of four
very strong but light canes, a pillow, a mattress, round leather table-cloths used at meals, some
few napkins of dyed cloth, three small bags with culinary utensils which are all placed in a large
bag, and this bag is again carried in a very capacious and strong double sack to net made of
leather thongs. This double sack likewise contains the provisions, linen and wearing apparel, both
of master and servants. I have taken care to lay in a stock of excellent rice for ve or six day's
consumption, of sweet biscuits avoured with anise (a herb), of limes and sugar. Nor have I
forgotten a linen bag with its small iron hook for the purpose of suspending and draining dahi or
curds; nothing being considered so refreshing in this country as lemonade and dahi.

1. Who was Bernier? Give his brief introduction.

Bernier was a Frenchman. He was a doctor, historian and political philosopher who visited India
during the seventeenth century.

2. What was the purpose of his travel and what was expected of him while going on travel?
Describe brie y.
i. Bernier, like many other travellers, came to the Mughal Empire to seek opportunities.

ii. At the time of going on travel, he was expected to have two good Turkish horses, a strong
Persian camel, a driver, a cook and a servant along with all articles of daily needs.

3. What things would you like to take with you while going on travel and why? Explain.
While going on travel, I would prefer to have all those goods and articles which would be required
during the journey.

A warning for Europe

Bernier warned that if European kings followed the Mughal model : Their kingdoms would be very
far from being well-cultivated and peopled, so well built, so rich, so polite and ourishing as we
see them. Our kings are otherwise rich and powerful; and we must avow that they are much better
and more royally served. They would soon be kings of deserts and solitudes, of beggars and
barbarians, such as those are whom I have been representing (the Mughals). We should nd the
great Cities and the great Burroughs (boroughs) rendered uninhabitable because of ill air, and to
fall to mine (ruin) without any bodies (anybody) taking care or repairing them; the hillocks
abandon'd, and the elds overspread with bushes, or lled with pestilential marishes (marshes),
as hath already intimated.

1. In what ways did Bernier condemn Mughal rulers? (2)

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I. Bernier condemned the Mughal rulers because he thought that there is no concept of private
property in land in India under the Mughals.

II. He believed in the virtues of private property and he regarded the crown ownership of land as
harmful for both state and people.

2. What contrasts do you nd in the account of Bernier and Abul Fazl's Ain-i-Akbari? (3)
I. Bernier criticised the Mughal rulers because he felt that the crown ownership of the land was
harmful to both state and people.

II. However, Abul Fazl in Ain-i-Akbari never mentioned state to be the sole owner of the land. He
describes the land revenue as ‘remunerations of sovereignty’ claimed by the ruler for providing
protection to his subjects.

3. Pride has its fall if power and negligence of duty rules any one'. Explain the statement
in relevance to the Bernier's warning. (2)
I. Bernier thought that the Mughal rulers owned all lands and distributed it among the people.
Thus, there was an absence of the notion of private property.

II. He thought that farmers will not make any e ort to improve the land if they cannot pass it on
to their children. This will ruin the economy of the state.

CHAPTER 6

The One Lord

Here is a composition attributed to Kabir :

Tell me, brother, how can there be

No one lord of the world but two ?

Who led you so astray ?

God is called by many names :

Names like Allah, Ram, Karim, Keshav, Hari and Hazrat.

Gold may be shaped into rings and bangles.

Isn’t it gold all the same ?

Distinctions are only words we invent....

Kabir says that are both mistaken.

Neither can nd the only Ram.

One kills the goat, the other cows.

They waste their lives in disputation.

(15.1) How has Kabir laid emphasis on the attainment of oneness with the divine ? Explain.
15.1 (a) Kabir described ultimate reality as Allah, Pir , Khuda , Hazrat, Ram, Rahim, Karim, Kishan,
Hari.

(b) God is called by many names but he is one and the same.

(c) To him the ultimate reality is Alakh and Nirakar.

(d) He used terms like Atman and Brahman.

(e)He used words with mystical connnotation like Shabda or Shunya

(f) He is a Nirguna Bhakti saint.

(g) Any other relevant point

(To be assessed as a whole)

(15.2) How do you think the people waste their lives in disputation ?
15.2 People waste their lives in disputation between Allah and Ram. In fact he is one.

(a) People think that there are many Gods.

(b) Kabir says that there is one God who is called by many names.

(c) Some think that their God is pleased when a Goat is killed and other feel that his is pleased
when a Cow is killed. Both are wasting their lives in disputation.

(d) Any other relevant point.

