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History - NCERT
Sunday, 23 July 2017 22:29
1. Class 6
A. What where when and how
a. Sulaiman and Kirthar Hills on Af-Pak border - some of the first places where wheat and
barley were grown and sheep, goat, cattle were reared (6000 BC). Rice was first grown north
of Vindhyas. Garo hills also had early agriculture.
b. Manuscripts were written on palm leaves or bark of birch tree (Himalayas).
B. Earliest people
a. Kurnool caves has evidence of familiarity with fire. Paleolithic site.
b. Hungsi - tools made out of local limestone.
c. Paleolithic - stone age. Longest stretch of time. Covers 99% of human history.
d. Mesolithic - middle stone. 12,000-10,000 years ago. Change in environment (ice age ends),
grasslands develop. Stone tools (called microliths).
e. Neolithic - from about 10,000 years ago.
C. Growing food
a. Domestication - First animal to be tamed wild ancestor of dog. Teeth and horns of wild
animals are larger than those of domesticated ones. Earliest plants were wheat and barley.
b. Sites where grains and bones have been found - Kashmir (Burzahom had dug houses), UP,
Bihar (Chirand), AP (Hallur).
c. Mehrgarh, near Bolan pass, is one of the earliest villages we know about. They kept sheep
and goat. Square and rectangular houses. IVC is continuation of the neolithic Mehrgarh
culture 
d. Daojali Hading (Brahmaputra valley) - had jadeite, which may have been brought from
China.
D. Earliest cities
a. Cities were divided into two or more parts. West was smaller but higher and had citadel.
Part to east was larger but lower. Bricks were laid in interlocking pattern that made walls
strong.
b. Houses were 1 or 2 storeys high. Separate bathing area. Covered drains.
c. Copper and bronze to make tools, weapons, vessels. Gold and silver to make ornaments and
vessels. Faience was an artificial material used to make beads, bangles, earrings.
d. Imported items - copper, tin, gold, silver, precious stones.
e. Harappans were aware of binary and decimal system and used it for measurement
f. Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard. Ploughs
made of wood was used to dig earth. Some form of irrigation may have been used. Reared -
cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo.
City State Special feature

Harappa Pakistan only site which yields the evidence of coffin burial. A copper
bullock cart is another notable finding.
Mohenjo Pakistan Great Bath (no stone use), elaborate store houses, uniform
daro buildings and weights, hidden drains, cotton clothes. Dancing girl,
seal of Pashupati, bearded priest
Kalibanga Rajasthan Fire altar, oldest ploughed field, bricks are earthen ones, no
n drainage
Rakhigarh Haryana
i
Banawali
Lothal Gujarat Fire altar, Semi precious stones available. Coastal town, direct sea
trade links with Mesopotamia
Dholavira Gujarat Divided into 3 parts. Large open area for public ceremonies.
E. Vedic period
a. Vedas - Rigveda has a dialog bw Vishwamitra and rivers Beas and Sutlej. Many prayers for
cattle, children and horses. Battles on horse chariots fought to capture cattle and lands.
i. Groups who are described in terms of their work - brahmins and rajas.
ii. People or community were described as jana or vish (vaishya).
b. Practice of megaliths began around 3000 years ago (1000 BC) and was prevalent throughout
Deccan and south, North east and Kashmir. Dead were buried with distinctive pots - Black
and Red Ware, tools and weapons, horses, ornaments of stone and gold. Rich and poor
distinction was clear.
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c. Cist burial is a small stone-built coffin like box to keep the dead persons while Dolmen
burial is like a single chamber megalithic tomb having two or more vertical megaliths 
d. Inamgaon (Maharashtra) - buried head towards north, sometimes within the houses, vessels
that contained food and water.
F. Post vedic
a. Some men now became recognized as rajas by performing very big sacrifices. Asvamedha
was one such ritual (horse was let loose, if wandered into other kingdoms and they stopped
it, those kings had to fight. If horse allowed to pass, suzerainty accepted and gifts offered).
b. Rajas who performed big sacrifices were known as rajas of janpadas. Painted Grey Ware is
from this time period, was used for special occasions
c.
d. Mahajanpadas were fortified. Armies were maintained with regular salaries. Instead of gifts
brought by people, rajas now started collecting taxes
i. 1/6 of crop produce. One man day on craftsperson. Herders had to provide animals
and animals produce. Taxes on trade. Hunters had to provide forest produce.
e. Major changes - iron ploughs and transplanting of paddy. Dasas and kammakaras (landless)
had to do this work.
f. Rise of Magadha - rivers flowing through it made transport easy, easy supply of water, and
fertile lands, elephants in the region for army.
g. Vajji - capital at Vaishali. Was under gana or sangha form of govt - many rulers (not
women). Both Buddha and Mahavira came from such ganas.
G. New movements
a. Buddha belonged to Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. Taught in Prakrit.
b. Upanishads - means approaching and sitting near. Texts contain conversations bw teachers
and students. Most thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Exceptions - Gargi
and Satyakama Jabala. Upanishad thinkers believed that atman (individual soul) and
brahman (universal soul) were ultimately one.
c. Mahavira - kshatriya prince of Lichchhavis (Vajji sangha). Taught in Prakrit. Jainism was
supported mainly by traders as farmers had to kill insects to protect crops.
d. Earliest viharas were made of wood and then of brick. Often land was donated by rich
merchant or landowner or king.
e. Brahmins developed the system of ashramas around this period - brahmacharya, grihastha,
vanaprastha and sanyasa.
H. Ashoka
a. Megasthenese was an ambassador sent to Chandragupta by Greek ruler of West Asia
Seleucus Nicator. Wrote - king surrounded by armed women, never sleeps in same bedroom
for 2 nights, trained parrots circle about head of emperor.
b. Inscriptions have been found all over the country (except maybe NE and TN/KL). Written in
Prakrit (Brahmi script).
c. Ashoka's dhamma - appointed officials known as dhamma mahamatta. Sent messengers to
Syria, Egypt, Greece and Sri Lanka. Ideas - being gentle with slaves and servants, respecting
one's elders, giving gifts to monks, respect other's religion.
d. use of stone started from the time of Asoka. Even of the numerous monuments of Asoka,
only a few have remained. Only remaining stupa is at Sanchi.
I. Towns and villages (1st CE)
a. In Tamil Nadu, large landowners (vellalars), ploughmen (uzhavar) and landless labor
(kadaisiyar) and slaves (adimai).
b. In North, village headman (gram bhojaka) which was a hereditary post and was the largest
landowner. Judicial and police functions. Independent farmers known as grihapatis.
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c. Earliest coins were in use for 500 years were punched coins, made of - silver and copper.
Designs were punched on silver or copper.
d. Shrenis were associations of craft persons and merchants. Also served as banks where rich
people deposited money.
e. Arikamedu (Pondicherry) was a famous sea port - Roman goods have been found here.
Mentioned in Ptolemy's Geographia as Poduke
J. Traders, kings and pilgrims (before Gupta)
a. Muvendars (three chiefs) became powerful in ancient Tamil. Puhar (Kaveripattinam) was a
famous sea port of Cholas in the Nagapattinam district which traded with Roman empire.
Madurai was capital of Pandyas.
b. Did not collect regular taxes. Demanded and received gifts. Sangam poets composed poems
in praise of these chiefs who rewarded them.
c. Gautamiputra Satakarni is known because of inscription composed by his mother, Gautami
Balashri. Lords of the Dakshinpatha.
d. Kushanas controlled the silk route from their major power center - Peshawar and Mathura.
Hence a branch of silk road came to Indus. Kushanas issued gold coins - one of the earliest
rulers to do so.
e. Kanishka organized Buddhist council. His court poet, Ashvagosha composed biography of
Buddha called Buddhacharita, writing in Sanskrit. Mahayana developed.
f. Travelers - Fa Hien (Chandra Gupta II, went back by sea. Noticed plight of untouchables),
Xuan Zang (Harsha, went back by land), I-Qing.
i. Faxian's visit to India occurred during the reign of Chandragupta II. However, he
mentioned nothing about Guptas.
g. Beginning of Bhakti - present in Bhagavad Gita. Emphasized devotion and individual worship
of a god rather performance of elaborate sacrifices.
K. Gupta Empire
a. Prashashti is a Sanskrit word meaning, in praise of.
b. Samudragupta - inscriptions were written by Harisena. Harisena was also maha-danda-
nayaka (chief judicial officer). SG's achievements
i. Rulers of Aryavarta - uprooted and their kingdoms made part of Gupta empire
ii. 12 Rulers of dakshinapath - surrendered and were allowed to rule
iii. Gana sanghas of neighboring states - paid tributes and followed his orders
iv. Rulers of SL, NW - submitted to him and offered daughters in marriage
c. Both father (CG) and son used title maharaj-adhiraja.
d. Harshavardhana - his biography Harshacharita was written by Banabhatta. Xuan Zang spent
time at his court. Successful in east, nowhere else.
e. Chalukyas - capital at Aihole which developed as a religious center. Pallavas and Chalukyas
frequently raided one another's land.
i. Pulakeshin II is known from his prashasti composed by court poet Ravikirti.
f. Imp posts around this time
i. Kumar-amatya: important minister
ii. Sandhi-vigrahika: minister of war and peace
iii. Nagara-shreshthi: chief banker/merchant
iv. Sarthavaha: leader of merchant caravans
v. Prathama-kulika: chief craftsman
vi. Kayasthas: scribes
vii. Samantas: military leaders who provided troops in lieu of land
g. Assemblies of southern kingdom
i. Sabha - assembly of brahmin land owners
ii. Ur - village assembly with non-brahmin land owners
iii. Nagaram - association of merchants
L. Buildings and paintings
i. Iron pillar at Mehrauli -generally identified with Chandragupta II
ii. Stupas - generally have a small box containing bodily remains of Buddha or his
followers
iii. Kalidasa - flourished during the reign of Chandragupta II. Plays - Abhigyan
Shakuntalam, Malvikaagnimitram, Vikramorasiyam. Poems- Kumarasambhava,
Raghuvamsa
iv. Aryabhata, mathematician and astronomer - wrote Aryabhatiyam and Aryasiddhanta.
Day and night caused by rotation on axis, explained eclipses, calculated circumference
of a circle.
2. Class 7
A. Tracing the changes bw 700 AD to 1750 AD
a. Al-Idrisi & Guillaume Delisle - were cartographers. Minhaj-i-siraj - used the term India to
mean dominions of Delhi Sultanate, not including south India. Hindustan was used by Babur
to describe geography, flora and fauna of the subcontinent. Paper was more easily available
from 14th century onwards. Miniature paintings were used to illustrate the text of
paintings. Taliq, nastaliq and shikaste - are Persian and Arabic writing styles. By 700 AD,
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many regions already possessed distinct geographical dimensions and their own language
and cultural characteristics.
b. Brahmins position was consolidated by new rulers searching for prestige. Idea of bhakti – of
a loving, personal deity that devotees could reach without the aid of priests or elaborate
rituals. Like Hinduism, Islam was interpreted in a variety of ways - Shias (Prophet's son-in-
law Ali is the leader) and Sunnis (accepted leadership of father-in-law Bakr). Sunnis are the
largest religious domination, followed by Catholics. Sunni schools, prominent 4- Hanafi
(reason), Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali.
B. New kingdoms
a. Samantas - big landlords/warrior chief who were subordinate to the kings. Called
themselves mahasamanta or maha-mandaleswara. Rashtrakutas (Dantidurga performed
hiranya-garbha ritual to "rebirth" himself as a kshatriya) gained power by overthrowing their
Chalukyan overlord. Brahmanas also took up arms and established kingdoms (Gurjaras and
Kadambas).
b. Administration: resources were obtained from producers - peasants, cattle-keepers,
artisans. Cholas took taxes - vetti (forced labor) & kadamai (land revenue). Prashasti contain
details that may not be true. Copper plates with royal seal - record of grant of land by the
ruler. Kalhana wrote Rajatarangini which was an account of Kashmir.
c. Kannauj - was center of conquest for subcontinent rulers. Foreign invaders raided the
temples for their wealth. Kitab-ul-Hind written by Al-Biruni is an account of subcontinent
around that period (11th century).
d. Cholas - founder Vijayalaya, seized power from Pandyan and Pallavas territories. Rajaraja
consolidated power, Rajendra I raided Sri Lanka and SE Asia by building navies for these
expedition. Great Living Chola temples - UNESCO World Heritage Site consists of 3 Shiva
temples - Brihadeeswarar, Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Rajendra I), Airavatesvara. Temples
hub of economic, social and cultural life. Chola bronze image are the finest in the world.
From 5-6th century, Kaveri delta opened up for large scale cultivation.
e. Admin of cholas - ur was settlement of peasants. Group of villages formed unit called
nadus. Nadus dispensed justice and collected taxes. Vellala caste was dominant. Rich
landowners were given titles by kings like - muvendavelan (peasant serving 3 kings), araiyar
and gave them important offices in the State. Types of land - vellanvagai (non-Brahaman),
brahmadeya (gift to Brahamanas), Shalabhoga (for maintenance of schools), Devadana
(temples), pallichchhandam (Jainas institutions). Brahmadeya was looked after by a sabha
who recorded decisions on the walls of the temples. Uttaramerur inscription - members of
sabha should own the land, 35-70 age, knowledge of vedas, account of himself and relatives,
honest, 3 year max term. Association of traders (nagaram) performed admin functions.
Periyapuranam (12th century Tamil work) talks about outcastes called Pulaiyas.
C. Delhi Sultanate
a. Delhi became an important commercial center under Tomaras and Chahamanas. Coins
minted called delhiwal.
Rajput Early 12th century - 1206

Mamluk Dynasty 1206-1290 Turks
b.
Khilji Dynasty 1290-1320 Turks
Tughlaq Dynasty 1320-1414 Turko-Indian
Sayyid Dynasty 1414-1451 Turks
Lodi Dynasty 1451-1526 Pashtuns/Afghans
c. Tarikh/tawarikh - are histories written in Persian the language of administration of Delhi

Sultans. The authors of these had lived in cities and not villages, expected reward from the
rulers, advised to preserve ideal social order based on birth right and gender distinctions.
Raziyya Sultan was the only woman ruler of Delhi Sultanate. Minaj-i-sayyid was her
chronicler. Usually women ruler kept their gender identity on low profile (Rudramadevi,
Didda). Delhi Sultanate was one of the few states in the world which could repel Mongol
invasion.
d. Expansion of Delhi Sultanate - 1st expansion in internal frontiers - hinterland around
garrison towns was controlled by clearing forests and encouraging agriculture. 2nd
expansion - external frontiers - military expedition into Southern India. Notable - Alauddin
Khilji & Muhammad Tughlaq. Quwwat al-Islam (Qutab complex) - built in 12th century by
Qutbuddin Aybak and Iltutmish. Qibla is direction of Kabba in Mecca.
e. Administration - Bandagan (special slave for military slaves) were governors. Slaves and
clients were loyal to their masters and patrons, but not to their heirs. New Sultans had their
own servants. As a result the accession of a new monarch often saw conflict between the
old and the new nobility. The patronage of these humble people by the Delhi Sultans also
shocked many elites and the authors of Persian tawarikh criticized the Delhi Sultans for
appointing the “low and base-born” to high offices.
f. Khilji and Tughlaq - appointed muqtis or iqtadars, who were basically feudal lords. This
position was not hereditary and the muqtis were frequently transferred. Accountants kept a
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check on amount of revenue collected. Rights of chieftains to levy taxes were cancelled and
they were also forced to pay taxes. 3 types of taxes: (1) on cultivation called kharaj about
50% of peasant’s produce, (2) on cattle and (3) on houses. But entire area was not under
effective administrations - forests or far away provinces or South India. Tribal chieftains
defended themselves (protected by bamboo forests and harvested rainwater for crops and
selves) - account by Ibn Battuta.
g. Mongols - attacked under Genghis Khan. Mongol attacks on the Delhi Sultanate increased
during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and in the early years of Muhammad Tughluq’s rule.
