1.

Pre vs proto history

a. Protohistory is a period between prehistory and history during which a culture or
civilization has not yet developed writing, written records and oral traditions are
scanty or inadequate.
b. prehistory as events that occurred before the existence of written
records in a given culture or society. Includes: stone ages+ iron age+
chalcolithic
c. History refers to the time period after the invention of written records in a
given culture or society.
2. Map- ariyalur, pimpet cave MP, pagalkhat karnataka
3. Great bath: kiln fired brick, sealed with lining of bitumen
4. Harappa: sindhi for buried city, banks of ravi
5. discovered the lamp posts at intervals. This suggests the existence of street
lights. Dustbins were also provided on the streets.
6. Proofs of
a. Administrative system : dustbin, street light, public drainage and other public amenities
b. Applied science: construction, weighs and measure, brick uniformity, quality and durability of
construction
c. Metallurgy: bronze, ornaments of Au, Ag, precious stone and ivory for both men and women
7. Dancing girl- bronze, bearded man- limestone
8. Burial, urn burial, cremation
9. Terracotta: literal baked earth colour= red ochre
10. Landmass connecting Africa and Australia= lemuria
11. Harappan civilization= town civilization

1. Vendar- tamil word to denote 3 dynasties of cholas cheras and pandyas

2. Pandyan capital: kapadapuram, Madurai
3. Tolkapiyyam- 3rd sangam
4. Port cities: puhar, kaveripoompattinam, korkai, musiri (cheran), thondi (cheran), vanchi (cheran
capital also karur)
5. Sangam era== later neolithic/ megalithic
a. Carnelian qartz gold pearl
b. Rice was staple diet
c. Iron known
d. Black and red pottery
e. Sangam script= tamil-brahmi
6. Cheran
a. Bow and arrow flag
b. Cap: krur or vanji/vanchi
c. Port: vanchi, musiri, thondi
d. Senguttuvan
i. Expedition to Himalayas
ii. His younger bro was Ilango Adigal wrote silapathikaran
iii. Pattini cult
7. Chola
a. Flag- tiger
b. Cap- uraiyur
c. Port- kaveripoompattinam or pumpuhar or puhar
d. Impt cities: Trichy, thanjavur, pudukottai, nagapattinam, south arcot
e. Kallanai (literal dam of stones) on the banks of cauvery by karikaln or karikal peruvalathan
8. Pandya
 a. Flag: fish
b. Cap: Madurai, kapdapuram
c. Port: korkai present: Tuticorin
d. Popular for pearl hunting
e. Extent: Kanyakumari to Madurai

f.

g.
9. Thirukural:
a. No discrimination in society
b. But presence of discrimination based on occupation
c. No untouchability (caste and untouchability came after a while)
d. Women could choose partner
e. Vedic culture of chanting around fire not in culture
f. Temple building not in practice
g. Sangam people worshipped stone erected in memory of ancestor and fallen soldier – hero
stone or nadukkal
h. Pongal – harvest festival
 i. Vedic festivals not known
10. Mandalam  nadu  kurram  ur

11.
12. Gods
a. Vishnu- mayon
b. Hero stone- natukkal or veerakkal
13. Compared to north who wore wool and cotton and leather, south wore silk and cotton and muslin
14. Trade
a. Day market: nalangadi
b. Night market- allangadi
c. Export items:
i. Salt pepper
ii. Ivory
iii. Silk
iv. Spices and saffron
v. Muslin
vi. Sandal wood
d. Imprt
i. Topaz
ii. Tin
iii. Glass horse
e. Trade partner
i. Greece rome
ii. Egypt
iii. China SEA Srilanka
15. Muziris- ist emporium or shopping complex of india,
a. Housed temple of augustus ()
b. Roman colony
16. Sangam declined taken over by kalabhras- buddhism/Jainism became prominent

1. Unit of currency: nishka , satamana of gold/ krishnala of silver

2. Metal known gold= Hiranya iron= shyama cu/ bronze= ayas
3. South India during vedic culture
a. Early vedic coincided with chalcolithic south
b. Later vedic= iron south
c. Later phase of iron south followed by megalithic age
i. Megalithic and pre sangam synchronized
ii. Black and red ware pottery
d. Hence iron south= megalithic south
i. Megalith= huge boulder at burial sites
 ii. Stone bronze and woo work in popular

Early vedic Later vedic

Occupation: cattle rearing and war (incl profession Cattle rearing and agriculture
necessary for war eg. chariot)
Widow remarriage Remarriage discouraged
Ochre coloured pottery Painted grey ware
Gods and ways of prayer
varna caste