(e) (To be assessed as a whole)

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 (15.3) How has the lyrical beauty of his poem made him a gure of inter-religious harmony ?
Explain.
15.3Kabir believed in one God who prevails everywhere .

God can be realised through recitation of Namsimran, Zikr, Ishq.

(Any other relevant point on lyrical beauty of the poem with or without example or otherwise
should be given due weightage) (To be assessed as a whole)

CHAPTER 7 (VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE)

Colin Mackenzie
Born in 1754, Colin Mackenzie became famous as an engineer, surveyor and cartographer. In
1815 he was appointed the rst Surveyor General of India, a post he held till his death in 1821. He
embarke on collecting local histories and surveying historic sites in order to better understand
India's past and make governance of the colony easier. He says that "it struggled long under the
miseries of bad management ... before the South came under the benign in uence of the British
government." By studying Vijayanagara, Mackenzie believed that the East India Company could
gain "much useful information- on many of these institutions, laws and customs whose in uence
still prevails among the various Tribes of Natives forming the general mass of the population to
this day."

1. Mention what Mackenzie did to make governance of the colony easier.

Colin Mackenzie embarked on collecting local histories and surveying historic sites to better
understand India's past and make governance of the colony easier.

2. Who was Colin Mackenzie? Give his introduction. General mass of the population to this
day.”
I. Colin Mackenzie was born in 1754. He was a famous engineer, surveyor and cartographer.

II. He was appointed the rst Surveyor General of India in 1815 and held this post till his death in
1821.

3. According to him, what bene ts would the East India Company gain after studying
Vijayanagara? Explain in brief.
I. Colin Mackenzie was of the opinion that the East India Company could gain much useful
information on institutions of governance by learning and understanding the laws and customs of
the local people.

4. Who was Colin Mackenzie ?

i. Colin Mackenzie became famous as an engineer, surveyor and cartographer of the EIC ii. In
1815 he was appointed the rst Surveyor General of India.

5. How did Mackenzie try to rediscover the Vijayanagara Empire?

i. He embarked on collecting local histories.

ii. He surveyed historic sites.

iii. He wanted to understand India’s past and make governance of the colony easier.

iv. He says, “It struggled long under the miseries of bad management ... before the South came
under the benign in uence of the British government”.

6. How was the study of the Vijayanagara Empire useful to the East India Company?
i. Mackenzie believed that the East India Company could gain much useful information on many
of Vijayanagara’s (a) institutions, (b) laws and (c) customs.

ii. It’s in uence still prevails among the various Tribes of Natives forming the general mass of the
population

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 CHAPTER 8 (PEASANT, STATE AND ZAMINDARS)
Classi cation of lands under Akbar
The following is a listing of criteria of classi cation excerpted from the Ain: The
EmperorAkbarinhisprofound sagacity classi ed the lands and xed a di erent revenue to be paid
by each. Polaj is land which is annually cultivated for each crop in succession and is never
allowed to lie fallow. Parauti is land left out of cultivation for a time that it may recover its strength.
Chachar is land that has lain fallow for three or four years. Banjar is land uncultivated for ve years
and more. Of the rst two kinds of land, there are three classes, good, middling, and bad. They
add together the produce of each sort, and the third of this represents the medium produce, one-
third part of which is exacted as the Royal dues.

(1) Explain Polaj and Parauti lands.

Ans. (15.1) Polaj is a land which is annually cultivated for each crop succession. It is a fertile land.
Parauti is a land left out for cultivation for a time so as to regain fertility.

(2) Why was Chachar land left uncultivated for three to four years?

(15.2) Chachar land is left for 3 to 4 years without cultivation. This is kept as fallow so that this
acquires fertility in this time.

(3) Why did Akbar classify the land into di erent categories?
(15.3) Akbar was a wise king and he knew that all the lands are not equally fertile so he divided
the land into three categories-good, middling and bad. Any other relevant point.

The Ain on land revenue collection:

Let him (the amil-guzar) not make it a practice of taking only in cash but also in kind. The latter is
e ected in several ways. First, kankut: in the Hindi language kan signi es grain, and kut,
estimates ... If any doubts arise, the crops should be cut and estimated in three lots, the good, the
middling and the inferior, and the hesitation should be removed. Often, too, the land taken by
appraisement, gives a su ciently accurate return. Secondly, batai, also called bhaoli, the crops
are reaped and stacked and divided by agreement in the presence of the parties. But in this case
several intelligent inspectors are required; otherwise, the evil-minded and false are given to
deception. Thirdly, khet-batai, when they divide the elds after they are sown. Fourthly, lang batai,
after cutting the grain, they form it in heaps and divide it among themselves, and each takes his
share home and turns it to pro t.