Forced both to mobilize a large standing army in Delhi which posed a huge administrative
challenge. Strategies -
Alauddin Khilji Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Defensive measures, raised large Raised a large standing army to attack Transoxiana,
standing army emptied Delhi-i-kunha and forced migration to
Daulatabad
Taxed land between Ganga and Produce from same area was collected as tax, but
Yamuna at 50% to feed his levied additional taxes, which coincided with famine
h. soldiers
Paid cash than iqtas (rations), and Paid cash but instead of controlling prices gave out
controlled prices of goods in Delhi tokens (think sodexo), which people didn't trust. They
and surveyed by officers instead paid taxes with it which could also be
counterfeited.
Measures were considered Measures considered as a failure. Offensive campaign
successful, reign was marked by was a disaster and his administrative measures
cheap prices and efficient supply created problems. Resented for emptying cities,
of goods and services famines, "token" currency
To Tughlaq's credit - planned an offensive against Mongols and capture their territory.
D. Mughals
a. Mughals were descendants of 2 lineages - Genghis Khan (mother's side, ruler of Central
Asia) & Timur (father's side, ruler of Iran Iraq Turkey).
i. Babur - 1526-1530. Defeated Ibrahim Lodi at 1st Battle of Panipat in 1526 establishing
Mughal empire in Northern India. 1528 defeated Rajputs at Chanderi.
ii. Humayun - 1530-1540 & 1555-56 - divided inheritance as per will of father. Sher Khan
Suri ruled for 15 years after defeating Humayun at Chausa & Kanauj. Humayun re-
captures Delhi with the help of Safavid Shah of Iran
iii. Akbar 1556-1605 - regent king under Bairam Khan until 1570. Consolidated power by
launching campaigns against neighboring kingdoms such as Malwa, Gondwana,
Sisodiya etc. 1570-1585 - Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal, Odisha captured. 1585-1605 - Kabul,
Kandahar + Deccan.
iv. Jahangir 1605 - 1627 - Military campaigns continue. Shah Jahan takes over after his
death.
v. Shah Jahan 1627 - 1658 - Taj Mahal and Shahjahanabad.
vi. Aurangzeb 1658 - 1707 - killed his 2 brothers over succession conflict and jailed Shah
Jahan for life in Agra.
b. Mughals followed coparcenary inheritance (joint heirship) instead of primogeniture - which
ultimately led to battle of succession among princes. The careful balance between
defeating but not humiliating their opponents enabled the Mughals to extend their
influence over many kings and chieftains. Mansabdars refers to a person who holds mansab
meaning a rank. It was a grading system used by Mughals to fix rank, salary and military
responsibilities (maintain cavalrymen); which was determined by a numerical value called
zat. Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called jagir.
i. Peasantry by Aurangzeb's reign suffered because mansabdars increased while jagirs
were in short supply. Revenue from jagirs was extracted as much as possible.
ii. Zabti was a revenue system under Akbar's reign by Todar Mal. After careful survey tax
was fixed on each crop in cash based on 10 year data. Each province was divided into
revenue circle with its own schedule of revenue rates for individual crops. Not
possible in Gujarat and Bengal but where Mughals had direct control.
iii. Abul Fazl wrote Akbar Nama, 3 volume history of Akbar's reign. Ain-i-Akbari is 3rd
volume of it and deals with his administration, army, household et al and provides
rich details about traditions and culture of people living in India.
c. Akbar's policies - Empire was divided into provinces called subas, governed by subadar.
Financial officer called diwan. Peace and order controlled by officials such as the military
paymaster (bakhshi), the minister in charge of religious and charitable patronage (sadr),
military commanders (faujdars) and the town police commander (kotwal).
d. Sulh-i-kul (universal peace) - This idea of tolerance did not discriminate between people of
different religions in his realm, focused on a system of ethics – honesty, justice, peace – that
was universally applicable. Was adopted by Akbar not merely for religious purposes, but as a
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part of general imperial administrative policy. Akbar held discussions with priests of
different religions in ibadat khana.
e. Mughal emperors and their mansabdars spent a great deal of their income on salaries and
goods. This expenditure benefited the artisans and peasantry who supplied them with
goods and produce. But the scale of revenue collection left very little for investment in the
hands of the primary producers – the peasant and the artisan.
i. Poorest amongst them lived from hand to mouth and they could hardly consider
investing in additional resources – tools and supplies – to increase productivity. The
wealthier peasantry and artisanal groups, the merchants and bankers profited in this
economic world
f. Ottoman Turkey - Sultan Suleiman. He was the great emperor of Ottoman empire, known as
al-Qanuni (law giver) because of large number of qanuns passed during his reign.
E. Rulers and buildings
a. Qutb Minar is 5 storeys tall, 1st floor was by Qutbuddin Aybak and rest by Iltutmish. Tallest
brick minaret in the world. Engineering skills - corbelled or trabeate technique, used
between 8-13 AD. From early 12 AD - (1) The weight of the superstructure above the doors
and windows was sometimes carried by arches. This architectural form was called “arcuate”
(2) Limestone cement was increasingly used in construction, which made construction of
large structures easier and faster
b. Temple construction in early 11 AD -
i. Kandariya Mahadeva - Shiva temple by King Dhangadeva of Chandela dynasty.
Khajuraho had royal temples where commoners weren't allowed. Main hall
(mahamandapa) & main shrine (garbhagriha).
ii. Rajarajeshwara temple - Shiva temple by King Rajaraja deva which doesn’t allow non-
Hindus. Had tallest shikhara of its time.
c. As each new dynasty came to power, kings wanted to emphasize their moral right to be
rulers. Constructing places of worship provided rulers with the chance to proclaim their
close relationship with God, especially important in an age of rapid political change. Because
kings built temples to demonstrate their devotion to God and their power and wealth, it is
not surprising that when they attacked one another’s kingdoms they often targeted these
buildings
d. Mughals were especially interested in literature, art and architecture (chahar baghs). The
central towering dome and the tall gateway (pishtaq) became important aspects of Mughal
architecture, first visible in Humayun’s tomb. During Shah Jahan’s reign that the different
elements of Mughal architecture were fused together in a synthesis. His reign witnessed a
huge amount of construction activity especially in Agra and Delhi. The ceremonial halls of
public and private audience (diwan-i khas or aam) were carefully planned. Placed within a
large courtyard, these courts were also described as chihil sutun or forty-pillared halls.
//The idea of the king as a representative of God on earth was suggested by architectural
features, such as facing Mecca when court is in session.
e. Shah Jahan adapted the river-front garden in the layout of the Taj Mahal. The mausoleum
was placed on a terrace by the edge of the river and the garden was to its south. Access to
river was reserved for imperial king.
f. The creation of large empires that brought different regions under their rule helped in this
cross-fertilization of artistic forms and architectural styles. Mughal rulers were particularly
skilled in adapting regional architectural styles in the construction of their own buildings. In
Bengal, for example, the local rulers had developed a roof that was designed to resemble a
thatched hut. Mughals liked this “Bangla dome” so much that they used it in their
architecture. The impact of other regions was also evident. In Akbar’s capital at Fatehpur
Sikri many of the buildings show the influence of the architectural styles of Gujarat and
Malwa.
F. Towns, traders, craftsmen
a. Sthapatis (sculptors). Thanjavur is an example of a temple town. Temple towns represent a
very important pattern of urbanization, the process by which cities develop. Towns emerged
around temples such as those of Bhillasvamin (Bhilsa or Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh), and
Somnath in Gujarat. Other important temple towns included Kanchipuram and Madurai in
Tamil Nadu, and Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh.
b. Banjaras were traders. Guilds formed to protect interests as traders traveled intensively -
Manigramam and Nanadesi. These guilds traded extensively both within the peninsula and
with Southeast Asia and China.
c. Crafts - The craftsperson of Bidar were so famed for their inlay work in copper and silver
that it came to be called Bidri. Panchalas or Vishwakarma community, consisting of
goldsmiths, bronze smiths, blacksmiths, masons and carpenters, were essential to the
building of temples. Weavers were the Saliyar or Kaikkolars.
d. Hampi is located in the Krishna-Tungabhadra basin, which formed the nucleus of the
Vijayanagara Empire, founded in 1336. The magnificent ruins at Hampi reveal a well-fortified
city. No mortar or cementing agent was used in the construction of these walls and the
technique followed was to wedge them together by interlocking.
e. Surat in Gujarat was the emporium of western trade during the Mughal period along with
Cambay (present day Khambat) and somewhat later, Ahmedabad. Surat was the gateway for
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trade with West Asia via the Gulf of Ormuz. Surat has also been called the gate to Mecca
because many pilgrim ships set sail from here. Surat hundis were honored in the far-off
markets of Cairo in Egypt, Basra in Iraq and Antwerp in Belgium.
f. Both the Dutch and English East India Companies attempted to control Masulipatnam as it
became the most important port on the Andhra coast. The fort at Masulipatnam was built
by the Dutch.
g. In the 16th and 17th centuries, European countries were searching for spices and textiles.
The English, Dutch and French formed East India Companies in order to expand their
commercial activities in the east. Initially great Indian traders like Mulla Abdul Ghafur and
Virji Vora who owned a large number of ships competed with them. However, the European
Companies used their naval power to gain control of the sea trade and forced Indian traders
to work as their agents.
h. 18th century saw the rise of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras, which are nodal cities today.
Crafts and commerce underwent major changes as merchants and artisans (such as
weavers) were moved into the Black Towns established by the European companies within
these new cities. The “blacks” or native traders and crafts persons were confined here while
the “white” rulers occupied the superior residencies of Fort St. George in Madras or Fort St.
William in Calcutta.
G. Tribes, Nomads & Settled Communities
a. Difference between the high and low, and between the rich and poor, increased. Under the
Delhi Sultans and the Mughals, this hierarchy between social classes grew further. Many
societies in the subcontinent did not follow the social rules and rituals prescribed by the
Brahmanas. Nor were they divided into numerous unequal classes. Such societies are often
called tribes. Preserved rich customs and oral traditions were passed down to each new
generation. Present day historians have started using such oral traditions to write tribal
histories.
b. Banjaras were the most important trader-nomads. Their caravan was called tanda. Many
tribes and social groups were taken into caste-based society and given the status of jatis.
Smiths, carpenters and masons – were also recognized as separate jatis. Jatis, rather than
varna, became the basis for organizing society. The rise of Rajput clans to the position of
rulers set an example for the tribal people to follow. Many dominant tribes of Punjab, Sind
and the NW Frontier adopted Islam quite early. The unequal social order, prescribed by
orthodox Hinduism, was not widely accepted in these areas.
c. Gonds lived in a vast forested region called Gondwana – or “country inhabited by Gonds”
and shifting cultivation. Large Gond tribe was divided into many smaller clans, each clan
with own raja or rai. About the time that the power of the Delhi Sultans was declining, a few
large Gond kingdoms were beginning to dominate the smaller Gond chiefs. Gond kingdom
of Garha Katanga that had 70,000 villages.
i. Kingdom divided into garhs. Each garh was controlled by a particular Gond clan. This
was further divided into units of 84 villages called chaurasi. The chaurasi was
subdivided into barhots which were made up of 12 villages each. Was also involved in
exporting elephants.
ii. later struggled unsuccessfully against the stronger Bundelas and Marathas.
d. Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day Myanmar in the 13th century.
They created a new state by suppressing the older political system of the bhuiyans
(landlords). Ahom state depended upon forced labor. Those forced to work for the state
were called paiks. A census of the population was taken. Each village had to send a number
of paiks by rotation.
i. Ahom society was divided into clans or khels. There were very few castes of artisans,
so artisans in the Ahom areas came from the adjoining kingdoms. A khel often
controlled several villages. The peasant was given land by his village community. Even
the king could not take it away without the community’s consent.
ii. Transformed into a Hindu society in early 18th century as kings sought prestige and
were encouraged in performing rituals. Poets and scholars were given land grants.
Theatre was encouraged. Important works of Sanskrit were translated into the local
language. Historical works, known as buranjis, were also written – first in the Ahom
language and then in Assamese.
e. Varna-based society and tribal people constantly interacted with each other. This
interaction caused both kinds of societies to adapt and change. There were many different
tribes and they took up diverse livelihoods. Over a period of time, many of them merged
with caste based society. Others, however, rejected both the caste system and orthodox
Hinduism.
H. Devotional Paths to Divine
a. Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups of people worshipped their own gods and
goddesses. As people were brought together, new ideas began to develop. All living things
pass through countless cycles of birth and rebirth performing good deeds and bad came to
be widely accepted. Similarly, the idea that all human beings are not equal even at birth
gained ground during this period. The belief that social privileges came from birth in a
“noble” family or a “high” caste was the subject of many learned texts.
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b. Many people were uneasy with such ideas and turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the
Jains according to which it was possible to overcome social differences and break the cycle
of rebirth through personal effort. Others felt attracted to the idea of a Supreme God who
could deliver humans from such bondage if approached with devotion (or bhakti). This
idea, advocated in the Bhagavadgita, grew in popularity in the early centuries of the
Common Era.
c. 7th to 9th centuries saw the emergence of new religious movements, led by the Nayanars
(saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) who came from all castes
including those considered “untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars.
i. 63 Nayanars, who belonged to different caste backgrounds. Best known were Appar,
Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar. There are two sets of compilations of
their songs – Tevaram and Tiruvacakam
ii. There were 12 Alvars, who came from equally divergent backgrounds, the best known
being Periyalvar, his daughter Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar and Nammalvar. Their
songs were compiled in the Divya Prabandham.
d. Shankara - born in 8th century Kerala - advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness
of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the Ultimate Reality. Ramanuja, born in
Tamil Nadu in the 11th century, was deeply influenced by the Alvars (Vaishnavites). He
propounded the doctrine of Vishisht advaita or qualified oneness in that the soul even
when united with the Supreme God remained distinct (non-dualistic).
i. Vedanta is an umbrella term for many sub-traditions, ranging from dualism to non-
dualism, all of which developed on the basis of a common textual connection called
the Prasthanatrayi.
ii. Prasthanatrayi is a collective term for the Principal Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras
and the Bhagavad Gita. Some of the better known sub-traditions of Vedanta include
Advaita (non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), and Dvaita (dualism).
e. Virashaiva movement initiated by Basavanna and his companions like Allama Prabhu and
Akkamahadevi. This movement began in Karnataka in the mid-12th century.
i. Virashaivas argued strongly for the equality of all human beings and against
Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women. They were also against
all forms of ritual and idol worship.
ii. Basavanna spread social awareness through his poetry known as Vachanaas.
 introduced new public institutions such as the Anubhava Mantapa (or, the “hall of
spiritual experience”), which welcomed men and women from all socio-economic
backgrounds to discuss spiritual and mundane questions of life, in open.
f. From the 13th to the 17th centuries Maharashtra saw a great number of saint-poets, whose
songs in simple Marathi continue to inspire people. The most important among them were
Jnaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram as well as women like Sakhubai and the family
of Chokhamela, who belonged to the “untouchable” Mahar caste. This regional tradition of
bhakti focused on the Vitthala (a form of Vishnu) temple in Pandharpur, as well as on the
notion of a personal god residing in the hearts of all people. //abhang (Marathi devotional
hymn for Vithoba)
g. Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas and Yogis criticized the ritual and other aspects of conventional
religion and the social order, using simple, logical arguments. They advocated renunciation
of the world.
i. Nathpanthis - Shaivism sub-tradition within Hinduism. A medieval era movement, it
combined ideas from Buddhism, Shaivism and Yoga traditions in India.
ii. Siddhacharas - devotional group popular among the lower caste people as they did
not advocate rituals but called for renouncing worldly rituals
iii. Yogis - also referred to members of the Nath siddha tradition of Hinduism
h. Sufism - The sants had much in common with the Sufis, so much so that it is believed that
they adopted many ideas of each other. Sufis were Muslim mystics. They rejected outward
religiosity and emphasized love and devotion to God and compassion towards all fellow
human beings. The Sufis often rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behavior
demanded by Muslim religious scholars. Among the great Sufis of Central Asia were
Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi. Like the Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis, the Sufis too believed that
the heart can be trained to look at the world in a different way.
i. They developed elaborate methods of training using zikr (chanting of a name or
sacred formula), contemplation, sama (singing), raqs (dancing), discussion of parables,
breath control, etc. under the guidance of a master or pir. Thus emerged the silsilas, a
spiritual genealogy of Sufi teachers, each following a slightly different method (tariqa)
of instruction and ritual practice.
ii. The Chishti silsila was among the most influential orders. It had a long line of teachers
like Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid
of Punjab, Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and Bandanawaz Gisudaraz of
Gulbarga.
i. Period after 13th century saw a new wave of the bhakti movement in north India. This was
an age when Islam, Brahmanical Hinduism, Sufism, various strands of bhakti, and the
Nathpanths, Siddhas and Yogis influenced one another. Some of them like Kabir and Baba
Guru Nanak rejected all orthodox religions.