1. What caused emergence of buddhism and Jainism

a. Sacrifice and complicated ritual
b. Caste led discrimination and exploitation
c. Expensive rituals
d. Superstition
e. Reading and interpretation of holy text reserved for brahmana who complicated it
f. Pros of buddhism and Jainism
i. Simplicity in language- language of mass
ii. Royal patronage
iii. Viharas and chaityas inclusive nature
2. Buddhism and Jainism- 6th century

3.
4. Buddhism
a. Teachings of buddha= dhamma
b. Theory of karma- quality of life defined by ones karma
c. Neither accepted nor denied karma
d. Accepted law of universe
 e. Nirvana attainment= ultimate goal of life
f. Rejected caste
g.

h.
5. Jainism
a. Tirthankara= adinath= who revealed truth
b. Aim= attainment of kaivalya or supreme knowledge
c. Unique teaching of Jainism

i. Denies god as the creator of universe

ii. Ahimsa
iii. Ultimate aim= moksha= ending of birth death and rebirth
iv. Reject god as the decider of who goes to hell or heaven
v. Karma very relevent
d. Mahavir
i. Born: kundagram near Vaishali
ii. Father- sidhartha mother= trishala
iii. Wife Yashoda and daughter anoja priyadarshana
iv. 30 gave up worldly affairs- 12 years in search of truth
v. Teaching of Mahavira compiled by Gautama swami as agama siddhanta
e. Jina-= conquerer
f. Rajoharana- broom with woolen threads--- shwetambara
g. Ancient tamil lit recognizes Jainism as samanam
i. Samanar hills near Madurai
ii. Paddukai hill near Madurai
iii. Manimegalai text
h. Triratna: right knowledge right belief/faith and right action
i. 5 doctrines: by which one is to live
i. Ahimsa
ii. Asteya
iii. Brahmacharya
iv. Satya
v. Aparigraha
j. Contribution of jains to tamil literature
i. Sillapathigaram,
 ii. Vallayapathi and Soodamani.
iii. Yapperungalaviruthi,
iv. Neminatham,
v. Nannool,
vi. Agaporulvillakam,
vii. Naladiar,
viii. Nanmanikadikai,
ix. Pazhamozhi,
x. Thinaimalai Noorthiyampathu and
xi. Tamil Nigandu.
k. Monuments
i. Mt abu
ii. Ranakpur
iii. Sittanvasal pattudokai- 2nd century jain caves
l. Sculpture
i. Udayigiri
ii. Hathigumpha
iii. Girnar
iv. Sravanabelagoda
v. Kazhugumalai
6. Parallel: Confucius and Zoroastrianism also rose

1. Magadhan capital
a. Sravasti
b. Rajgir
c. Patliputra
2. Mauryan contemporaries= great wall of china and zeus temple at olympia
3. Mauryan administration
a. Andamahamatras: looked after frontiers
b. Nagarika assisted by sthanika and gopa for city administrations
c. Currency- punched marked silver coins called panas depicting peacock and hill
i. Crescent copper coin called mashakas
d. Yakshas- deity of forest fertility wilderness and yakshis their female counterpart
e. Trade

i.
f. Mauryan empire sources
 i.
g. Bindusara also simhasena also amitragatha
h. Cash based salary
i. Ashokan pillars:
i. Lumbini pillar: revenue sources of bali and bhaga, forest, irrigation,
ii. 2 and 13: name cholas, pandyas, cheras as keralaputras and sathyaputras
4. Kushanas
a. Yeu-chi tribe
b. Ashvaghosha- buddhacharita, sutralankar
c. Vasumitra compiled mahavibhasa
d. Nagarjun philosophy
e. Ajilasim- great builder
f. Charaka physician
g. Kanishaka called Ashoka 2 for popularizing buddhism
5. Gupta
a. Cap- patliputra
b. Epics like Mahabharata Ramayana compiled
c. Sanskrit scholars
i. Kalida
ii. Pasar
iii. Visagathatha
d. Sanskrit official language
e. Ajanta
f. Aryabhatta
g. Varahamihira
h. Physicians:sarasagar susurudar and dhanvantari
6. Harsha
a. Wrote: ratnavali, nagananda, priyadarshika (PNR )
b. Heung tsang si-yu-ki
Memorise old name of Amu Darya and Syr Darya, location of Farghana valley---- link with silk route

3 gunpowder empires of Asia: ottoman, Safavid and Mughals

Samarqand Bukhara silk route collect tax

Mughals were sunni

Safavids were shia

Ottomans in Mughal army. After defeating Rana Sanga in Khanwa battle- Babur assumed Ghazi title
Map plotting Babur conquest from ferghana to Kabul to Punjab to delhi and further