(15.1) Explain the kankut system of land revenue.

Answer 15.1 Kankut system signi es collection of revenues in kind. While taking grains as taxes, if
any doubt arises, the crop should be cut and estimated in three lots - the good, the middling and
the inferior.

(15.2) How was the land revenue assessed in the case of batai or bhaoli?
Answer 15.2 In batai also called bhaoli, the crops are reaped and divided by agreement in the
presence of the parties to assess the revenues to be paid.

(15.3) Do you think that the land revenue system of the Mughals was exible?

Answer 15.3 Yes, I agree that the land revenue system of the Mughals was exible because the
state collected revenues not only in cash but also in kind.

Further, the Mughal State tried to rst acquire speci c information about the extent of the
agriculture lands in empire and what these lands produced before xing the burden of Taxes on
people.

The lands were actually measured and then the assessment of revenue made.

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 CHAPTER 10 COLONIALISM & COUNTRYSIDE
Deeds of hire Marks
When debts mounted the peasant was unable to pay back the loan to the Moneylender. He had
no option but to give over all his possessions — land. Carts, and animals — to the moneylender.
But without animals he could not continue to cultivate. So he took land on rent and animals on
hire. He now had to pay for the animals which had originally belonged to him. He had to sign a
deed of hire stating very clearly that these animals and carts did not belong to him. In cases of
con ict, these deeds could be enforced through the court. The following is the text of a deed that
a peasant signed in November 1873, from the records of the Deccan Riots Commission: I have
sold to you, on account of the debt due to you, my two carriages having iron axles, with their
appurtenances and four bullocks ... I have taken from you on hire under (this) deed the very same
two carriages and four bullocks. I shall pay every month the hire thereof at Rupees four a month,
and obtain a receipt in your own handwriting. In the absence of a receipt I shall not contend that
the hire had been paid.

1. What light does the deed of hire throw on the relationship between the peasants and the
moneylenders?
The deed in light shows that deeds were made in favour of moneylenders and peasants had no
say in deciding the terms of the deeds.

2. How did the peasants pay back the loan to the moneylender?
I. When the debts of the peasants increased and they were unable to pay back, he gave all his
possession to the moneylenders.

II. The peasants thus gave away his land, carts and animals.

3. What was the deed of hire? Explain.

I. The deed of hire was a document through which a peasant could mortgage his land or
animals for stipulated sum of money taken as an advance from the moneylender.

II. Deeds were also signed when peasants hired animals on rent from moneylenders or
zamindars. In such cases, the deed clearly stated that the animals and carts given to a
peasant were not owned by him.

III. The deed contained the detailed rules of transaction and mortgage.

CHAPTER 11 (REBEL AND THE RAJ)

Shah Mal Shah Mal lived in a large village in pargana Barout in Uttar Pradesh. He belonged to a
clan of Jat cultivators whose kinship ties extended over chaurasee des (eighty-four villages). The
lands in the region were irrigated and fertile, with rich dark loam soil. Many of the villagers were
prosperous and saw the British land revenue system as oppressive : the revenue demand was
high and its collection in exible. Consequently cultivators were losing land to outsiders, to traders
and moneylenders who were coming into the area. Shah Mal mobilised the headmen and
cultivators of chaurasee des, moving at night from village to village, urging people to rebel against
the British. As in many other places, the revolt against the British turned into general rebellion
against all signs of oppression and injustice. Cultivators left their elds and plundered the houses
of moneylenders and traders. Displaced proprietors took possession of the land they had
lost.Shahmal’s men attacked government buildings, destroyed the bridge over the river, and dug
up metalled roads partly to prevent government forces from coming into the area, and partly
because bridges and roads were seen as symbols of British rule. They sent supplies to the sepoys
who had mutinied in Delhi and stopped all o cial communication between British headquarters
and Meerut. Locally acknowledged as the Raja, Shah Mal took over the bungalow of an English
o cer, turned it into a “Hall of Justice” settling disputes and dispensing judgement. He also set
up an amazingly e ective network of intelligence. For a period the people of the area felt that
rangi raj was over, and their raj had come. Shah Mal was killed in battle in July 1857.

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 (8.1) Why did Shah Mal raise his voice against the Britishers ?

(8.2) How did Shah Mal support rebels of the Revolt of 1857 ?

(8.3) How did Shah Mal show his network of intelligence ?