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Others like Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing beliefs and practices but wanted to make
these accessible to all. Tulsidas conceived of God in the form of Rama. Tulsidas’s
composition, the Ramcharitmanas, written in Awadhi.
Surdas was an ardent devotee of Krishna. His compositions are in Sursagara, Surasaravali
and Sahitya Lahari.
C. C. K 1 C · C. C•Tukrvn C. SEA C. 1 C.
j.
k. This tradition also included saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai. Mirabai was a
Rajput princess married into the royal family of Mewar in the sixteenth century. Mirabai
became a disciple of Ravidas (contested), a saint from a caste considered “untouchable”;
devoted to Krishna and composed innumerable bhajans. Her songs openly challenged the
norms of the “upper” castes and became popular with the masses in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
l. Kabir, who probably lived in the 15-16th centuries, was one of the most influential saints.
He was brought up in a family of Muslim julahas or weavers settled in or near the city of
Benares.
i. His ideas are from collection of verses called sakhis and pads, said to have been
composed by him and sung by wandering bhajan singers. Some of these were
preserved in the Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani (text of the Dadupanthi tradition
within Hinduism) and Bijak (Kabirpanthi's text).
ii. Kabir’s teachings were based on a complete, indeed vehement, rejection of the
major religious traditions. His teachings openly ridiculed all forms of external worship
of both Brahmanical Hinduism and Islam, the pre-eminence of the priestly classes and
the caste system. The language of his poetry was a form of spoken Hindi.
iii. Kabir believed in a formless Supreme God and preached that the only path to
salvation was through bhakti or devotion. Kabir drew his followers from among both
Hindus and Muslims.
m. Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) born at Talwandi (Nankana Sahib in Pakistan), he travelled
widely before establishing a center at Kartarpur (Dera Baba Nanak on the river Ravi). A
regular worship that consisted of the singing of his own hymns was established there for his
followers. Irrespective of their former creed, caste or gender, his followers ate together in
the common kitchen (langar). The sacred space thus created by Baba Guru Nanak was
known as dharmsal. It is now known as Gurdwara.
i. Guru Angad (his successor) compiled the compositions of Baba Guru Nanak, to which
he added his own in a new script known as Gurmukhi. The three successors of Guru
Angad also wrote under the name of “Nanak”. The fifth guru, Guru Arjun Dev, gave
the Sikhs three things. The first was in the shape of the Adi Granth, which contains the
sayings of five gurus and other allied saints. The second was the standardized script
for Gurmukhi in which the Adi Granth was first written. And finally, the site and the
foundation of the Har Mandir sahib or the Golden Temple and the Akal Takht at
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Amritsar, the highest seat from where the dictats for the entire Sikh community are
issued.
ii. To this compilation were added the writings of other figures like Shaikh Farid, Sant
Kabir, Bhagat Namdev and Guru Tegh Bahadur. In 1706 this compilation was
authenticated by Guru Tegh Bahadur’s son and successor, Guru Gobind Singh. It is
now known as Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of the Sikhs. The tenth guru,
Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa, which means “the pure”, in 1699. He also
ordained the Sikhs to take five vows, namely, keeping of kesh (long hair and a beard),
kangha (comb), kada (a metallic bangle), kirpan (a sword) and kaccha (an underwear
extending to a little above the knees). Consequently, these symbols became the
distinguishing marks of a Sikh. He further added that after his death the Adi Granth
will be the guru of the Sikhs and they have to pay obeisance to this holy book.
iii. Nanak emphasized the importance of the worship of one God. He insisted that caste,
creed or gender was irrelevant for attaining liberation. His idea of liberation was not
that of a state of inert bliss but rather the pursuit of active life with a strong sense of
social commitment. He himself used the terms nam, dan and insan for the essence of
his teaching, which actually meant right worship, welfare of others and purity of
conduct. His teachings are now remembered as nam-japna, kirt-karna and
vandchhakna (sharing), which also underline the importance of right belief and
worship, honest living, and helping others. Thus, Baba Guru Nanak’s idea of equality
had social and political implications. This might partly explain the difference between
the history of the followers of Baba Guru Nanak and the history of the followers of the
other religious figures of the medieval centuries, like Kabir, Ravidas and Dadu whose
ideas were very similar to those of Baba Guru Nanak.
I. Regional Culture
a. Cheras -> development of Malayalam in Mahodayapuram (their capital). Added Sanskrit
traditions to it. Regional texts are indebted to Sanskrit. Manipravalam - mix of Sanskrit and
Tamil - one work is Lilatilakam dealing in grammar and poetics.
b. Regional cultures grew around religious traditions. Best example - is the cult of Jagannatha
(lord of the world, name for Vishnu) at Puri. To date, the local tribal people make the
wooden image of the deity, which suggests that the deity was originally a local god, later
identified with Vishnu. Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman, decided to erect a temple for
Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri.
Rajputs had a tradition of heroism, often choosing death over defeat.
c. Kathak - The term kathak is derived from katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other languages
for story. The kathaks were originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India, who
embellished their performances with gestures and songs. Kathak began evolving into a
distinct mode of dance in the 15th and 16th centuries with the spread of the bhakti
movement. The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila, which
combined folk dance with the basic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.
i. Under the Mughal emperors, Kathak was performed in the court, where it acquired its
present features and developed into a form of dance with a distinctive style.
Subsequently, it developed in two traditions or gharanas: one in the courts of Jaipur
and the other in Lucknow. Under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of
Awadh, it grew into a major art form.
ii. Kathak, like several other cultural practices, was viewed with disfavor by most British
administrators. However, it survived and continued to be performed by courtesans,
and was recognized as one of six “classical” forms of dance in the country after
independence.
iii. Other dance forms that are recognized as classical at present are: Bharatanatyam
(Tamil Nadu) Kathakali (Kerala) Odissi (Orissa) Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) Manipuri
(Manipur)
d. Miniature paintings - Miniatures are small-sized paintings, generally done in water color on
cloth or paper; were patronized by Mughal emperors. After decline of Mughal emperors, the
artists moved to emerging regional kingdoms. As a result, Mughal artistic tastes influenced
the regional courts of the Deccan and the Rajput courts of Rajasthan. Himachal Pradesh
developed a bold and intense style of miniature painting called Basohli. The most popular
text to be painted here was Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari; led to the founding of the Kangra
school of painting (soft colors including cool blues and greens, and a lyrical treatment of
themes)
e. Although Bengali is derived from Sanskrit, it passed through several stages of evolution.
Also, a wide range of non-Sanskrit words, derived from a variety of sources including tribal
languages, Persian, and European languages, have become part of modern Bengali. Early
Bengal literature - Sanskrit and independent of it. Sanksrit - Mangalkavya (dealing with local
deities) and bhakti literature (biography of Chaitanyadeva). Independent - Nath literature
such as the songs of Maynamati and Gopichandra, stories concerning the worship of
Dharma Thakur, and fairy tales, folk tales and ballads.
i. Pirs - were community leaders including saints or Sufis and other religious
personalities, daring colonizers and deified soldiers, various Hindu and Buddhist
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deities and even animistic spirits. The cult of pirs became very popular and their
shrines can be found everywhere in Bengal.
ii. Temples were built by people to demonstrate power and proclaim their deity. Coming
of Europeans created new economic opportunities and Bengal went on a temple
building spree (15th-19th century)
iii. When local deities, once worshipped in thatched huts in villages, gained the
recognition of the Brahmanas, their images began to be housed in temples. The
temples began to copy the double-roofed (dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala)
structure of the thatched huts. This led to the evolution of Bengali style temple
architecture.
iv. Brihaddharma Purana, a 13th-century Sanskrit text from Bengal, permitted the local
Brahmanas to eat certain varieties of fish.
J. 18th century political formations
a. Decline of Mughals - Mughal Empire reached the height of its success and started facing a
variety of crises towards the closing years of the 17th century. Aurangzeb had depleted the
military and financial resources of his empire by fighting a long war in the Deccan. Under his
successors, the efficiency of the imperial administration broke down. It became increasingly
difficult for the later Mughal emperors to keep a check on their powerful mansabdars.
Nobles appointed as governors (subadars) often controlled the offices of revenue and
military administration (diwani and faujdari) making them all powerful.
b. Peasant and zamindari rebellions in many parts of northern and western India added to
these problems. These revolts were sometimes caused by the pressures of mounting taxes.
At other times they were attempts by powerful chieftains to consolidate their own
positions.
c. In the midst of this economic and political crisis, the ruler of Iran, Nadir Shah, sacked and
plundered the city of Delhi in 1739 and took away immense amounts of wealth. This
invasion was followed by a series of plundering raids by the Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah
Abdali, who invaded north India five times between 1748 and 1761.
d. Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719) and Alamgir II (1754-1759) were assassinated, and two others
Ahmad Shah (1748-1754) and Shah Alam II (1759-1816) were blinded by their nobles.
e. New states - states of the eighteenth century can be divided into three overlapping groups:
(1) States that were old Mughal provinces like Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad. Although
extremely powerful and quite independent, the rulers of these states did not break their
formal ties with the Mughal emperor. (2) States that had enjoyed considerable
independence under the Mughals as watan jagirs. These included several Rajput
principalities. (3) The last group included states under the control of Marathas, Sikhs and
others like the Jats. These were of differing sizes and had seized their independence from
the Mughals after a long-drawn armed struggle.
f. Hyderabad - founder was Asaf Jah. Taking subsequent advantage of the turmoil in the
Deccan and the competition amongst the court nobility, he gathered power in his hands and
became the actual ruler of that region.
g. Awadh - Burhan-ul-mulk Saadat Khan was subadar of Awadh and one of important states to
emerge after Mughal break up. He held the combined offices of subadari, diwani and
faujdari. It sold the right to collect tax to the highest bidders. These “revenue farmers”
(ijaradars) agreed to pay the state a fixed sum of money. Local bankers guaranteed the
payment of this contracted amount to the state. In turn, the revenue-farmers were given
considerable freedom in the assessment and collection of taxes.
h. Bengal - Bengal gradually broke away from Mughal control under Murshid Quli Khan who
was appointed as the naib, deputy to the governor of the province. Although never a formal
subadar, Murshid Quli Khan very quickly seized all the power that went with that office.
i. 3 common features amongst these states - (1) Erstwhile Mughal nobles were highly
suspicious of some of the administrative systems that they had inherited, in particular the
jagirdari system. (2) their method of tax collection differed. Rather than relying upon the
officers of the state, all three regimes contracted with revenue-farmers for the collection of
revenue. The practice of ijaradari, thoroughly disapproved of by the Mughals, spread all
over India in the 18th century. Their impact on the countryside differed considerably (3)
Emerging relationship with rich bankers and merchants. These people lent money to
revenue farmers, received land as security and collected taxes from these lands through
their own agents. Throughout India the richest merchants and bankers were gaining a stake
in the new political order.
j. Sikhs - Organization of the Sikhs into a political community during the 17th century helped
in regional state-building in the Punjab. Several battles were fought by Guru Gobind Singh
against the Rajput and Mughal rulers, both before and after the institution of the Khalsa in
1699. After his death in 1708, the Khalsa rose in revolt against the Mughal authority under
Banda Bahadur’s leadership, declared their sovereign rule by striking coins in the name of
Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh, and established their own administration between the
Sutlej and the Jamuna. Sikh territories in the late 18th century extended from the Indus to
the Jamuna but they were divided under different rulers. One of them, Maharaja Ranjit
Singh, reunited these groups and established his capital at Lahore in 1799.
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k. Marathas - Shivaji (1627-1680) carved out a stable kingdom with the support of powerful
warrior families (deshmukhs). Groups of highly mobile, peasant pastoralists (kunbis)
provided the backbone of the Maratha army. Shivaji used these forces to challenge the
Mughals in the peninsula. Between 1720 and 1761, the Maratha empire expanded, chipping
away at the authority of the Mughal Empire. Malwa and Gujarat were seized from the
Mughals by the 1720s; Maratha king possessed the right to levy chauth (25%) and
sardeshmukhi (10%) in the entire region
l. Jats - The Jats were prosperous agriculturists, and towns like Panipat and Ballabhgarh
became important trading centers in the areas dominated by them. Under Suraj Mal the
kingdom of Bharatpur emerged as a strong state.
3. Class 8 Part 1
A. Beginnings
a. James Mill wrote A History of British India and divided Indian history into - Hindu, Muslim
and British.
b. 1st English factory set up on Hugli near Kalikata in 1651, fortified it by 1696. First got a
farman for right to free trade from Aurangzeb. Successive nawabs of Bengal accused
Company of deceit while Company declared that unjust demands of local officials was
ruining trade. Battle of Plassey was fought in 1757 between Clive and Sirajuddaulah,
resulting in defeat of latter as forces led by Mir Jafar never fought the battle. Eventually
after failing to work with puppet Nawabs, they decide to rule directly themselves.
c. In 1765, Diwani was allowed. This stopped flow of gold from Britain as revenues from
Diwani was used to finance trade, wars and fortification. Company rarely launched a direct
military attack on unknown territory, rather choosing political, economic and diplomatic
methods to annex a kingdom. After Battle of Buxar, company started appointing residents
in Indian states.
d. Mysore - Four wars with Mysore, eventually winning in 1799 with death of Tipu.
e. Marathas - subdued in a series of wars. First war ended with Treaty of Salbai in 1782. 2nd
war 1803-05 resulted in British gaining territories. 3rd war 1817-19 crushed Marathas.
f. Policy of paramountcy initiated under Lord Hastings - in order to protect its interests,
annexing or threatening to do so to any Indian kingdom was justified. Due to fear of a
Russian invasion, EIC sought to secure north-west, hence war with Afghanistan bw 1838-42
and established indirect rule there. Sind was taken over in 1843. Punjab in 1849 after couple
of wars after Maharaja Ranjit Singh's death.
g. Doctrine of Lapse - Lord Dalhousie devised this policy, if an Indian ruler died without a male
heir his kingdom would lapse. Kingdoms annexed under this doctrine - Satara, Sambalpur,
Udaipur, Nagpur, Jhansi.
h. Setting up of administration - 1st Governor-General introduced several administrative
reforms, notably in sphere of justice. From 1772, new system of justice was established -
faujdari adalat (criminal) and diwani adalat (civil). Criminal courts under qazi and mufti but
supervision of collector. In 1775, digest of Hindu laws were compiled for benefit of
European judges. N. B. Halhed translated this to English.
i. Company army - focused on building professional soldiers armed with new technology.
Infantry regiments were more important than sawars.
B. Ruling the countryside
a. Revenue for the Company - even after becoming Diwan, company saw itself as a trader.