Mughals first since kushans who brought Afghanistan and india under same empire-

Keen builder- bagh I wafa

Babur tuzuk-i-bari translated into Persian as Baburnama under Akbar

Catamite babur- sexuality flexible

Mansabdari

1. Military organization of aristrocrats based on personal loyalty to meperor’

2. Terms:
a. Naqdi mansabdar: when paid in cash…. Else jagirdar
b. Jama: estimated revenue from jagir which covered jagirdars salary maintenance allowance
c. Types of jagir:
i. Transferable: tankha jagir
ii. Nontransferable: uatan/ watan jagir- method used to incorporate locally powerful
rajah/ruler by proclaiming their autonomy
3. Appoint dismiss promotion by emperor- hence loyalty only to be shown by said mansabdar
4. Any form of impersonal loyalty-national, ethnic or religious-could not develop in Mughal
India and so the entire imperial edifice stood on a "patron-client relationship”
5. Factions
a. Irani turani
 b. Afghans sheikhzadas Indian muslims and hindus- increased post annexation of golcunda and
bijapur
c. Later mansabdars mostly marathas and hindus
d. Leaders being
i. Irani – asad khan and son julfikar khan
ii. Turani – ghazi Uddin khan and son nizam ul mulk’
iii. Indian – sayyid brothers
e. Religious among Islamic nobles
6. Jagirdari crisis: 17th cent and later- no land left to allot without encountering bankruptcy
7. Whether or not the emperor was the owner of all lands in his empire is a debatable issue;
but he certainly had an unquestionable right over the income of the land which was
collected in the form of land revenue
8. Mulguzari= local zamindari rent- relations based on caste, clan and religion between the
primary zamindars and the peasants. Cooperation reqd for administration
a. Khudkhast : peasant with occupancy rights
b. Pahikhast: vagrant peasant with no occupancy rights
9. Ijaradari or revenue farming

For the peasants also, this zamindari initiative solved the problem of leadership, as they often found
it difficult to challenge on their own a centralised authority and continue their struggle for a very
long time. The peasant grievances in late Mughal period were, therefore, often organised around
religious and regional identities and under the leadership of local zamindars and rulers

 Sikhs in Punjab
 Jatt in
 Rajputs
 Marathas
Separation of power weakened under subsequent rulers: murshid kuli held both nizami and diwani
rights wrt Bengal

Maratha attacks

1. On Bengal in 1750’s coupled with internal afghani noble rebellion

2. Disruption of trade and economy
3. Ended with agreement by which Chauth and orissa handed over
4. Such loss saw discontinuance of annual peshkash by Bengal to delhi under alivardi khan

Common features of regional powers:

1. Set up by abled military commander and administrator

2. Did not sever ties with delhi head- coins and khutba
3. Revenue based on assessment
4. Governance devoid of religious favouritism
5. Inculcate the value of akbar – patron client relationship with local rulers, tolerance
6. Autonomy wrt
a. Declare war and peace
b. Allot mansabdari
c. Appointments without reference to emperor
7. Maratha trouble
8. Instability due to absence of succession laws
9. Emergence of new ruling/ influential elite

Bengal 1718> awadh 1722> hyderbad 1724

Sayyid brothers head of Indian faction of Mughal nobility- relation improved with marathas- saw
rise pf peshwai under Balaji Vishwanath- granted marathas sardeshmukhi and Chauth of deccan,
Chauth of Gujrat and independent status in Maharashtra
 Abdali supported by rohillas and shuja ud daulah of oudh in his Indian conquest

Why marathas could never emerge as alt to Mughals:

 Nature of state- confederacy based on power sharing/ brotherhood

 Each military head allotted area as circle of influence  unconsolidated military
 Factional rivalry
 Local disputes handled by local leaders
 Hence a centralised system could never develop
o Transferable land rights: saranjam== Mughal jagir
 New/ specific administration could not be estd hence established leaders enjoyed rights
o Hence local loyalties and centralised kingship under small ruler/ rajah continued
to exist
o Sedition= fitna/fitva
 Acknowledged symbolic authority of Mughal in areas where they were able to establish
some sort of administration- malwa khandesh Gujrat
o Adopted their administration

Sikh

1. Babur nanak contemporary

Mysore

1. Risalas : chain of command going upto the ruler wrt army

2. Dalwai: PM
3. Followed Mughals when suited defied when suited- like other succession state
4. Attracted british ire when attacked Travancore for Malabar coast

Brits received Bombay as dowry under whitehall agreement

British and French interaction

1. Austrian succession war 1740

Bengal vs EIC

1. Fortification 1755
2. Losses coz of firman/dastak misuse
3. Interfering with court
4. Sheltering anti state element
5. Denied company’s request to purchase 38 villages and minting rights circa 1717
6. Hot headed Siraj
7. Merchant preference for EIC as trading partner- collusion
8.