CHAPTER 13 MAHATMA GANDHI & NATIONALIST MOVEMENT

"Tomorrow we shall break the salt tax law"

On 5 Apri11930, Mahatma Gandhi spoke at Dandi : When I left Sabarmati with my companions for
this seaside hamlet of Dandi, I was not certain in my mind that we would be allowed to reach this
place. Even while I was at Sabarmati there was a rumour that I might be arrested. I had thought
that the Government might perhaps let my party come as far as Dandi, but not me certainly. If
someone says that this betrays imperfect faith on my part, I shall not deny the charge. That I have
reached here is in no small measure due to the power of peace and non-violence: that power is
universally felt. The Government may, if it wishes, congratulate itself on acting as it has done, for it
could have arrested every one of us. In saying that it did not have the courage to arrest this army
of peace, we praise it. It felt ashamed to arrest such an army. He is a civilised man who feels
ashamed to do anything which his neighbours would disapprove. The Government deserves to be
congratulated on not arresting us, even if it desisted only from fear of world opinion. Tomorrow we
shall break the salt tax law. Whether the Government will tolerate that is a di erent question. It
may not tolerate it, but it deserves congratulations on the patience and forbearance it has
displayed in regard to this party... What if I and all the eminent leaders in Gujarat and in the rest of
the country are arrested? This movement is based on the faith that when a whole nation is roused
and on the march no leader is necessary. (CWMG) vol. 49 Collected works of Mahatma Gandhi

1. Why did Gandhiji start the Dandi March?

I. Gandhi started the Dandi March to break the Salt Laws and create awareness among the
masses related to the exploitative salt laws.

II. He also wanted to arouse the nationalist sentiments among the people.

2. Why was Salt March notable?

The Salt March was notable for the following reasons:

a. It brought Gandhi into the limelight. The March was widely covered by the American and
European press.

b. It was the rst nationalist activity in which women participated in large numbers.

c. The movement also challenged the British and gave them the warning that the British rule
would not last forever in India.

3. The power of peace and non-violence are universally felt'. Why did Gandhiji said so?
Gandhi said so because he was able to bring the Indian National Movement into the limelight of
the world because of his policies of peace and non-violence.

4. What were the apprehensions of Mahatma Gandhi when he started his Dandi March
i. Gandhi was apprehensive that he might not be allowed to reach Dandi

ii. Government might perhaps let the party come as far as Dandi, but not Gandhi certainly.

iii. He will be arrested on the way.

5. Why did Gandhiji say that the Government deserved to be congratulated?

i. Government displayed patience and forbearance and allowed Gandhi to reach Dandi.

ii. That is why Gandhi said that the Government reserved to be congratulated on not arresting,
even if it desisted only from fear of world opinion.

6. Why was the ‘Salt March’ very signi cant?

i. Salt march was signi cant because it brought Gandhi into limelight and attracted the world’s
attention.

ii. In this movement women also participated.

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iii. It forced the British to think that their British Raj will not continue further. iv. Gandhi mobilised
a wider discontent against British rule. The whole nation is roused.

CHAPTER 15 FRAMING THE CONSTITUTION

"The British element is gone, but they have left the mischief behind"
Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel said: It is no use saying that we ask for separate electorates, because it
is good for us. We have heard it long enough. We have heard it for years, and as a result of this
agitation we are now a separate nation.... Can you show me one free country where there are
separate electorates ? If so, I shall be prepared to accept it. But in this unfortunate country if this
separate electorate is going to be persisted in, even after the division of the country, woe betide
the country; it is not worth living in. Therefore, I say, it is not for my good alone, it is for your own
good that I say it, forget the past. One day, we may be united The British element is gone, but
they nave left the mischief behind. We do not want to perpetuate that mischief. (Hear, hear). When
the British introduced this element they had not expected that they will have to go so soon. They
wanted it for their easy administration. That is all right. But they have left the legacy behind. Are
we to get out of it or not ? CAD, VOL. V

1. Explain Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel's views on the issue of separate electorate system.
I. Sardar Patel outrightly rejected the issue of separate electorates.

II. According to him, this system was implemented by the British as they were following the
principle of ‘divide and rule’.

2. In what ways did Sardar Patel explain that "The British element is gone, but they have
left the mischief behind”?
I. The principle of separate electorate was political mischief on the part of the British who
wanted to rule India by playing one community against the other.

II. Sardar Patel was of the opinion that though the British have left, this system of separate
electorate is still in practice.

3. Mention the reasons behind Sardar Patel urging the assembly members to get rid of
separate electorate.
I. Sardar Patel said that the principle of separate electorate should be abolished as no free
nation follows this principle.