Effort was to buy cotton and silk as cheaply as possible and increase revenue as much as it
could. Bengal economy was precarious at this point, and in 1770 famine wiped out 1/3
population or 10 million people.
b. After two decades of debate on question of agriculture improvement, Permanent
Settlement was introduced in 1793 by Lord Cornwallis. Rajas and taluqdars were recognized
as zamindars. Amount to be paid was fixed permanently, and zamindar to invest in land to
increase production, thereby, own profits.
i. However, revenue fixed was so high that zamindars struggled to pay. They preferred
renting it to tenants and not interested in improving the land. Conversely, cultivators
found system extremely oppressive. Rent was high and rights insecure.
ii. Declared Zamindars as the owners of the land. Hence, they could keep 1/11th of the
revenue collected to themselves while the British got a fixed share of 10/11th of the
revenue collected. Zamindars were free to fix the rents.
c. Mahalwari - Holt Mackenzie devised it in Bengal presidency. Estimated revenue of each plot
within a village was added to calculate revenue that each mahal (village/group of village)
had to pay. Demand revised periodically. Charge of collection given to village headman.
d. Ryotwari - developed in Madras presidency. By Alexander Read and Thomas Munro.
Settlement directly made with cultivators (ryots).Fields carefully surveyed before revenue
assessment made
i. Revenue officials fixed too high a demand, peasants unable to pay, ryots fled the
countryside and villages became deserted.
e. Crops for Europe - by late 18th century, company was trying its best to expand cultivation of
opium and indigo. Indigo primarily grows in tropics and produced rich blue color. Europeans
were using plant called woad to make violet and blue dyes, manufacturers of which tried to
get indigo banned. However, indigo plantations came up in different parts of the colonized
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world. In late 18th century due to slave rebellion in French colonies, production of indigo
fell by half. Bengal became dominant exporter of indigo to Britain.
Indigo was cultivated in 2 main systems - nij and ryoti.
i. Nij - planter produced indigo in lands that he directly controlled (bought or rented).
Indigo could only be cultivated in fertile lands and these were already occupied. It also
required labor and ploughs and bullocks. Indigo season coincided with rice planting
and harvesting. Less than 25% of land producing indigo was under this system.
ii. Ryoti - planters forced ryots to sing an agreement called satta. Those who signed get
cash advances from planters at low rate of interest. Loan committed ryot to
cultivating indigo on at least 25% of area under his holding. Planter provided seed and
drill. The system was harsh as price they got for indigo was low and cycle of loan never
ended.
iii. Indigo production - plant was taken to vats (fermenting or storage vessel), 3-4 vats
with each having a separate function.
f. Blue rebellion - in 1859, ryots in Bengal refused to grow indigo, socially boycotted planters
and attacked gomasthas (agents of planters). They felt that had support of local zamindars
and headmen against planters. They were unhappy with increasing power of planters.
Ashley Eden, a magistrate, tried to control the situation which was read as support for
rebellion. Worried about this, govt brought military to protect planters and set up Indigo
Commission. It held planters guilty and asked ryots to fulfil existing contracts.
C. Tribals & dikus (outsiders)
a. Most tribal societies had customs and rituals which were very different from those laid
down by Brahmanas. They were involved in variety of activities
i. Jhum cultivation - shifting cultivation, slash and burn. Spread the ash from fire which
contained potash to fertile the soil. Broadcast the seeds instead of ploughing. Field
cultivated once was left fallow for a few years. Free movement in forests necessary.
ii. Hunter-gatherer - Forests essential for survival, dependent on forest produce. E.g.
Baigas. But tribals were usually exploited in market and commercial activities.
iii. Herding and rearing - pastorals who moved according to seasons. E.g. Van Gujjars,
Lambadis, Gaddis, Bakarwals.
iv. Settled cultivation - land belonged to whole clan, powerful men often rented out land
instead of cultivating themselves.
b. What changed under British rule
i. Lost administrative power and forced to follow law of British, unable to fulfil their
traditional functions
ii. British didn't want shifting cultivations as it affected revenue and harder to
administer. Efforts to settle jhum cultivators was not successful.
iii. Forest laws were changed and entire forests made state property. Forest people not
allowed to move freely and forced to move and find work. However, forest villages
were established to ensure supply of labor in lieu of small patches of land to jhum
cultivators. Revolt of Songram Sangma 1906 in Assam was against colonial forest
laws.
c. Revolts - Kols in 1832, Santhals in 1855, Bastar in 1910 and Warli in 1940.
Birsa movement aimed to drive out missionaries, moneylenders, landlords and govt, and
set up a Munda raj (restore the golden age when Mundas lived a good life). He was
imprisoned for 2 years but came back and roused more support, his supporters attacking
police stations and churches. Movement was significant in 2 ways - forced colonial govt to
introduce laws to protect their lands and tribal people's capacity to protest
D. First rebellion
a. Nawabs lost their power gradually, and with that their authority and honor. Residents were
stationed in their court, armed forces disbanded and revenues and territories overtaken.
Awadh was one of the territories overtaken under subsidiary alliance on charges of
misgovernance. In 1856, Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar will be the last king, his
descendants would be just princes.
b. Peasants and sepoys - high taxes and rigid collection meant many failed to pay back loans
on time and lost their lands. Sepoys were unhappy about pay, allowance, and violations to
their religious beliefs (believed that one loses religion and caste if they cross the sea). Many
Indians began to feel that British were destroying their religion, social customs and way of
life - stopped practice of Sati, English language promoted, free pass to Christian missionaries
and conversions made easier.
c. 1857 rebellion - In May 1857, the immediate event which angered the sepoys was about
the ammunition for the new rifles they had to use. The cartridges that were used in the
rifles had to be bitten open. Hindus and Muslims were angry because they thought that the
paper cartridges had cow/pig fat in them. Sepoys were dismissed from service and
sentenced to jail. Other Indian soldiers marched to jail and released them, and attacked
British officers. They marched to Delhi and asked BSZ to become leader of the rebellion who
agreed unwillingly.
d. Regiments after regiments mutinied and took off to join other troops. People of towns and
villages rallied around local leaders who were ready to fight the British. Nana Saheb,
adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao, and Tantia Tope, Rani Lakshmibai, Rani Avantibai Lodhi
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were some other leaders of the mutiny. Many new leaders came up - Ahmadullah Shah
Maulvi, Bakht Khan (soldier), Kunwar Singh (zamindar) were other key leaders.
e. Suppression - Company brought reinforcements from England, passed new laws to convict
rebels with ease and moved to storm the centers of revolt. Delhi was recaptured in Sep
1857, BSZ exiled to Burma. It took British two more years to defeat all other rebel leaders.
British tried their best to win back loyalty of people by offering rewards to loyal
landholders, land rights to rebels who haven't killed white people. However, many sepoys,
rebels, nawabs were tried and hanged.
f. Aftermath -
i. British Parliament passed new Act in 1858 and transferred powers to British Crown to
ensure more responsible management of Indian affairs. Secretary of State for India
appointed and India Council to advise him. Viceroy (representative of the Crown)
instead of Governor-General.
ii. All ruling chiefs assured that their territory will not be annexed in future, doctrine of
lapse abolished. But acknowledge Queen as sovereign paramount.
iii. Increase number of British soldiers. Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathan recruitment
increased.
iv. Land and property of Muslims confiscated and treated with suspicion and hostility as
British believed they were largely responsible for rebellion.
v. British decided to respect customary religious and social practices of people in India.
E. Delhi under British
a. Cities such as Surat, Machlipatnam and Seringapatam were de-urbanized in 19th century
as trade and commercial shifted as British took over.
b. British gained control of Delhi in 1803 after defeating Marathas. Since British India were
ruling from Calcutta, Mughal emperor was allowed to continue living in Red Fort. Many refer
to 1830-57 as period of Delhi renaissance. After regaining the city from rebels, Delhi was
plundered, area around Fort was cleared of gardens, pavilions and mosques. No worship
was allowed in Jama Masjid for 5 years and 1/3 of city was demolished.
c. New capital - In 1877,Viceroy Lytton organized a Durbar to acknowledge Queen as Empress
of India. 1903 under Curzon, durbar was held to celebrate the succession of Edward VII and
Alexandra of Denmark as Emperor and Empress of India. In 1911, when King George V was
crowned in England (Viceroy Hardinge), Durbar was held in Delhi (only time the sovereign
attended) to celebrate and decision to shift capital to Delhi was announced. Annulment of
the Partition of Bengal was also announced during this durbar.
d. Lutyens and Baker designed New Delhi and its buildings. Overall look was Classical Greek
with features borrowed from different period of India's imperial history. New Delhi was to
represent a sense of law and order instead of chaotic old Delhi.
e. During Partition - fierce rioting began. Over 2/3 of Delhi Muslims left. Delhi became a city of
refugees. Lajpat Nagar and Tilak Nagar came up to house refugees. Large migration changed
the social milieu of Delhi.
f. Lahore Gate Improvement Scheme - Robert Clarke in 1888 for walled city residents.
4. Class 8 Part 2
A. Weavers, Iron Smelters & Factory Owners
a. By 1850s, Britain came to be known as "workshop of the world". Before British conquered
Bengal, India was by far the world's largest producer of cotton textiles. Europeans first saw
the fine cotton cloth from India in Mosul, hence the name Muslin. Portuguese took back
cotton from Calicut, calling it calico.
i. Chintz (floral print), cossaes (or khassa) and bandanna are all Indian words which got
popularized in Europe
ii. British govt banned chintz by Calico Act
iii. Some weaver communities - Tanti (Bengal), julahas, momin (North), sale, kaikollar,
devangs (South).
b. Rise of British industries and suppression of Indian cotton from world markets led to decline
of Indian textiles. By 1880s, 2/3 of India was wearing British manufactured clothes. Only
rich handloom clothing and coarse clothing worn by poor could survive this onslaught.
c. Wootz (anglicized ukku) steel was produced all over south India. Steel industry declined as
British conquered more parts of India, introduced imported steel and enacted forest laws
which devastated small scale smelting communities (such as Agarias).
B. Civilizing the Native
a. William Jones, Henry Colbrooke and Nathaniel Halhed set up Asiatic Society of Bengal and
a journal called Asiatick Researches.
b. Orientalists believed that ancient customs of the country and oriental learning ought to be
the basis of British rule in India.
c. Anglicists believed that British effort should not be to teach what natives wanted in order to
please them. Aim of education ought to be to teach what was useful and practical. These
critics were James Mill & Thomas Macaulay.
i. Following Macaulay's Minute, English Education Act of 1835 was introduced. Medium
of instruction for higher education was to be English and stop promotion of
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Orientalists institution.
ii. Woods' despatch 1854 - literature of East was not only full of grave errors, it could
not instill in people a sense of duty, nor skills required for administration.
iii. Until 1813, Company opposed missionary activities for the fear of backlash from local
population. Hence the missionaries set up a mission at Serampore in an area under
Danish control. Printing press came up in 1800 and college in 1818.
d. William Adam report on education in Bengal - 1 lakh pathshalas in Bengal & Bihar. Small
institutions with around 20 students each. Fee depended on income of parents, teaching
was oral, classes not held during harvest time.
i. After company decided to improve vernacular system - decided to appoint govt
pandit in charge of 4-5 schools, fixed time table, annual exams, teaching based on
textbooks. Those who accepted got govt grants.
e. Nationalists view
i. Mahatma Gandhi deplored colonial education as it created sense of inferiority in
minds of Indian and lose self respect in own culture. He valued lived experience and
practical knowledge.
ii. Tagore started Shantiniketan in 1901 combining elements of modern western
civilization and best of Indian traditions. Need to teach science and technology along
with art, music and dance.
C. Women & Caste Reform
a. Ram Mohan Roy was keen to spread the knowledge of western education in country and
bring about greater freedom and equality for women.
b. Some women reformers in 19th century - Pandita Ramabai (founded Sharda Sadan, a
widows' home at Poona and Arya Mahila Samaj) & Tarabai Shinde (published
Stripurushtulna)
c. Satnami movement (Guru Ghansidas) in Central India worked among leatherworkers to
improve their social status. In East Bengal, Harshad Mehta's Matua sect worked among
Chandala cultivators.
D. Changing world of visual arts
a. European artists brought the idea of realism, technique of oil painting (Indians not very
familiar). Some trends - (a) Thomas and William Daniell were landscape artists. (b) Portrait
paintings became popular with Indian nawabs c) celebration of military triumph - these
were recurring themes as British power grew.
b. Indian adaptation - scroll painters (called patuas) and potters developed a new style in
Kalighat. Style was bold, deliberate non-realistic where figures emerge large and powerful.
Themes were political and social themes. Even the poor could buy these.
c. Raja Ravi Varma - created a style that was both modern and national. Became rage among
Indian princes and art collectors. Abanindranath Tagore (and pupil Nandlal Bose) - this
school rejected Varma's style as imitative and tried to capture spiritual essence of the East,
and were inspired by miniature paintings and mural paintings of Ajanta.
E. Making of National Movement
a. Swadesi movement was known as Vandematram movement in Deltaic Andhra.
F. India After Independence
5. Class 9
A. French Revolution - John Locke, Rousseau (The Social Contract) put forward the idea of a society
based on freedom and equal laws and opportunities for all.
Montesquieu proposed division of power within govt bw legislative, executive and judiciary (The
Spirit of Laws).
6. Class X - Part 2
A. Nationalism in India
a. Growth of modern nationalism is intimately connected to anti-colonial movement. People
began discovering their unity in struggle with colonialism. Congress under Gandhi tried to
forge various groups within one movement.
b. WW1 created new economic and political turmoil. (a) Increase in defense expenditure
financed by war loans and increasing taxes (b) forced recruitment to supply soldiers c) Crops
failed in 1918-20 leading to acute shortage of food and influenza epidemic (12-13 million
perished).
c. Gandhi returned to India in Jan 1915. Idea of satyagraha emphasized power of truth and
need to search for truth. If cause was true, struggle was against injustice, then physical
force not necessary to fight the oppressor. Satyagrahi could win battle by appealing to
conscience of oppressor. Gandhi believed dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.
Early satyagraha movements by Gandhi - Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad.
d. Rowlatt Act 1919 - passed through Imperial Legislative despite Indian opposition. Gave
govt power to repress political activities and detention of political prisoners for 2 years.
Eventually led to Jalianwala Bagh massacre under General Dyer's command. Seeing violence
spread (Chauri Chaura), Gandhi called off the movement.
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e. To launch a more broad based movement, needed rural support and unity of Hindu-
Muslims. Gandhi took up the Khilafat issue. Ottoman Turkey was on losing side of WW1 and
a harsh treaty was in works. In Calcutta session 1920, convinced Congress to start non-
cooperation in support of Khilafat and swaraj. Why Non-Cooperation? British rule was
established in India with the cooperation of Indians and will collapse if Indians refused to
cooperate. However, council elections of 1920 were on the minds of some Congress
leaders.
f. Non-Cooperation/Khilafat began in Jan 1921. Various social groups participated with own
specific aspiration. //Justice Party in Madras was a non-Brahmanical party, founded by Nair
and Chetty.
i. Urban - movement started with middle class participation in cities. School students,
teachers, lawyers. Foreign goods boycotted, foreign cloth burnt in bonfires.