Changes post Plassey plunder:

1. Import of bullion to finance trade substituted to export of bullion from india as profit
Pondicherry founded in 1764

Interfering in the affairs of local rulers for personal gains- started by French dupleix

Treaty of Aix-La-Chappelle: French got back their north American territory and gave up conquered
Indian territory to brits’

Chronology till now

1. Austrian succession war 1740

2. 1st anglo French struggle
3. Treaty aix la Chappelle
4. Hyderabad Carnatic succession war led 2nd Anglo French struggle 1952
5. Arrival of Robert Clive- brits won
 6. Dupleix replaced by Godieu
7. 7 years’ war 1756 led 3rd Anglo French war: count De Lally vs Clive
a. French lost masulipatnam, northern circars, Yanam, Chandernagore
8. 1757 plassey
9. 1760 battle of Wandiwash
10. 1763 treaty of paris ending 7 years war
11. 1764 battle of Buxar
12. 1st Anglo Mysore 1767-69 Clive + m + h
13. 1776 1st Anglo Maratha – Hastings condemned- ended in 1782 Salbai treaty
14. American independence struggle 1776 prompted restricted expansion and greater emphasis
on trade via 1784 Pitt’s act
15. 2nd Anglo Mysore 1780-84 M and H sided with later Cornwallis
16. French Revolution 1789 led gradual reversal of restrictionist expansionary policy
17. 3rd Anglo Mysore 1790-92 Wellesley + Marathas + Hyderabad
18. 4th Anglo Mysore 1799-
19. 2nd Anglo Maratha- 1803-5 – Wellesley
20. 3rd Anglo Maratha 1817-19- Pindaris crushed and Hastings got Marquess title- EIC complete
influence/ mastery over territory south of Vindhyas

Why French lost? Completely wounded up by 1769

Carnatic subsumed 1801

Hyderabad reduced to a dependency by 1766

Restricted expansion following Pitt’s India Act 1784: which was jettisoned once Wellesley became
GG in 1798 which coincided with Napoleonic expansion

1. Expansion under Wellesley (subsidiary alliance) forward policy- financial crisis hence called
back in 1805
2. Paramountcy under Lord Hastings 1813 GG-ship: which privileged the interests of the
Company as a paramount power over those of other powers in India and to protect such
interests the Company could legitimately annex or threaten to annex the territories of any
Indian state

Mysore

1. Boundary: krishna in north to Malabar in west

2. Constant conflict with Hyderabad and maratha coz expansion
3. Mallabar rich trade
4. French friendship: army, trade, arms, diplomacy,

Marathas

1. EIC sought protection of booming cotton trade with china

2. Ports of western coast-
3. Succession strife provided an opening

Awadh

1. Buffer state post Allahabad treaty

 2. Fertile land for cotton (China trade) and indigo (in demand in London) farming
3. Revenue farming
4. to finance Mysore and Maratha conquest
5. Wellesley forward policy made annexation imminent
6. Finally annexed under Dalhousie 1856

Punjab

1. Under Ranjit Singh since 1795

2. Instability post death 1839
3. EIC initially planned it to be a buffer state between EIC and Islamic states of afghanistan and
Persia. But instability invited annexation---- Lord Hardinge
4. 1846- Jalandhar doab
5. Full annexation under Dalhousie 1849 via 2nd war

Burma

1. GG= Amherst 1824-28

2. annexation of Assam and Nagaland in northeastern India as well as Arakan and Tenasserim
in Lower Burma

Coorg- Bentick 1834

Crimean war 1854-56- prompted northward expansion under Lord Auckland

1. Afghan war 1st 1838-42 Auckland / Ellenborough Sindh 1843

Dalhousie- doctrine of lapse 1848

1. Satara
2. Jaitpur
3. Sambhalpur baghat
4. Udaipur
5. Nagpur
6. Jhansi
7. 2nd Burma war

“trade with informal control if possible; trade with rule when necessary”.

it was from attempts to secure trade benefits through informal control that the necessity to secure
direct rule arose more often.

It was possible for the Company to effectively exert pressure because of the rivalry among the Indian
rulers and factionalism within their courts, which prevented the formation of a joint front

The dream of Nana Fadnis to forge a confederacy of Indian princes pitted against British power never
actualised

The Company’s obsession with stable frontiers, as a necessary precondition for smooth operation of
trade, was another motivation behind conquest
Conquest therefore became a self-perpetuating and self-legitimising process, justifying the
maintenance of a vast military establishment (conquest for greater benefits= greater army for
stability= increased financial needs to service army= need for conquest)

to mobilise greater resources than its rivals.