II. He further said that India should also get rid of this practice of separate electorates as it can
undermine the unity of the nation.

4. why are separate electorates considered as a mischief?

Separate electorates are considered a mischief as it could divide the country into various parts.
This negative concept was the British legacy.

5. State the arguments given by Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel for building political unity and
forging a nation.
I. Sardar Patel gave various arguments for building political unity. He said that separate
electorates do not exist in any free country.

II. Separate electorates were the legacy of the British who aimed at dividing the nation, so it
should be discontinued in favour of national unity.

6. How did the philosophy of separate electorates result in a separate nation? (2)
I. The philosophy of separate electorates was based on religious bigotry.

II. Seats were reserved for people belonging to various religions in constitutional bodies.

III. This created a divide among the people on religious lines which led to the partitioning of the
nation.

We have never asked for privileges

Hansa Mehta of Bombay demanded justice for women, not reserved seats, or separate
electorates. We have never asked for privileges. What we have asked for is social justice,
economic justice, and political justice. We have asked for that equality which alone can be the
 basis of mutual respect and understanding, without which real cooperation is not possible
between man and woman.

(8.1) How can women be empowered economically ? 1

i. Empowered with economic equality.

ii. By creating decent work for women.

iii. Invest in women’s’ organizations and business.

iv. By giving equal rights in property.

v. By giving access to education

vi. Equal pay for equal work

vii . Any other relevant point

Any one point to be explained.

(8.2) What could be the basis of mutual respect among men and women ? 1
i. Giving respect to each other.

ii. Work with .mutual understanding

iii. Showing Cooperation.

iv. Socio- Economic Equality.

v. Giving equal access in education

vi. Any other relevant points

vii. Any one point to be explained. (1)

(8.3) Why did Hansa Mehta not demand separate electorate for women ? 2
i. Hansa Mehta demanded justice for women.

ii. Hansa Mehta demanded social- economic and political justice for women.

iii. As that is the only basis of mutual respect and understanding.

iv. Any other relevant points

v. Any two points to be explained. (2)

“There cannot be any divided loyalty”

Govind Ballabh Pant argued that in order to become loyal citizens people had to stop focusing
only on the community and the self: For the success of democracy one must train himself in the
art of self-discipline. In democracies one should care less for himself and more for others. There
cannot be any divided loyalty. All loyalties must exclusively be centred round the State. If in a
democracy, you create rival loyalties, or you create a system in which any individual or group,
instead of suppressing his extravagance, cares nought for larger or other interests, then
democracy is doomed.

Cad, Vol.Ii Source from Theme-15 – “Framing the Constitution’

9.1 How did G.B Pant encourage citizens to make a uni ed nation?
(i) According to Pant one should care less for himself and more for nation to make it strong and
uni ed


9.2 Why did he urge citizens for loyalty towards nation?

(ii) According to him, for making nation successful, Individual should care less for personal gain
and focus more on collective bene t and for the development of nation in all perspectives.

9.3How was loyalty considered as the base of social pyramid?/

(i) He suggested that nothing should be done for personal

gain which can harm the interest of other person or large section of people

(ii) This philosophy promotes people centric bene ts instead of individual centric.

(iii) Any other relevant point

9.4 Examine the concern of Govind Ballabh Pant for a uni ed Nation?
(i) He gave emphasis on political unity and strong nation.

(ii) Every individual to be moulded into a citizen of state.

(iii) Each group had to be assimilated within the nation.

(iv) Citizens had to o er their loyalties’ to the state.

(v) Communities to be recognised as cultural entities and assure cultural rights.

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(vi) Members of all communities had to act as equal members of one state.

(vii) There should not be any divided loyalties’.

(viii) Citizens are important as they are the base of the social pyramid.

(ix) He was against the separate electorate system.

(x) He wanted India to be a strong nation.

(xi) Any other relevant point

(xii) ((any one point )

9.5 Analyse the aspects considered signi cant for the success of Democracy?
For the success of democracy

(i) One should call less for himself and more for others.

(ii) All loyalties must exclusively be centred on the nation.

(iii) One should work on self-discipline.

(iv) Any other relevant point.

(v) Any two points (2)

(vi) (Any two points to be analysed)

9.6How was loyalty considered as an important attribute of social pyramid?

(i) For maintaining political unity

(ii) For forging a strong nation

(iii) For considering themselves as cultural entity

(iv) Loyalty was related with Self-discipline which could bring strength to the democracy

(v) He argued that in order to become loyal citizens people had to train themselves in the art of
self-discipline and need to show loyalty towards nations (Any one point )

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