Merchants and traders refused to trade or finance foreign trade. But poor people
couldn't afford khadi, alternative Indian institutions didn't come up
ii. Countryside - drew into fold struggles of peasants and tribals. Awadh Kisan Sabha by
Nehru and Baba Ramachandra had come up to promote Non-Cooperation and
integrate peasant struggle into wider struggle. However, it turned violent. Name of
Gandhi was invoked to sanction all actions and aspirations.
iii. Tribals - interpreted the message of Gandhi in yet another way. Militant guerilla
movement in Gudem Hills AP led by Alluri Raju (Rampa Rebellion 1922) who asserted
use of force.
iv. Plantations - workers felt swaraj was freedom to move freely and retaining links with
their native villages. Inland Emigration Act of 1859 prohibited them from leaving tea
gardens without permission which was rarely given. They headed home after hearing
of non-cooperation. Believed Gandhi raj was coming and everyone would get land in
their own villages.
v. Though social groups interpreted swaraj in own ways, they were emotionally
demanding and relating to an all-India agitation. However movement turned violent
in many places. CR Das and ML Nehru argued return to council politics. JLN and SCB
pressed for radical mass agitation. Chauri Chaura incident brought an end to Non-
Coop (police officials opened fire and were killed)
g. Before Civil Disobedience - countryside in turmoil due to effects of Great Depression and
Tory govt constitutes Statutory Commission under John Simon to look into functioning of
constitutional system in India. Problem: No Indian member. Lord Irwin announced in
October 1929 (a) vague offer of dominion status (b) Round Table Conference. December
1929 - Lahore Congress formalized demand of Purna Swaraj. 26 January 1930 as
Independence Day. Gandhi attempted to relate this to concrete everyday issues of life.
h. Salt march and Civil Disobedience - Gandhi sent list of 11 wide-ranging demands to Lord
Irwin, most controversial was salt tax. If not fulfilled by 11 March, ultimatum to start a civil
disobedience campaign. Dandi march was from Sabarmati to Dandi (240 km) for 24 days and
urging people to peacefully defy the British. What was different from NCM? Break colonial
laws. Following happened
i. Colonial govt began arresting Congress leaders one by one. When Gandhi was
arrested, supporters attacked structures that symbolized British rule. Govt
responded with a policy of brutal repression.
ii. Gandhi-Irwin pact - participate in (2nd) Round Table Conference in London and in
return political prisoners to be released. But negotiations broke down and back in
India new cycle of repression had begun. Gandhi relaunched CDM but lost momentum
by 1934.
i. How people saw CDM
i. Rich peasant communities hard hit by Depression. For them fight for swaraj was
struggle against high revenues. Disappointed when movement called off in 1931
without revenue rates being revised.
ii. Poor peasantry - wanted unpaid rent to landlord to be remitted. Joined radical
movements led by Socialists and Communists, which made relationship bw poor
peasantry and Congress uncertain.
iii. Businessmen - keen on expanding business and protection from imports. Formed
Indian Industrial Commercial Congress 1920 and FICCI 1927. Saw swaraj as time when
trade and industry would flourish without constraints. But failure of Round Table
made them less enthusiastic. Spread of militant activities, prolonged disruption of
business and growing influence of socialism worried them. Congress was reluctant to
include industrial workers' demand.
iv. Women - thousands of women came out of homes and participated, many went to
jail. From high caste families and rich peasant households. Yet increased public role
didn't change way position of women was perceived.
v. Dalits - for long Congress ignored dailts for fear of offending conservative high caste
Hindus. Gandhi championed their cause, called them harijan - children of god - and
organized satyagraha to get them entry into public places. Dalit leaders saw a
different political approach by organizing themselves and demanded reserved seats in
education and separate electorate to choose Dalit members for legislative councils.
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j. BR Ambedkar organized Dalits into Depressed Class Association in 1930 and clashed with
Gandhi in 2nd RTC and demanded separate electorate, Gandhi started fast unto death.
Poona Pact 1932 bw Ambedkar and Gandhi saw status of Schedule Castes getting reserved
seats but in general electorate.
k. After decline of Khilafat/NCM, large section of Muslims felt alienated from Congress which
was visibly associated from 20s onwards with Hindu religious nationalist groups. Jinnah and
Muslim League wanted federal structure in the Constitution on the lines of USA and
reserved 1/3 seats in Central assembly but were shut down. CDM started under atmosphere
of distrust and suspicion bw communities, Muslims could not respond to call for a united
struggle.
l. Nationalism - spreads when people begin to believe they are all part of same nation, some
unity that binds them together. History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and
symbolism all played part in making of nationalism. Bankim Chandra Chattopdhyay wrote
Vande Mataram in 1870s. Later included in his novel Anandamath and widely sung during
Swadesi Movement in Bengal. Abanindranath Tagore painted Bharat Mata, devotion to this
figure came to be seen as evidence of one's nationalism.
In late 19th century India, nationalists began recording folk tales to create a true picture of
traditional culture that had been corrupted by outside forces. Rabindranath Tagore in
Bengal and Natesa Sastri in Madras led folk revival. During Swadesi movement, red green
yellow tricolor flag with 8 lotus and crescent moon was designed. By 1921, Gandhi
designed the swaraj flag - red green white with charkha in center.
m. Efforts to unify people were not without problems - when past being glorified was Hindu,
images celebrated taken from Hindu iconography, people of other communities felt left
out.
B. Print culture
a. Print tech was developed in China, Japan, Korea. System of hand printing by rubbing paper.
Oldest Japanese book is Diamond Sutra. Marco Polo took the woodblock tech from China
to Italy in 13th century. Johann Gutenberg developed first known printing press in 1430s.
First printed book using mechanical press was Bible.
b. Earlier people lived in world of oral culture. Protestant Reformation can be attributed to
printing technology.
c. India - very rich tradition of handwritten manuscripts, copied on palm leaves or handmade
paper. Pre-colonial Bengal had village primary schools where people learnt to write only.
d. Printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries in mid-16th century. James A
Hickey started Bengal Gazette, a weekly newspaper which was not part of Company
(Hastings closed it).
Bengal Gazette (first Bengali) Gangadhar Bhattacharya

e. Sambad Kaumudi Rammohan Roy
Samachar Chandrika Hindu orthodoxy to oppose Roy
Jam-i-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar Persian newspapers
Bombay Samachar Gujarati
f. Liberal men began educating womenfolk at home and sent them to school when they were
set up in mid-19th century.
g. Amar Jiban first autobiography in Bengali by Rashsundar Debi

Gulamgiri Jyotiba Phule - on injustices of caste system
Chhote aur bade ka sawal Kashibaba - caste and class exploitation
h. Censorship - after revolt of 1857, Vernacular Press Act was passed modelled on Irish Press
Laws. Rights to censor reports and editorials in vernacular press.
C. Novels, society
a. Novel originated in Europe at a time when it was colonizing the rest of the world. Early
novel contributed to colonialism by making readers feel they were part of a superior
community of fellow colonialists.
b. Stories in prose were not new to India. Earliest novels in modern India were written in
Bengali and Marathi.
Sanskri Kadambari written by Banabhatta - one of earliest in world

t
Marathi Yamuna Baba Padmanji - 1st in Marathi
Paryatan
Marathi Muktamala Lakshman Moreswar Halbe
Malayalam Indulekha Chandu Menon - 1st in Malayalam,
Saraswathivijayam by Potheri Kunjambu (novel was about
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caste)
Telugu Rajasekhara Kandukuri Viresalingam
Caritamu
Kannada Indirabai Gulavadi Venkata Rao
Hindi Pariskha Guru Srinivas Das, but not popular as too preachy
1882
Hindi Chandrakanta Devaki Nandan Khatri, made novel popular in Hindi
Hindi Sewasadan Premchand, poor condition of women in society
c. Assamese Manomati Rajanikanta Bardoloi, Assamese
Bengali Durgeshnandini Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay -
1st was Karuna O Phulmonir Bibaran by Hannah Mullens,
Titash by Malla Burman
d. National song was published in Anandmath by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee.
7. Class 12 - part 1
A. Theme 1
a. Harappan seal - made of stone called steatite, contains animal motifs and signs - script
indecipherable. Finds of rice are rare in Harappan. No clue if Harappan hunted wild animals
or traded with hunting communities. Evidence of ploughed field at Kalibangan. Likely that
water from wells used for irrigation. Water reservoir in Dholavira used to store water for
agriculture. Vessels made of stone, metal and terracotta. Cities such as Kalibangan and
Lothal had fire altars, where sacrifices may have been performed.
b. Mohenjo-Daro - divided into Citadel and Lower stone. Citadel was walled, physically
separated from the lower town. Lower town also walled. Settlement was first planned and
then implemented, as all buildings were built on. Sun dried bricks were of standard ratio.
Harappa cities - carefully planned drainage system. Alexander Cunningham, father of Indian
archaeology. Citadel - warehouse and the great bath.
c. Burials - dead were laid in pits. Graves contain pottery and ornaments. Valuable materials
concentrated in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.
d. Chanhudaro - exclusively devoted to craft production with variety of materials - precious
stones, metals. Nageshwar and Balakot - bangles, ladles and inlay.
e. Procuring materials - from alluvial plains, riverine routes, coastal routes. Shortughai (lapis
lazuli, high value blue stone) is in Afghanistan. Expeditions to other communities. Omani
(Magan) copper and Harappan artifacts have common origins. Mesopotamia called
Harappa region of Meluhha. The earliest traces of cotton known anywhere in the world
have been found in the Valley.
f. Seals, scripts and weights - seals were used to facilitate long distance trade and
communication. Harappan seal had writing (right to left) + motifs for those who couldn't
read. Writing was found on variety of items => were most people literate? Weights - made
of stone called chert, cubical in shape.
g. Authority - no identifiable power of authority. Parallel of priest king of Mesopotamia found
in Indus. Single state theory - similarity in artifacts, planned settlements, standardized ratio
of brick size and settlements near sources of raw materials. Unlikely entire communities
could have collectively made and implemented such complex decisions.
h. Decline - after 1900 BCE disappearance of distinctive artifacts of civilization, ritual way of
life in Late Harappa cultures. Discovery time - Cunningham used Chinese pilgrim accounts to
locate and excavate sites. Daya Ram Sahni and Rakhal Das Banerji - found seals at Harappa
and Mohenjo-Daro. John Marshall - announced discovery of Indus Valley to the world
1924. Mound - build up of occupational debris. Study of sterile layers is called stratigraphy.
i. Wheeler - DG ASI 1944 - followed the stratigraphy of the mound rather than uniform digging
up of an area, for military precision to practice of archaeology.
j. Piecing together - classifying finds - material, function. Reconstruction of history made on
assumption that later tradition provide parallels with earlier ones. Issue of gender work
haven't been investigated till now.
B. Kings, Farmers and Towns (600 BCE to 600 AD)
a. Emergence of early states, empires and kingdoms. New modes of disposal of dead -
including making of megaliths (iron age). 1830s James Princep, deciphered Brahmi and
Kharosthi, scripts used in earliest inscriptions and coins. Led to reconstruct lineage of major
dynasties.
b. Earliest states - 16 mahajanapadas. 6th century BCE major turning point in early Indian
history, era associated with early states, cities and growing use of iron, use of coins etc.
Growth of diverse systems of thoughts including Buddhism and Jainism. Some
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mahajanapadas had power sharing arrangements - collectively by people called Rajas.
Mahavir and Buddha belonged to such janas. Vajji - controlled resources collectively.
c. Inscriptions are writings engraved on hard surfaces such as stone, metal or pottery. Earliest
inscriptions were in Prakrit. Brahma sutras composed by Brahmins in 6th century BCE.
Rulers advised
d. Bw 6th and 4th century - Magadha became most powerful mahajanapada. Why - esp
agriculturally productive region. Iron mines were accessible. Elephants, imp part of army,
found in forests. Ganga and tributaries - cheap and convenient communication. But more
importantly - ambitious kings.
e. Jatakas were written in Pali. Agriculture production increased because of iron tipped
ploughshare and transplantation. Manusmriti best known legal text of early India, advising
the king what to do.
f. Successful merchants were called masattuvan in Tamil and setthis in Prakrit. First coins to
use name and images of rulers were used in 2nd century BCE by Indo-Greek rulers. First
gold coins by Kushanas in 1st century AD. Coins (mainly copper) were also issued by tribal
republics of Punjab and Haryana called the Yaudheyas.
g. Most scripts used to write modern Indian languages are derived from Brahmi, worked
backwards from Bengali and Devanagari to decipher. Kharosthi - coins of Indo Greeks has
names of kings in Greek and Kharosthi. Brahmi is written left to right, while Kharosthi is
written right to left. Used till 4th AD.
C. Kinship, Caste and Class - early societies (600 BCE - 600 AD)
a. Critical Edition of Mahabharata - under leadership of V.S. Sukthankar, project took 47 years
to complete. 2 thing emerged - several common elements in Sanskrit version & enormous
legal variations.
b. Kinship and marriage - kula (families), jati (larger network of kinfolk), vamsha (lineage).
Patrilineal means tracing descent from father, matrilineal is tracing through mother. While
patrilineal existed prior to composition of Mahabharata, it reinforced the idea that it was
valuable. Endogamy - refers to marriage within a unit, exogamy - outside the unit, polygyny -
man having several wives, polyandry - women having many husbands.
i. Challenge of various beliefs and practises merging led to creation of Dharamasutras
by Brahmans, most important work was Manusmriti. 8 forms of marriage - 4 good
(Brahma, Prajapatya, Daiva, Arsha vivaah) 4 bad.
ii. Gotra of women - from 1000 BCE esp Brahmans classified in terms of gotras. Each
gotra named after Vedic seer. 2 important rules - women give up their father's gotras
and members of same gotras can't marry. Satvahanas women didn’t necessarily
follow the latter. Metronymic - name derived from mother/female ancestor -> list of
generations of teachers and students contained in Brihadarayanka Upanishad
(Yajurveda, principal upanishad)
iii. Mothers were important? No definite conclusion. //Temple in Ahichchhatra (UP) -
earliest sculpture depiction of scene from Mahabharata in terracotta sculpture
c. Caste - ideal order laid down in Dharmasutras and dharmashastras, also contained rules
about the ideal occupations of 4 varnas.
i. Brahamanas - study and teach vedas, perform sacrifices, give/receive gifts. Kshatriyas
- engage in warfare, protect people, administer justice, study the vedas, get sacrifices
performed, give gifts. Vaishyas - engage in agriculture, pastoralism, trade, study vedas,
get sacrifices performed and make gifts. Shudras - only occupation - serve the higher
varnas. 2-3 strategies to enforce norms - assert varna was of divine order (quoted
Purusha sukta from Rigveda, describing sacrifice of purusha, the primeval man);
advised kings to ensure norms were followed; persuaded people that their status was
determined by birth (reinforced by stories told in Mahabharata and other texts, story
of Drona-Eklavya).
ii. Non-kshatriya kings - political power was open to anyone who could support and
resources, (shashtras said only kshatriya could be kings). Outsider rulers were called
mlechchhas (barbarians) by Brahmana. However Rudradaman (Saka ruler) rebuilt
Sudarshan lake (Junagadh inscription in Sanskrit). Gotami-puta Satakani claimed to
both ek Bamahana and destroyer of pride of Kshatriyas. Ensured no intermarriage
amongst member of 4 varnas but married kin of Rudradaman (outsider) himself.
iii. Social mobility - nishada (a hunting community to which Eklavya belonged to). Varnas
were fixed but jatis were unlimited. Jatis were assigned which didn't easily fit into the
varna system. Jati shared a common occupation and sometimes organized into
shrenis or guilds. Mandasor (MP ) inscription records history of emigration of a guild
of silk weave workers. Vanik - term to designate merchants (//Mrichchhakatika
written by Shudraka, 4th century AD). The term rakshasa is maybe used to describe
people whose practice differed from Brahamnical texts.
iv. Untouchables - it rested on notion that certain activities connected with performance
of rituals and by extension pure and some activities polluting (handling corpses and
dead animals). Chandalas - those who did it were classified as untouchables.
Manusmriti - laid down duties of chandalas, live outside the village, use discarded
utensils, wear clothes of the dead and ornaments of iron. Fa Xian wrote how they had
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to sound a clapper so that people would know they are coming and not see them.