The Indian bankers who controlled and transferred large sums of money through hundis, seemed to
have been preferring the Company as a more trustworthy creditor than the unstable Indian princes

Revenue considerations got the Company involved in administration and thus there was the
progression from military ascendancy to dominion of territory—from indirect rule to direct
annexation

from the late eighteenth century the colonial state was being fashioned by the ideologies and values
of Georgian England, using state power to garner the fruits of capitalism, to protect the liberal
benefits of freedom of trade or right to property and to secure markets for commodities at home
and abroad

Phases of British empire

1. P1: before 1783 extending across Atlantic upto Americas

2. P2: post 1783- end of 7 years war and American independence struggle- extending upto Asia
and Africa

from 18th century changes:

1. Greater acceptance of a territorial empire based on values of military autocracy, hierarchy

and racial insolence
2. British patriotism developed
3. Took pride in overseas territorial possessions
4. Defined themselves as despotic benevolents- encouraged reforms

In many ways EIC functioned as any other Indian ruler

1. Recognised authority of Mughal emperor

2. Struck coin in his name
3. Used Persian as court language
4. Administered Hindu and Islamic law in court

The policy of minimal interference in domestic matters transformed into anglicisation of

administration (benevolent despotic outlook)

1. India was perceived to be an image of past glory undergoing degradation

2. Emphasis on knowing India – Asiatik society- studied Indian history along western
investigative line
a. Calcutta Madarsa 1781 – Warren Hastings association
b. Asiatic Society of Bengal 1784
c. Sanskrit College in Banaras 1794
3. They promoted study of India----- Orientalism
 4. Orientalism produced a knowledge of the past to meet the requirements of the present, i.e.,
to service the needs of the colonial state
a. Ideology: conquered people must be ruled must be ruled by their own laws
b. Motivation: establishing a strong state based on the premise that natives were not
used to enjoying freedom, needed to be emancipated from their corrupt and
abusive feudal lords
c. British rule had to “legitimize itself in an Indian idiom”
d. Production of knowledge on Indian society- Reverse Acculturation- understanding
custom and assimilating the info for efficient administration
e. On this ideology of efficient administration based on reverse acculturation Fort
William College at Calcutta was estd in 1800- train administrators in language and
tradition
i. One purpose of the Fort William College was to prevent the spread of the
ideas of freedom preached by the French Revolution.
f. Legitimising kinship between British and India- Aryan origin in Europe theory
i. Morally binding latter to colonial rule through rhetoric of “love”
ii. Instils in natives’, a sense of obligation of benevolence
g. Outcome of orientalism
i. Past glory of Indian culture- ground for future rejection of colonial rule
ii. Social reform by natives
iii. India needed to be saved via authoritarian rule

Orientalism abandoned by Cornwallis and Wellesley

1. Grater anglicisation
2. Abandon reform mood or benevolent despotism
3. State role restricted to protection of individual rights and private property
4. Rising Jacobinism in England- Jacobins of French revolution- Conservatism rose in Britain

Emergence of two different but not conflicting ideas

1. Cornwallis and Permanent Settlement: meant to promote private property and rule of law to
free Indian enterprise from the shackles of customs and tradition- encourage modernisation
of economy- Anglicist
2. Thomas Munro, Metcalfe, Elphinstone- orientalist bend: rule according to local tradition-
weren’t anti private property and anti rule of law- but believed India had to be transformed
first before introducing such modern ideology
a. Ryotwari Settlement:
i. Preserving Indian village community
ii. Expanding company’s revenue under stable condition
iii. Inspired from Tipu Sultan’s military fiscalism
iv. Remove middlemen
3. This Authoritative Paternalism rejected Indian participation in political decision making
4. Collaborating with local elites- another borrowed idea proved beneficial

1800 industrial revolution of GBR

1. Integration of Indian market with GBR- market of finished and supplier of raw
2. Lobby to abolish monopoly of EIC
3. Evangelicalism (take the Bible seriously and believe in Jesus Christ as Saviour and Lord) and
Utilitarianism (a theory of morality that advocates actions that foster happiness or pleasure
and oppose actions that cause unhappiness or harm- aims for betterment of society as a
whole) became popular
a. Company rule to replace the sin of native rulers’ reign
b. India should benefit from the best ideas of the age- to be provided by EIC/Brits
4. Evangelicalism
a. Mission: change very nature of Hindostan
b. Base= Serampore
c. Complementarity between civilising process and material prosperity
d. Charter act 1813
e. Evangelist Charles Grant who pushed for charter act 1833
5. Utilitarianism
a. Motivation: the ideal of human civilisation was to achieve the greatest happiness of
the greatest number
b. By free market merchants
c. Market of finished and supplier of raw
d. Free market private property
e. Encouraged socio-economic reform
f. Making consumer of british product out of Indian peasant
6. Macaulay liberalism- Indian Penal Code framed in 1835 came into force in 1860 on the
Benthamite model of a centrally, logically and coherently formulated code, evolving from
“disinterested philosophic intelligence
Post 1857