Matanga Jataka (pali text, Bodhisatta in previous birth was chandala).
d. Resources and status - according to Manusmriti, paternal estate was to be divided equally
amongst sons with special share for eldest, women no claim. Women allowed to retain gifts
they received at time of marriage called stridhana, husband can't claim. Social difference
bw men and women were sharpened cos of differences in access of resources. Way to
acquire wealth - 7 for men and 6 for women.
i. Buddhist text in Pali - Majjhima Nikaya, part of dialog between Avantiputtta and
Kachchana - talked about the wealthy shudra. Puranaruru - anthologies of poems of
Tamil sangam.
ii. The word Nikaya is most commonly used in reference to the Buddhist texts of the
Sutta Piṭaka.
e. Social differences -  Buddhists also developed an alternative understanding of social
inequalities. In a myth found in a text known as the Sutta Pitaka, they suggested that
originally human beings did not have fully evolved bodily forms, nor was the world of plants
fully developed. All beings lived in an idyllic state of peace, taking from nature only what
they needed for each meal.
f. Mahabharata - divided into 2 broad sections - narrative and didactic but no watertight
division. Original story was probably composed by charioteer-bards known as sutas. From
5th century BCE, Brahamanas took over and began to write (mahajanpadas time period).
g. Timeline of texts
i. 500 BCE Ashtadhyayi, Panini - work on Sanskrit grammar
ii. 500-200 BCE Major dharmasutras - Sanskrit
iii. 500-100 BCE early Budhhist texts including Tripitaka (in Pali)
iv. 500 BCE - 400 AD Ramayana and Mahabharata (in Sanskrit)
v. 200 BCE - 200 AD Manusmriti, Tamil sangam
vi. 100 AD Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas - work on medicine
vii. 200 AD onwards compilation of Puranas
viii. 300 AD - Natyashashtra of Bharata - work on dramaturgy
ix. 400 - 600 AD other Dharmashashtras
x. 400 - 500 AD Sanskrit plays including works of Kalidasa, compilation of Jain works in
Prakrit
D. Thinkers, beliefs & buildings (600 BCE - 600 AD)
a. Great stupa at Sanchi - rulers of Bhopal - Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum
provided money for preservation. John Marshall (ASI)
b. Mid-first millennium BCE (around 500 BCE) is often regarded as turning point in world
history - emergence of thinkers such as Zarathustra (Iran), Kong Zi (China), Socrates,
Aristotle & Plato, Mahavira & Gautam Buddha.
i. Several pre-existing traditions of though, religious belief and practice. Rigveda
compiled between 1500-1000 BCE, consists of hymns in praise of variety of deities -
Agni, Indra, Soma. At first, sacrifices were performed collectively, later, by heads of
households for well being of domestic unit. Elaborate sacrifices such as Rajasuya
(consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot races,
and gifts to courtiers) performed by kings and chiefs through Brahmana priests.
ii. Most prominent river of the Rigveda is the Sarasvati, next to the Indus.
iii. People were curious about meaning of life, life after death. Debates and discussions
took place in kutagarashala - hut with a pointed roof or in groves where travelling
mendicants halted. Many of these teachers, including Mahavira and Buddha,
questioned authority of the vedas. //Chandogya Upanishad (Sama Veda) - verses on
nature of self and true sacrifice.
iv. Buddhist texts - Teachings of Buddha compiled at Vaishali, known as Tripitaka - 3
baskets to hold different types of texts.
1. Vinaya Pitaka - rules and regulations for those who joined the sangh
2. Sutta Pitaka - Buddha's teaching were included in here
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka - dealt with philosophical matters.
4. Other texts such as Dipavamsa (chronicle of island), Mahavamsa (great
chronicle) - written in Pali contain regional (Sri Lankan) histories of Buddhism
1st council— Rajgriha, 400 BC 2nd council — Vaishali, 383 BC 3rd council—
Patliputra, Patronage Ajatshatru Kalasoka Ashoka Presidency Mahakashyapa
Sabakami Moggalipu a Tissa
v. Fatalists - tradition of Ajivikas (teacher Makkhali Gosala); says that the wise and the
fool cannot come out of karma. It can neither be lessened nor increased. So fool and
wise alike will take their course and make an end of sorrow.
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vi. Materialists reject Vedas, Vedic ritualism, and supernaturalism - tradition of Lokayatas
(or Charvaka), philospher Ajita Kesakambalin and Brihaspati). Believe that everything
is not predetermined. Human being is made up of the four elements
vii. Jain tradition - Mahavira was preceded by 23 other tirthankaras - meaning those who
guide people across river of existence. Most important idea in Jainism is that entire
world is animated. Non-injury to living beings is central to the philosophy. Principle of
ahimsa, emphasized within Jainism. Cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through
karma; to free oneself asceticism and penance is required. Which can be achieved
only by renouncing the world hence monastic existence is necessary condition of
salvation. Jain monks and nuns took 5 vows
1. Abstain from killing, stealing and lying; observe celibacy; abstain from
possessing property. //Uttaradhyayana Sutta - queen Kamalavati tried to
persuade her husband to renounce the world.
Spread of Jainism - scholars produced wealth of literature in - Prakrit, Sanskrit and
Tamil. Earliest stone sculptures associated with religious traditions were from Jain
devotees.
c. Buddha and his hagiography (biography of religious leader) - born Siddhartha in Sakya clan
in Lumbini, he had a sheltered upbringing. First journey to outside world was traumatic -
saw an old man, sick man and a corpse. Decay and destruction of human body was
inevitable. Saw a homeless mendicant who came to terms with old age, disease and death,
and found peace. Siddhartha decided to adopt the same path. Explored several paths
including bodily mortification but abandoned it. Meditated for several days and attained
enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. Called Buddha or the Enlightened One. Taught dhamma or
the path of righteous living for the rest of his life. Gave first sermon at Sarnath and attained
nirvana at Kusinagara.
d. Teachings of Buddha - Reconstructed from stories mainly found in Sutta Pitaka. According
to Buddhist philosophy, world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing. It is soulless
(anatta) as there is nothing permanent in it. Within transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is
intrinsic to human existence. By following the path of moderation between severe penance
and self indulgence that human beings can rise above worldly troubles. In earliest forms of
Buddhism, whether or not god existed was irrelevant. Social world was creation of humans
rather than divine origin, hence advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical.
Emphasized individual agency and righteous action as the means to escape from cycle of
rebirth and attain self realization and nirvana.
e. Followers of Buddha - Ananda, Buddha's disciple, persuaded Buddha to allow women into
sanghas. Buddha's foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami, first woman to be ordained. Many
went on to become teachers of dhamma and theris (respected women who had attained
liberation). Therigatha - collection of short poem of elder nuns. Part of Khuddaka Nikaya
within Sutta Pitaka (Theravada Buddhism)
The importance attached to conduct and values rather than claims of superiority based on
birth, emphasis on metta (fellow feeling) and karuna (compassion) were ideas that dew
people to Buddhist teachings.
f. Stupas - //Chaityas derived from the word chita and by extension meaning a funerary
mound. Tradition of erecting stupas was pre-Buddhist but came to be associated with
Buddhism. They contained some relics so entire stupa was venerated as emblem of Buddha
and Buddhism. Asokavandana - Asoka distributed portion of Buddha's relics to every
important town and ordered construction of stupa over them . Eg Bharhut, Sanchi and
Sarnath.
i. Structure of stupas
LL
ii.
iii. Elliot marbles - Walter Elliot collected sculpture panels of Amravati stupa were called
so. H.H. Cole to the rescue of the structure.
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iv. Shalabhanjika - woman whose touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit. People
who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their non-Buddhist beliefs such as these.
Early sculptures didn't show Buddha in human form but through symbols - stupa was
representation of mahanirvana, wheel - stood for first sermon of Buddha.
v. Paintings at Ajanta depict stories from Jatakas.
g. New religious traditions - 1st century AD evidence of changes in Buddhist ideas and
practices. Bodhisatta perceived as deeply compassionate beings who accumulated merit
through their efforts but didn't attain nirvana to help others. Worship of Buddha and
Bodhisattas became important part of this tradition. New way of thinking called Mahayana -
literally the great vehicle. Followers of older tradition describe themselves as theravadins,
path of the old.
h. Growth of Puranic Hinduism - notion of savior not unique Buddhism. Similar ideas in
Hinduism - Vaishnavism (Vishnu worshipped as principal deity) and Saivism (Shiva the chief
god). Bond between the devotee and god visualized as one of love & devotion (bhakti).
i. Vaishnavism - 10 avatars recognized within the tradition, recognizing local deities was
one way of creating more unified religious traditions. Puranas compiled by
Brahmanas by 500 AD included stories about gods and goddesses. Written in simple
Sanskrit and meant to be read aloud to everybody (incl women and Shudras) who
didn't have access to Vedic learning. One could attain the grace of God irrespective of
one’s caste status
ii. Early temples (3rd century AD) were square room called garbhagriha with a single
door. Gradually shikhara, tall structure over central shrine. Some early temples -
hollowed out of huge rocks as artificial caves (for renouncers of Ajivija sect). By 8th
century - carved entirely out of rock, temples such as Kailashnatha temple at Ellora.
8. Class 12 part II
A. Travelers (10th-17th AD)
a. Women travelers did exist but no account left. Al-biruni - Uzbekistan - 11th century. Ibn
Battuta - Morocco - 14th century. Bernier - France - 17th century. Others who visited India -
Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi, Mahmud Wali Balkhi, Shaikh Ali Hazin, Marco Polo.
b. Al-biruni and Kitab ul Hind (founder of Indology). Was a hostage of Mahmud Ghazni and
traveled widely in Punjab and Northern India. Kitab-ul-hind is written in Arabic - covers
variety of subjects. He depended mostly on Vedas, Puranas, Gita, Patanjali and Manusmriti
for his understanding of Indian society. Thought that caste system was contrary to laws of
nature. Antyaja - born outside the system / untouchables - were inexpensive labor to
peasants.
c. Ibn Battuta wrote Rihla in Arabic - rich and interesting details about social and cultural life of
14th century. Was a qazi for Muhammad bin Tughlaq at Delhi. Marco Polo was his
contemporary. Described coconut and paan to the foreign audience (NCERT sigh). He noted
the network of trade and commerce links subcontinent had with Indian products in great
demand. Efficient system of postal communication - uluq (run by royal horses) & dawa (foot
post, meaning 1/3 of a mile).
d. Francois Bernier - compared Mughal empire with contemporary Europe, canvassing Europe
as the superior civilization. Found crown ownership of property as harmful to both state
and people. Asserted that there is no middle class in India. Was a champion of private
property. No Mughal document suggests that state was sole owner of land. Bernier's
description influenced Western theorists - idea of oriental despotism developed by
Montesquieu. In 17th century around 15% of Indian population lived in towns (higher than
Western Europe). Merchants were organized into caste-cum-occupational bodies called
mahajans, and chief sheth.
e. Women, slaves & satis - slaves were common, sometimes used as a spy, generally for
domestic labor.
B. Bhakti-Sufi traditions (8th to 18th century AD)
a. Wide range of gods and goddesses in sculpture as well as in texts. Integration of cults
happened - by disseminating of Brahmanical ideas to others & Brahmanas accepting and
reworking beliefs of the others. E.g. Jagannatha was identified as a form of Vishnu. Great
traditions (emanated from ruler and priestly class) and little traditions (local practices).
Local deities were incorporated within Puranic framework with an identity as wife of
principal male deity. Forms of worship associated with goddess were classified as Tantric,
influenced Saivism & Buddhism.
b. Vedic vs Puranic traditions - principal deity of Vedic pantheon were Agni, Indra and Soma,
which get marginalized while authority of Vedas is still unchallenged. Vishnu, Shiva and
goddess were in Vedic mantras but little in common with Puranic mythologies.
c. In course of evolution of forms of worship, poet-saints emerged as leaders around whom
community of devotees developed. These tradition accommodated women and lower
castes. Bhakti traditions can be classified into 2 broad categories - saguna (with attributes,
Shiva Vishnu Devi) and nirguna (without attributes, abstract form of god).
i. Earliest bhakti movements were by Alvars (immersed in devotion to Vishnu) and
Nayanars (leaders who were Shiva devotees).
ii. Nalayira Divyaprabandham - major anthology of composition by 12 Alvars.
Tondaradippodi, Andal, - were some prominent Alvars. Bhagvata Purana was a result
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of incorporation of ideas of Tamil bhakts within Sanskritic tradition.
iii. Tevaram - consists of poems by Appar, Sampandhar and Sundarar during the 12th
century. There were 63 major Nayanars. Karaikkal Ammaiyar was a woman.
Manikkavacakar was not a Nayanar.
iv. One of the major themes of Tamil bhakti hymns is opposition to Buddhism and
Jainism because of competition between members of religious tradition for royal
patronage. Chola rulers supported Brahmanical and Bhakti traditions (Shiva and
Vishnu temples constructed). Vellala peasants revered both Nayanars and Alvars.
v. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu - Chaitanya was a saint from Bengal. He was a devotee of
Lord Krishna. Though he was a Brahman he condemned the caste system and
emphasized on the equality of all. Founded Gaudiya Vaishnavism in 15th century.
d. Virashaiva - 12th century movement in Karnataka led by Basavanna, followers were called
Virashaivas or Lingayats. They worship Shiva in his manifestation as a linga. Jangama or
wandering monks are also revered by them. They believe that on death the devotee will be
united with Shiva and not return to this world - bury the dead and not cremate. Lingayats
challenged the idea of caste and pollution by Brahmanas and questioned the theory of
rebirth. Encouraged idea of post-puberty marriage and remarriage of widows - which was
disapproved by Dharmashastras.
e. The emergence of Rajput states led to consolidation of Brahmanas with the ruling elites in
North India. Non-Brahmanical leaders such as Naths, Jogis, Siddhas from artisanal groups
questioned the authority of vedas but couldn't win support of ruling elites. However
establishment of Delhi Sultanate undermined power of Rajput states and associated
Brahamanas.
f. Muhammad Qasim conquered Sind in 711 - first invasion by Muslim in Indian subcontinent,
which eventually led to Sultanate and Mughal empire. Muslim rulers were to be guided by
ulama who were to ensure shari'a. Shari'a is based on Quran, hadis, qiyas (reasoning by
analogy) and ijma (consensus by community). Non muslims paid jizya to be in the category
of zimmi (protected). All those who adopted Islam accepted its 5 pillars - there is one god
Allah and Muhammad is his messenger (shahada), offering prayers 5 times a day
(namaz/salat), giving alms (zakat), fasting during month of Ramzan (sawm/roza) and
performing the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).
i. Khojas, a Shia sect, wrote Ginans (devotional hymns) in Khojaki script which was
derived from local landa script.
ii. Mlechchha - migrant communities which didn't observe norms of caste society.
g. Growth of Sufism - group of religious minded people turned to asceticism and mysticism in
protest against growing materialism of Caliphate. Regarded Muhammad as a perfect human
being. Sufism = tasawwuf. By 11th century, Sufism evolved into a well developed
movement. Sufis began to organize communities around khanqas controlled by teaching
master - shaikh, pir, mushird - who enrolled disciples murid and appointed successor
khalifa.
i. Silsila literally means a chain, signifying continuous link between master and disciple.
When shaikh died, his tomb dargah became center of devotion. Practice of pilgrimage
ziyarat to his grave, on his death anniversary or urs. People sought their blessings to
attain material and spiritual benefits, evolving the cult of wali (plural auliya). Qawwali
is part of ziyarat. Sufis remember god by reciting divine names zikr or sama (literally
audition).
ii. Those mystics who ignored rituals - Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris - were
referred to as be-sharia as they defied sharia.
h. Chistis - migrated to India in late 12th century, adapted successfully to local environment.
The big 5 - Moinuddin Chishti, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, Fariduddin Ganjshakar, Nizamuddin
Auliya and Nasiruddin Chirag Dehlavi. Khanqa was the center of social life. Open kitchen
run on futuh (unasked for charity). Shaikh Nizamuddin appointed several successors and
deputed them to set up hospice in various parts leading to rapid spread of the order. Most
famous was Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti (aka Garib Nawaz). Amir Khusrau, disciple and friend
of Auliya, introduced qual.
i. Masnavis is long poem written by Rumi
ii. Padmavat was composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi, romance of Padmini and
Ratansen
iii. Poems written in Dakhani (Deccani urdu) sung by women doing household work,
lurinama (lullabies) and shadinama (wedding songs).
iv. Vachanas by Lingayats and Abhangs by Pandharpur warkaris (god Vithoba) also
inspired Sufism. //Dhyaneswar & Tukaram are saints of warkaris.
Sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from political elites. Charitable trusts
(auqafs) and tax free lands (inam).
i. Kabir 14th century - verses ascribed to Kabir are in 3 distinct but overlapping traditions -
Kabir Bijak (by Kabirpanth in Varanasi and UP), Kabir Granthwali (Dadupanth Rajasthan),
Adi Granth Sahib.
i. Poems are in several languages and dialects; including santbhasha (gurmukhi).
Ulatbansi - everyday meanings are inverted, fire raging in the ocean.
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ii. Kabir drew range of traditions to describe the Ultimate Reality - khuda, alakh, shabda,
shunya.
iii. Kabir and his rich corpus of verses present source of inspiration for those who
questioned entrenched religious and social institutions, ideas and practice in search
of divine. His guru was Ramananda, but that is contested.
j. Baba Guru Nanak - born into a Hindu family in a Muslim Punjab. Advocated a form of
nirguna bhakti. Rejected sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, austerities and scriptures of
both religions. Expressed his ideas through hymns called shabad in Punjabi. He sang while
attendant Mardana played rabab. Appears that Nanak didn't want to establish a religion.
5th guru, Guru Arjan, compiled Nanak's hymns and the 4 successors along with Baba Farid,
Raidas, Kabir in Adi Granth Sahib. Hymns called gurbani in various languages. 10th guru,
Guru Gobind, included 9th Guru Teg Bahadur's composition and this was finally Guru Granth
Sahib.
i. Pahul was the sanctified water offered by a master to the pupil or shishya as a token
of his being accepted as a trainee on his march to godliness. The Sikhs performed
“washing of the swords” ceremony, called khande ka pahul, evolving as the pir-muridi
custom
k. Mirabai - 15/16th century. Was married to a prince of Sisodia clan. Defied the traditional
role and recognized Krishna as her lover. Guru was perhaps Raidas. Raskhan, a Muslim
poet, was a devotee of Lord Krishna.
l. Shankaradeva - late 15th century, leading proponent of Vaishnavism in Assam. His
teachings are known as Bhagavati dharma, based on Gita and Puranas. Need for naam
kirtan, sat sang and satra (monasteries) for transmission of spiritual knowledge. Major
composition is kirtana-ghosha.
C. Vijayanagara (14th-16 century) - aka Karnataka Samrajyamu
a. People remembered the city as Hampi (named after Pampadevi). Oral traditions,
archaeological finds, monuments & inscriptions helped reconstruct the empire.
Discovery of Hampi - brought about by Colin Mackenzie (1st Surveyor General of India
1815).
b. Harihara & Bukka founded Vijayanagara Empire is 1336, had different religions & different
languages within. Rulers built on rich traditions of Cholas & Hoysalas. Warfare was
dependent on effective cavalry, import of horses was crucial. Local merchants kudirai
chettis participated in this as well as Arab traders. Trade was status symbol of these cities -
spices, textiles & precious stones. Revenue from trade contributed to prosperity of state.
c. Had 5 dynasties - Sangama, Saluvas, Tuluva, Aravidu - that order. Krishnadeva Raya's rule
was that of expansion and consolidation. Acquired - Raichur doab, Odisha subdued, Sultan
of Bijapur defeated. Addition of gopuram to many important temples was the highlight of
his rule. New township - Nagalapuram after his mother. Wrote Amuktamalyada, work on
statecraft in Telugu.
d. Successors were troubled by nayakas (military chiefs). Military ambitions of rulers of
Vijayanagara led to alliance of Sultans against them. Rama Raya led army into battle at
Rakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota) and got routed. Hampi was sacked and eventually deserted.
Relations bw Sultans and Rayas were not always hostile, Rama Raya is blamed for
adventurism which led to Sultans combining against him. //Yavana is used for Greek and
others who entered subcontinent through north west.
e. Nayakas - controlled forts and had armed supporters. Often rebelled and had to be subdued
by military action. Amara-nayaka system was major political innovation of Vijayanagara
empire, most likely derived from iqta system of Delhi Sultanate. Amara-nayaka were
military commanders who were given territories to govern by raya, collected taxes and
other dues. Part of revenue used for own army maintenance, temples, rest for empire. Kings
asserted their control by transferring them. By 17th century, many nayakas established
independent kingdoms.
f. Vijayanagara - was written about by - Nicolo de Conti, Abdur Razzaq, Afanasii Nikitin (all
15th century). Barbosa, Paes, Nuniz (16th century). Location feature - natural basin formed
by Tungabhadra which flows in NE direction, surrounded by granite hills with number of
streams. One of most arid zones in peninsula, hence elaborate arrangement to store
rainwater and conduct to city. Most imp - Kamalapuram tank. Hiriya canal was used for
irrigation, built by Sangamas. Forts encircled not just the city but also hinterland and forests.
No mortar or cementing agent, stone blocks were wedged together. Agricultural tracts were
incorporated within fortified area - to protect the agricultural belt and thus outlast any siege
against the kingdom. Gateways with arch and dome were influenced from Indo-Islamic
features.
i. Urban core - entire area dotted with numerous shrines and small temples, supported
by different communities. Tanks, wells were sources of water.
ii. Royal center - included over 60 temples, patronage of cult and temples was important
as it justified divine authority. Superstructure of secular buildings was made of
perishable materials such as mahanavami dibba. Massive platform on base 11k sq ft,
base covered with relief carvings. Audience hall high platform with slots for wooden
pillars. Their use remains an enigma.
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iii. Other buildings in royal center - Lotus Mahal (may have been meeting place with
advisors), Elephant stables, Hazara Rama (used by king and family).
iv. Sacred center - Pampadevi did penance in the hills to marry Virupaksha (Shiva),
guardian deity of kingdom. This area has Jain temples from pre-Vijayanagara time as
well. Temple building was encouraged - to give divine authority to king and use as
learning center. Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of god Virupaksha.
1. Hindu Suratrana - early Vijayanagara rulers called themselves this.
v. Gopuram & mandapas - mark of imperial authority. Halls in temples were used for a
variety of purposes - music, dance, drama, marriages. Vittala, form of Vishnu
worshipped in Maharashtra, has a temple in Hampi. Temple complexes had chariot
streets from gopuram which served as markets.
vi. Mackenzie, Greenlaw, Fleet, Marshall - all were instrumental in discovery and
conservation of Vijayanagara. 1986 declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
D. Peasants, Zamindars and the State (Mughals)
a. Basic unit of agricultural society was the village. Major understanding of the time doesn't
come from peasants as they did not write about themselves. 16th & 17th century chronicles
from Mughal court. Abul Fazl Ain-i-Akbari recorded arrangements made by state to ensure
cultivation. Provided a view from the top - vision of Akbar's empire where social harmony
was provided by a strong ruling class.
b. Peasants - term to describe raiyat, muzarian, kisan or asami. Khud-khasta (resident of
village in which they held their lands) or pahi-khasta (non-resident cultivators). Avg peasant
had a pair of bullocks and 2 ploughs; most even less. 10 acres holdings were rich peasants.
Peasants were generally mobile, as there was abundant land as well (as noticed by Babur).
Irrigation - abundance of land, labor and mobility accounted for expansion of agriculture.
Tobacco first came in Deccan and spread to Northern India in early 17th century. Crops such
as cotton and sugarcane were jins-i-kamil (perfect crops) as they got state more revenue.
New world crops - Potato, tomato, maize, chilies, pineapple, papaya.
c. Village community - constituents were cultivators, panchayat and village headman
(muqaddam or mandal). Large section was constrained by position in caste hierarchy and
relegated to poverty. Muslims had such communities as well - halalkhoran (scavengers) &
mallahzadas (boatmen). Caste-poverty-social status were directly correlated in lower
society. Village headmen - chosen through consensus of village elders and ratified by
zamindars, work was supervise preparation of village account assisted by patwari (called
Kanungo in Punjab). Panchayat also ensured caste boundaries were upheld (marriages in
presence of mandal). Jati had own jati panchayat which resolved civil disputes. Lower class
peasants could resist oppression by deserting the village.
d. Artisans - cultivators could engage in craft production while there was lull in agricultural
activity. Artisans could be paid by way of harvest or allotment of land (called watan or
miras). Jajmani system - remuneration of services with small daily allowance and diet
money. Wasn't a little republic as British officials thought, deep inequalities wrt to asset
ownership and status.
e. Women in agrarian society - entire household was labor for production, men tilled and
ploughed while women sowed, weeded, threshed and winnowed. Biases related to
women's biological functions did continue. Artisanal and commercialized product were
dependent on women's labor. Considered an important resource because child bearer in
society dependent on labor. But high mortality rates among women - pregnancy, child birth,
malnutrition - led to shortage of wives. Non-elite groups considered remarriage among
widowed and divorced women. Fear of losing them was great, hence kept under strict
control. Among landed gentry, women had the right to inherit property (Rajshahi
zamindari).
f. Forests and tribes - forests were a subversive place for the state, trouble makers who take
refuges (mawas). Chandimangala is a Bengali poem composed by Mukundaram Chakrabarti
- talks about clearing of forests. Spread of commercial agriculture and great demand of
forest produce (honey, elephants) brought forest dwellers in close contact with state. Forest
chieftains turned zamindars and kings (Ahom kings and their slave army paiks). Capture of
wild elephants became royal monopoly.
g. Zamindars - did not directly participate in process of production. Caste was one factor of
elevated status, another was khidmat (services) for the state. They held personal lands,
termed milqiyat, often used cultivators and meant for private use. (1) often collect revenue
(2) forts and armed contingent. They spearheaded colonization of agricultural land, and
settled cultivators. Little doubt that zamindars were exploitative, relationship with
peasantry was based on reciprocity, paternalism and patronage. Why - sufis didn't
condemn zamindars and moneylenders as oppressors, agrarian uprisings involved peasant
support for zamindar against the state.
h. Land revenue system - Revenue from land was mainstay of Mughals, diwan was responsible
for supervising the fiscal system of empire. Jama was amount assessed and hasil was
amount collect (in both cash and kind) - duties of amil-guzar (revenue collector). In kind
was collected through kankut, bhaoli, khet batai, lang batai. Amin was official responsible
for ensuring imperial regulations were carried out in provinces.
Italian traveler Giovanni Careri wrote about flow of silver and India.
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i. Ain-i-akbari- was the 3rd book of Akbar Nama and was organized as collection of imperial
regulations and gazetteer of empire. Important to deconstruct life under Mughal empire
but it's still an imperial view of state of affairs. Ain is made up of 5 books - (1) manzil-abadi
(imperial household and maintenance) (2) sipah-abadi (military and civil administration) (3)
mulk-abadi (fiscal side of empire and revenue system). It gives a detailed and highly complex
view of agrarian society including suba, sarkar, pargana, mahal divisions. 4th and 5th book
contain religious, literary and cultural traditions. Ain had its limitations but gives a
fascinating glimpse into the structure and organization of Mughal empire and quantitative
information about its people and products. Enables historians to reconstruct the social
fabric of that time. //Blochmann & Jarett translated it in 3 volumes.
E. Kings and Chronicles - Mughals
a. Mughals referred to themselves as Timurids, descendants of Turkish ruler Timur on paternal
side. Babur was related to Genghiz Khan from his mother's side. Chronicles of Mughal
emperors had 3 purposes - project vision of an enlightened kingdom, convey that
resistance is futile, account of rule for posterity. Written in Persian, flourished from
Sultanate times and prospered under Akbar as language of court. Urdu sprang from
interaction of Hindi and Persian. Mahabharata was translated as Razmnama.
b. All books were manuscripts (handwritten) and imperial kitabkhana the center of
production. Muhammad Husayn of Kashmir was one of the finest calligraphers at Akbar's
court. Miniature paintings in the manuscripts was source of tension bw rulers and ulamas
who invoked Islamic prohibition of portrayal of human beings (Quran, hadis) by Prophet.
He forbade depiction of living beings in naturalistic manner as it would suggest that artist
was seeking to appropriate power of creation. //Painters such as Bihzad contributed to
cultural fame of Safavid court. Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Sammad were painters who came to
India with Humayun.
c. Badshah Nama by Abdul Hamid Lahori was Shah Jahan's chronicle. Asiatic Society of Bengal
was founded by William Jones in 1784 to edit, print and translate many Indian manuscripts.
Badshah Nama hasn't been translated fully yet. Akbar Nama was translated by Henry
Beveridge. Alamgir (Aurangzeb) by Muhammad Kazim.
d. Divine light (farri-i-izadi) - source of power of Mughals, inspired by philosophy of Iranian
sufi Suhrawadi. King becomes the source of spiritual guidance for his subjects. Idea of sulh-
i-kul (absolute peace) prevailed, which meant freedom of expression as long as long state
authority not undermined or fight amongst themselves. Akbar abolished tax on pilgrimage
and jizya (re-imposed by Aurangzeb). Just sovereignty was a social contract, justice was
represented through symbols in paintings (lion and cow together symbolized strong and
weak in harmony).
e. Capitals - Mughals had capitals at Agra, Sikri, Lahore, Delhi (Shahjahanabad). Kornish -
Mughal aadab. Axis mundi - pole that is visualized as support of earth. Chahar taslim &
Zaminbos - mode of salutation introduced by Shah Jahan. Titles could be earned or paid for
by nobles. Imperial household - it was through alliances of marriages Mughals could keep
together such a vast empire. Begams (royal wives) > aghas (non-noble wives) > agachas
(concubines). Humayun Nama was written by Gulbadan Begum (described role of elderly
women in resolving family conflicts).
f. Imperial officials - mansabdars of 1000 above zat were umara (nobles). Akbar designed the
mansab system. Akbar had 3 ministers - mir bakshi (paymaster), diwan-i-ala (finance), sadr-
us sudur (grants) - as advisory body. Akhbarat were court proceeding documents. Imperial
post had foot runners (qasid or pathmar). Provincial governor was subadar. Suba was
divided into sarkar which was divided into parganas.
g. Beyond the empire - Hindukush had to be crossed by any intruder coming into India from
NW. Kabul and Kandahar were strategic outposts to dispel any invasion. Kandahar was
bone of contention bw Safavids and Mughals. Ottomans - trade and commerce plus pilgrim
to Mecca relations. Jesuits - Monserrate & Acquaviva was member of first Jesuit mission.
9. Class 12 part 3
A. Colonialism and countryside
a. Jotedar was a rich class of peasants who had acquired vast lands. Controlled local trade and
moneylending. Resisted zamindars on most issues and had effective control over a village.
Zamindar's power were similar to a Collector before they were curtailed. Jotedars used to
deliberately delay payment of revenue to zamindar and purchase their estates upon
auction. Their rise weakened zamindari authority. Also known as haoldar, gantidars or
mandals.
b. Zamindars began benami transactions when estate was being auctioned. Even if it was sold
to another zamindar, lathyal will not let it happen.
c. Fifth Report - document prepared by a Select Committee set up in 1810 by the British
Parliament to look into the affairs of the Company. Terms of reference of the Select
Committee were to inquire into the state of the company's territorial possessions with
particular focus on revenue and judiciary.
d. Hill people - as settled agriculture expanded, conflicts arose. Santhals were the pioneer
settlers and were persuaded to settle in Rajmahal hill area. Area of land given to them was
Damin-i-koh. But transactions with dikus (moneylenders, zamindars) made them more
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miserable. After Santhal revolt of 1855-56, Santhal Pargana was created from Bhagalpur and
Birbhum.
e. Francis Buchanan was a physician who was surgeon for Wellesley. His assessment was
shaped by commercial concerns of company and western notions of progress.
f. Bombay Deccan - revolt due to ryotwari system which was inspired by David Ricardo
(economist). Under this, revenue was directly settled with ryot, land surveyed every 30
years. Revenue demand was so high that peasants fled villages. When someone failed to
pay, crop was seized and fine imposed on whole villages.
g. American Civil War made India top exporter of cotton to Britain, easy credit flowed and long
term loans extended. This ended after supplies from America were revived post Civil War.