1. Desire for reform dampened but didn’t vanish

a. Crown proclamation 1858
b. Patronage to education in ICA 1861
c. Local self govt act 1882
2. Macaulay replaced by james Stephen as new law member
a. British superiority
b. Racial science development in England used to explain inferiority of Indians
 c. Orientalist based sanskritists- development of a new knowledge base

Towns- racially segregated into black white and grey- where grey most occupied by East Indian or
Eurasians – childrens of mixed marriage, debarred from covenanted civil and higher grade military or
marine services

Delegated Sovereignty: delegate ones sovereignty to others

Charter act 1793: All laws were to be printed with translations in Indian languages,

1. The act thus introduced in India the concept of a civil law, enacted by a secular human
agency and applied universally

Charter act 1833

1. Tea and China trade monopoly abolished

2. Purely administrative body
3. President of BoC - -- Minister of Indian affairs

“Limited Raj” where the colonial regime depended on local power elites like zamindars for the
administration of the interior

Abwabs: extra-legal charges paid by peasant to zamindar as tax

Permanent Settlement

1. Zamindars given local land ownership

2. Collection from few zamindar easier than collecting directly from many
3. Zamindar expected to invest back in the land of which he was granted the ownership
4. Ensure loyalty of zamindars towards Brits
5. Zamindar’s right wrt land
a. Sell
b. Mortgage
c. Inherit
d. Transfer
6. Failure to pay= confiscation and consequent land auction
7. Impact
a. Creation and popularisation of private property
b. Peasant’s occupancy rights taken away, reduced to tenants
c. Exploitation led by sunset clause
d. Position of rich peasant or jotedars improved- middlemen between zamindars and
peasant

Ryotwari

1. Scottish enlightenment: celebrated primacy of agriculture and within it, of the yeoman
farmer
2. Reasons from history
a. India being a military state which retained zamindari/ rent collection right by virtue
of strong military
3. David Ricardo theory of rent: state had legitimate claim over surplus--- this allowed for
 a. Elimination of middlemen
b. Direct contact with peasant
c. Policy not based on production but on surplus
4. Munro Elphinstone inspire by Scottish enlightenment + utilitarianism + David Ricardo theory
of rent + lack of local landed zamindars + rise deficit in madras presidency on account of
various wars and conquest and conflicts of late 18th century
5. Ryotwari experiment initiated by Alexander Reed in Baramahal in 1792, continued by Munro
1801
6. Implication
a. Directly from village- rents fixed at village level
b. State as supreme landlord
c. Individual land rights
d. Emergence of Poligars as rich landlords
e. Assessment based- revision assignment of rent- of accepted by the peasant-given
patta which allotted ownership-
f. If no cultivator found- land remained fallow
g. Putcut settlement:
i. Arbitrary rent implied- no detailed assessment
ii. Tax on entire farm without undertaking the specificity of irrigation access,
soil type
h. Gradual improvishment of peasantry coz poor implementation
i. Land market save Coimbatore never developed
j. Local landed aristocrats like vellalars proved to be a good knowledge base
k. Absentee landlordism
l. Intensified social conflict and polarization of society- deccan riots of 1875
m. Land tranfer to non agriculturists increased
n. Regional disparity based on difference in natural abundance wrt agri input
7. Extended to Bombay presidency when annexed in 1818

Mahalwari

1. Metcalfe---? Holt Mackenzie-----?

Zamindars Bengal== mirasidars of madras== jotedars== taluqdars of Punjab region

Ryotwari (52%)> mahalwari (29%) > zamindari 1928-29

JUDICIAL SYSTEM:

1. Under Mughal
a. Mughal judiciary not centrally organised
b. Dependence on local authority of Subedar, Zamindars
c. Focus on mutual resolution of conflict
d. Dependence on religious head for interpretation of texts
2. EIC
a. Above continued till 1772
b. 1773 Regulating act – Hastings
c. Each district= 2 courts:
 i. Civil court or diwani Adalat- headed by European dist collector- assisted by
maulvis and brahmans
ii. Criminal or fauzdari Adalat- under kazi or mufti
iii. Appeal court at Calcutta-
d. Mughal nomenclature retained
e. Religion specific law:
i. Muslim law in criminal matters
ii. Hindu or muslim in concerned civil matters
f. Gave up on criminal judicial reform
g. On civil front:
i. Hastings + Elijah Empey
ii. District collectors divested of judicial work
iii. Civil courts at district level replaced by provincial court which in turn got
replaced by Mofussil courts
iv. Headed by covenanted officers of EIC
v. Digest of hindu laws in 1775- translated into English by Halhed in 1776 to
reduce dependence of European judges on Indian interpreters.
vi. Similarly Islamic law compiled in 1778
vii. Conclusion: centralization and Europeanization

viii.
h. Cornwallis code 1793
i. Hierarchy of courts
1. Zillah and city courts
2. 4 provincial courts
3. Sadar diwani Adalat with appellate jurisdiction
ii. All headed by European heads
 iii. Criminal law front
1. Fauzdari abolished, replaced by court of circuit—headed by
european
iv. Sadar nizamat Adalat under GG council
v. European not covered under such court- they lied under the jurisdiction of
Supreme court
vi. Conclusion: total exclusion of Indians
1. Applicable to areas of permanent settlement
vii. Munro- insisted for a more Indianized version in ryotwari areas
1. Since dealing with individual peasant
2. No aggregators like zamindars
3. Separation of revenue collection, magisterial and judicial power
4. Hence
a. Village panchayat city and district courts
b. Collector jointly held revenue collection and some judicial
powers
c. Settlement officer
i. Codification of laws
i. Bentick 1833 charter act- law member Macaulay in GG council
1. CCPr 1859
2. IPC 1860
3. CrPC 1862
ii. This centralised outcome symbolised
1. Indivisible sovereignty
2. Centralised judicial system based on amalgam of western and native
values
iii. Princely state saw amalgam of native and few western values
1. Prince/ rulers retained position of highest court of appellate
2. British resident supervision
3. Review of justice under EIC
a. Incomprehensible and unapproachable to common people
b. Justice became distant philosophically and geographically
c. Expensive
d. Dependence on lawyers
e. Streamlined judicial system
f. Continuity in system
g. Equality before law not applicable to Europeans

POLICE SYSTEM

1. Cornwallis code application differed based on local SEP conditions

2. Mughals era
a. Police under fauzdars control who were incharge of sarkars or districts
b. Kotwals incharge of towns
c. Village watchmen for village, appointed and controlled by zamindars
d. This continued under Reza Khan – dual govt under clive- Nazim
 e. Continued til 1781, thereafter replaced by Magistrates- zamindars retained police
duties but made subservient to magistrate
3. 1770- crime rates spiralled up coz famine and revenue collection woes
4. Cornwallis code of 1793
a. Divest zamindars of police duties
b. Districts divided into thanas under daroga who were appointed and supervised by
magistrate--- emergence of Daroga- Zamindar nexus
c. Daroga system formally abolished by 1812- collector now made responsible for
revenue, police and magisterial functions
i. subordinates in revenue department responsible for collection became
instrument of oppression
ii. exploitation accepted by Madras Torture Comm 1854
iii. daroga system continued in Bengal
5. Charles Napier Sind Expt influenced by Royal Irish constabulary
a. Whole Sindh territory under IG
b. Districts under SP- SP answerable to both IG and DC
c. Such positions reserved for Europeans
d. Applied to Punjab, Madras, Bombay
i. Madras: military police and civil unarmed force
e. 1857 revolt -- Police act 1861
i. Organised civilian police force
ii. Under civilian authority
iii. IG were civil servants
1. DSP
2. Daroga responsible for village
iv. Indians were excluded from the system--- i.e they could be appointed but
then they would be formal agents---- this allowed after 1902 Police
commission- but only low positions
f. Distrustful of Indian subordinates and subservient to civilian authorities