Now ryots found it even harder to get loans and moneylenders were insensitive to their
plight. Deeds and bonds became symbols of new oppressive system.
h. Deccan Riots Commission - report presented to British Parliament in 1878. Rioters' specific
purpose was to obtain and destroy the bonds, decrees, and other documents in the
possession of the moneylenders (Pune et al 1875). Cultivators' distress resulted from falling
agricultural prices, heavy taxation, and a sense of political powerlessness.
Commercialization of agriculture under British land revenue policies burdened small
peasants by placing a premium on access to credit to finance productive investments in the
land.
B. Rebels and the Raj
a. In context of revolt of 1857, term revolt refers primarily to uprising of civilian population
while mutiny was of the sepoys. To fight the British the rebels turned to old leaders. BSZ
reluctantly became the nominal leader of the rebellion. Nana Saheb for Kanpur, Laxmi Bai
for Jhansi, Kunwar Singh in Arah, Birjis Qadr (son of Waji Ali Shah) in Awadh. Local leaders
emerged urging peasants, zamindars and tribals to revolt. Shah Mal and Maulvi Ahmadullah
Shah inspired people to end firangi raj.
b. Rumors and prophecies played a significant role in stirring people to action against British.
(i) cartridges covered in cow and pig fat (ii) bone dust of cow and pig in flour of cantonments
and cows (iii) 100 years since Battle of Plassey prophecy of end of British rule. Why did
people believe the rumors?
i. British adopted several reform policies - set up English medium schools, colleges and
universities
ii. Laws to abolish sati and remarriage of Hindu widows
iii. Annexed new territories through Lapse and mis-governance takeover, and
implemented new administration, laws and land revenue collection
iv. Activities of missionaries
v. It seemed to people that all they held sacred - kings, socio-religious customs, pattern
of landholding and revenue payment - was being destroyed and replaced with an alien
and oppressive system.
c. Awadh in revolt - Wajid Ali Shah was exiled to Calcutta on the plea of mis-governance but
British wrongly assumed that he was unpopular. Removal of Nawab also led to dissolution of
court and culture. British land revenue policy also undermined the position and authority of
taluqdars. Summary Settlement of 1856 in Awadh assumed talqudars were interlopers
with no permanent stakes in land. But revenue demand was over assessed and neither
peasants nor taluqdars were happy. Ties of loyalty and patronage were broken as new
system was inflexible in face of misfortune.
d. What rebels wanted - vision of unity bw Hindu and Muslims against British, against
oppression of zamindars, peasants, artisans, merchants, and against destruction of caste
and religion of people.
e. Repression - British passed a series of laws to help them quell the insurgency. Whole of
north India was put under martial law, ordinary processes of law and trial were suspended
and even ordinary Britons were given the power to try and punish Indians suspected of
rebellion and reinforcements were brought in from Britain. Rebellion would have only one
punishment: death. Campbell, Outram and Havelock were instrumental in suppressing the
rebellion across North India, esp Lucknow.
C. Colonial cities
a. Madras, Calcutta and Bombay were all fishing and weaving villages, became trade centers
due to trade of English EIC. Madras was settled in 1639, Bombay in 1661 (dowry from
Holland).
b. Before British - towns came to represent specific form of economic activities and cultures.
Towns were populated by artisans, traders, administrators and rulers. Often fortified thus
separating them from countryside.
i. Presence of noblemen and emperor in towns led to development of services for their
households. Focus of the town was oriented towards palace and mosque (temples in
south). Kotwas oversaw internal affairs and policing of town.
ii. Gradual erosion of Mughal power led to demise of cities associated with their rule.
Qasbah (small town with a local chief) and Ganj (small fixed market).
iii. European early towns - Panaji (Portuguese ), Masulipatnam (Dutch), Madras (British),
Puducherry (French).
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c. Colonial cities - British created maps to allow better control over region. Survey of India was
established in 1878. Census was started in 1872 and then every 10 years from 1881,
however census was riddled with incorrect information because of biases.
i. Rise of metros was at the expense of other existing urban centers.
ii. Introduction of Railways led to de-urbanization of some cities (Mirzapur) and growth
of new ones (Jamshedpur, Bareilly).
iii. M-C-B were not industrial cities by themselves but provided tertiary services. Only 2
can be classified as industrial - Kanpur (leather and textiles) and Jamshedpur (iron and
steel).
iv. These cities reflected the mercantile culture of new rulers. Patronage shifted to
merchants of EIC. Economic activity led to development of docks and ghats.
d. After revolt, threat of natives led to segregation of spaces - Civil Lines came up in many
cities. However mere segregation couldn't keep threat of diseases, which the black areas
symbolized. Hence administrative measures regarding sanitation were implemented.
e. Cantonments and hill stations were distinctive colonial urban development. Initially found
and settling was based on need of British army. Hill stations were also developed as
sanitariums where ill soldiers could be sent for recovering.
i. Shimla because of Gurkha War
ii. Mount Abu because of Anglo Maratha War
iii. Darjeeling because of war with rulers of Sikkim.
With plantations, influx of immigrant labor from plains meant hill stations were no longer
exclusive racial enclaves.
f. Company first set up trading at Surat, subsequently search for textiles got them to East
coast - Madraspatnam in 1639. Local lords, Nayaks of Kalahasti, sold the rights of
settlement.
g. Madras - With defeat of French in 1761, Madras became more secure and grew. Fort St
George became nucleus of White Town. Dutch and Portuguese were allowed because they
were European and Christian. Initially jobs were monopolized by Vellalars. Brahmins started
competing with spread of English education.
h. Calcutta - grew from Sutanati, Kalikata and Govindapur.
i. Wellesley in 1803 wrote Minutes on the need of urban planning which were mostly
health related.
ii. Lottery Committee 1817 used to raise funds for town improvement through public
lotteries and used to construct roads on Indian parts of Calcutta and clear river bank
of encroachments.
iii. Govt believed that a direct correlation between diseases and living conditions existed.
Densely built areas were seen as insanitary. Poor in the city were made to move
frequently to distant part of the city strict regulations enforced (thatched roofs
banned).
With growth of their empire - town planning had to represent what British claimed to stand
for: rational ordering, meticulous execution and western aesthetic ideals.
i. Bombay - was initially 7 islands, fused to created one city. Indian middlemen made their
wealth on opium export to China and cotton export to England. In 1869, Suez Canal was
opened which opened up Europe to Asia even more. Bombay was declared Urbs Prima in
Indis (most important city of India).
j. British imported European style buildings - to feel home at alien land, to symbolize their
superiority and to differentiate bw master and subjects. Architecture of public buildings -
neo-classical (ancient Rome) example is Asiatic Society Bombay, neo-Gothic (mid-19th
England) example is CST and finally Indo-Saracenic (Hindu-Muslim) example is Gateway of
India.
D. Gandhi and Nationalist Movement
a. South Africa was making of Mahatma. First forged the non-violent protest of satyagraha,
promoted harmony between religions. On Gokhale's advice, Gandhi traveled around British
India and got to know people. 1st major public appearance was opening of BHU in 1916 -
which was a statement that Indian nationalism was an elitist phenomenon - a creation of
lawyers, doctors and landlords. Gandhi desired to make it more representative of Indian
people as a whole.
b. It was Rowlatt satyagraha that made Gandhi a national leader. This was followed up by NCM
- renunciation of all voluntary association with British govt. Khilafat movement demanded
the following - Khalifa to retain control over Muslim sacred places in erstwhile Ottoman
empire, jazirat-ul-Arab (Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Palestine) must remain under Muslim
sovereignty, and Khalifa to be left with sufficient territory to enable him to defend Islamic
faith. Combining NCM and Khilafat unleashed a surge of popular action for the first time in
colonial action.
c. After NCM, movement was no longer that of professionals and intellectuals. Key aspect:
Gandhi could be identified as a common folk. Gandhi appeared to Indian peasant as a savior
- from high taxes and oppressive officials. While Gandhi's mass appeal was one aspect,
broadening the basis of nationalism was based on careful organization
i. New branches of Congress, Praja Mandals in princely states, communication of
nationalist message in vernacular
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ii. Industrial leaders were also supportive as they envisioned a free trade policy that will
lead to growth.
Gandhi was as much a social reformer as he was politician.
d. Dandi March - covered with TN.
i. 1st RTC in Nov 1931 was exercise in futility.
ii. Followed by Gandhi-Irwin pact - CDM called off, all prisoners released, salt mfg along
sea coast. Criticized by radical nationalists as Gandhi unable to secure commitment of
political independence
iii. 2nd RTC - Gandhi represents Congress but NOT all of India. Challenged by 3 parties -
Muslim League (didn't represent minorities), Princely states (didn't represent their
territories) and B.R. Ambedkar (didn't represent lowest castes). Conference
inconclusive. Led to GOI Act 1935 => gave restricted franchise and Congress victory in
8/11 provinces.
e. Once WW2 started, Congress offered some support towards the war given Hitler's agenda
but on the promise that India will get full independence once war is over. Lord Linlithgow
refused and talks broke down.
f. In March 1940, Muslim League passed a resolution committing itself to creation of Pakistan.
Now it was a 3 way struggle bw Congress, Muslim League and British. In 1942 Churchill sent
Stafford Cripps to forge a compromise but talks failed. Congress had demanded to help if
Viceroy appoints Indian as defense member of Executive Council.
g. 1942 Quit India - genuinely a mass movement, esp energized the youth who left colleges
and went to jail. During these years, Muslim League worked patiently at expanding their
influence and made a mark in Punjab and Sindh. Gandhi released in 1944, who then held
meetings with Jinnah seeking to bridge the gap. In 1945, Labor govt came to power and
committed itself to granting independence.
h. In 1946 provincial legislature election, Congress swept General seats while Muslim League
dominated seats reserved for Muslims. Polarization was complete. Jinnah called for Direct
Action Day on 16th Aug 1946, blood riots broke out.
i. In Feb 1947, Mountbatten became the new Viceroy. Announced for independence and
partition after a series of talks.
E. Understanding Partition
a. Boundaries bw India and Pakistan were not known for 2 days after formal independence.
Partition generated memories, hatred, stereotypes and identities that still continue to shape
history of people on either side of the border.
b. Separate electorate crucially shaped the nature of communal politics (in 1909 & 1919).
Religious identities acquired a functional use within modern political system. In 1937,
elections to provincial legislatures were held for the first time. Only10-12% of people were
eligible to vote. Congress won 5/11 and formed govt in 7/11. Refusal by Congress (who won
absolute majority) of League's proposal of forming joint govt in UP further pushed League
towards partition solution. Congress couldn't reach out to the Muslim masses and alarmed
landed elite joined Muslim League as Congress pushed land reform agenda.
c. Pakistan demand was formalized gradually. Pak-stan was coined by Choudhary Rehmat Ali in
pamphlets in 1933 & 1935 and was not taken seriously initially. On 23 March 1940,
resolution demanding autonomy in Muslim-majority areas was moved. League wished for a
confederation of loosely structured states. Initially even Muslim leaders may have used it as
a bargaining counter and gain additional favors.
d. Discussions about transfer of power broke down when League demanded right to choose
all Muslim members of Executive Council and communal veto of some sort (2/3 majority
for decisions opposed by Muslims). Provincial elections held in 1946 gave sweeping victories
to both Congress and ML in their respective electorates. In March 1946, 3 member Cabinet
Mission was sent to suggest suitable political framework for Free India. 3 tier confederation
was recommended - weak central govt controlling only foreign affairs, communications and
defense. States to be reorganized as State A (Hindu majority) and State B Muslim majority in
NW and State C Muslim majority in NE.
e. Initially plan was accepted but due to differing interpretations. League wanted grouping to
be compulsory with right to secede in future. Congress wanted provinces be given the right
to join a group. This was a crucial juncture because after this partition became, tragically,
inevitable. Pakistan announced 16 Aug 1946 as "Direct Action Day". Riots broke and violence
spread to many parts of northern India. Congress high command in March 1947 also voted
for split as numerical minority and loss of political power in either Punjab or Bengal would
have been an unacceptable outcome.
f. Bloodbath continued for a year from March 1947 onwards. Main reason for this was
collapse of governance. British were preparing to leave India, Indian civil servants feared for
their own lives and property and Indian leadership was busy negotiating independence.
Displacement of Hindus and Muslims happened bw 1946 and 1948. Punjab was the worst
affected. Muslim families from interior India continued to migrate through 50s and 60s
(known as muhajirs or migrants).
F. Framing the Constitution
a. At independence, India was not only large and diverse but also deeply divided. Constitution
sought to heal the wounds of past and present and make diverse Indians come together in
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shared political experiment.
b. Great Calcutta Killings of Aug 1946 began a year of almost continuous rioting across
northern and eastern India. Millions of refugees were on the move. Constitutional status of
princely states was ambiguous. Constituent Assembly met in the background of these
issues.
c. Members of this Assembly were not elected on the basis of universal franchise. In winter of
1945-46, provincial elections were held. They then chose representatives to Constituent
Assembly. 82% of its members were from Congress as League boycotted it and Socialists
also stayed away. Through the national movement Congress members had learnt to debate
their ideas in public and negotiate their differences. Public was also asked to send in their
views to create sense of collective participation. Dominant voices - Nehru, Patel, Prasad,
Ambedkar, K.M. Munshi, Alladi Krishnaswamy Aiyar. Two civil servants - B.N. Rau -
constitutional advisor to govt. S.N. Mukherjee - Chief Draughtsman.
d. Nehru introduced Objectives Resolution in Dec 1946, outlining the ideals of Constitution and
provided framework within which work of making it was to proceed. Proclaimed India to be
"independent sovereign republic" guaranteeing its citizens justice, equality and freedom,
assuring safeguards for minorities, backward and tribal areas. No specific form of democracy
was defined and suggested that this had to be decided through deliberations.
e. Separate electorates was a topic of intense and passionate debates. Many thought it was
possible for people to live in harmony only if minorities were well represented within the
political system and their views taken into account. Even more people contended that it was
a suicidal demand that would permanently isolate the minorities and lead to divided
loyalties and against the idea of a unified nation. After partition, Ambedkar too no longer
argued for separate electorates.
f. Before partition, Congress had agreed to grant considerable autonomy to provinces. After
partition, most nationalists changed their positions as earlier pressures for a loose
federation structure were not there. Violence of the time gave push to centralization - to
plan for country's economic development and to forestall chaos.
g. Language - in 1930s Congress had accepted that Hindustani ought to be the national
language. This multi cultural language would be ideal for communication bw diverse
communities. However as communal conflicts deepened, Hindi and Urdu started growing
apart. Hindi was Sanskritized and Urdu was Persianized. Languages became associated with
politics of religious identities. R.V. Dhulekar pushed for Hindi becoming National Language
of India.
G.

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City State Special feature

Rajput Early 12th century - 1206

c. Tarikh/tawarikh - are histories written in Persian the language of administration of Delhi

Alauddin Khilji Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Bengal Gazette (first Bengali) Gangadhar Bhattacharya

g. Amar Jiban first autobiography in Bengali by Rashsundar Debi

Sanskri Kadambari written by Banabhatta - one of earliest in world

d. National song was published in Anandmath by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee.

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