ARMY

1. Since empire based on military might- emphasis right from the beginning on strong military
establishment---- military labour market
2. Distancing between and army and civilian mass practised by few rajas---- this was adopted
by brits and other Europeans alike
3. Anglo- French struggle and Battle of Buxar ---- > need for raising army based on European
lines
4. French expansion under Napoleon and rising defense expenditure- increased recruitment
5. Army strengthening to smoothen revenue collection
a. Empire expansion
b. Stability of empire
6. Initial era: not wanting to disturb the existing socio cultural pattern
a. Primarily: upper caste brahmin
i. Rajput landed
ii. Rajput bhumihar
iii. Joined for pay, pension, allowance, resettlement provisions
 b. Upon expanding in early 18th century- recruiting hill tribes- borrowed Mughal
ghatwali tenure system based payment
i. Mysore and marathon annexation offered another pool
th
7. Later 18 century----Peasant as best possible recruit---- wheat eating over rice eating-----
ethnic stereotyping
a. After the mutiny
b. Peel commission to streamline military affairs
i. Heterogeneity wrt
1. Ethnicity
2. Caste
c. 1880’s Martial race theory----- being of Aryan kshatriya stock
i. Pathanks of NWFP
ii. Jatts of Punjab
iii. Rajputs of north india
iv. Gurkhas of Nepal
v. Feature
1. Warlike
2. Trustworthy
3. Intellectually deficit
4. Could fight buut not lead
5. Joined army coz lucrative career
6. Encouraged to see army employment as honour
8. 40% of central revenue
9. Civilian authority over army estd by Charter act 1793—BoC entire control
a. CnC subservient to GG
10. Separation of army and police/ civilian
a. Police mass collusion possible
b. Army kept separate from mass

CIVIL SERVICES

1. reformed in 1892, on the basis of the recommendations of a Public Service Commission

a. new regulations retained the exclusive status of the covenanted civil service and
called it the Indian Civil Service (ICS)
b. Uncovenanted Civil Service: was to shed its derogatory epithet and was to be called
the Provincial Civil Service
c. Statutory Civil Service was abolished, and in its place certain higher positions which
were previously preserved for the ICS were now to be filled in through promotion
from the Provincial Civil Service
d. Indians could still enter the ICS through the open examination held in London
2. Government of India Act of 1919 finally provided for a separate, not simultaneous,
recruitment examination to the ICS to be held in India
a. First exam at Allahabad in 1922
3. period between 1858 and 1919 was that of “bureaucratic despotism
4. after 1937, when Indian ministers took office in the provinces, the administration was
virtually run by the civil servants, because of their superior knowledge at the ground level
and their informal alliances with the local power structure
RESIDENTS AND PARAMOUNTCY

1. two-fifths of the territory of the Indian subcontinent were under ‘indirect rule’ of the
Company and later the Crown.
a. indigenous princes ruled, but the British Residents and Political Agents governed.
2. Residency
a. handling the political relations between the Company Raj and the Indian princes.
b. represent them at the imperial court and the same system was replicated by the
successor states
3. Residency system involved a redefinition of sovereignty, which was encoded in the new
terminology of ‘Paramountcy’, under which the Indian states were left with “domestic
sovereignty”, while sovereignty beyond their borders lay with the Company as the superior
imperial power
4. Nature of indirect control over princely states varied
a. states which were not in a position to challenge the military power of the British
were left to themselves
b. situated in remote corners or on hostile terrains were also left alone
c. those that did have little arable land, and therefore limited prospect of revenue
returns, held little attraction for direct conquest
5. three distinct phases in the evolution of indirect rule in India until the revolt of 1857:
a. first phase (1764– 97) starts with the initial placement of the Company’s Residents
at the courts of Murshidabad, Awadh and Hyderabad after the Battle of Buxar (1764)
i. company not confident policy wise
ii. resident had limited restricted roles
b. second phase (1798–1840), which was marked by aggressive expansionism, under
Lord Wellesley (1798–1805) and his policy of Subsidiary Alliance
i. diplomatic control
ii. enabled territorial annexation
iii. went on unabated until 1841, when the abortive Afghan campaign (1838–
42) for the first time failed
c. third phase (1841– 57), therefore, saw the ascendancy of the idea of “consolidation”
i. Dalhousie lapse doctrine
6. 1857 revolt
a. Aggressive annexation policy contributed to uprising- accepted by crown/ EIC
b. Queen’s Proclamation of 1 November 1858 made a commitment to “respect the
rights, dignity and honour of the native princes as our own
c. 150 ‘adoption’ sanads recognising their adopted heirs
d. Reformed roles of Residents
i. grooming the princes as ‘natural allies’
 ii.

7. 1870’s rise of nationalism

a. Crown saw princes as true representatives and natural leaders of Indian people
b. Establishment of a hierarchy
c. Association with princes gave legitimacy to crown rule
d. 1909 Minto speech: greater autonomy to Indian princes + Laissez faire
i. Subordinate isolation from nationalist activity in british india
e. Nature of crown state relation
i. the princes recognised the Company and later the Crown as the suzerain
power,
ii. relinquished their right to enter into diplomatic relations with or declare war
against any other state
iii. or to employ any other European or American,
iv. agreed to direct all their communications with the outer world through the
British agents,
v. pay for a contingent of Imperial Service Troops and
vi. contribute militarily when there was need for military assistance for the
defence of the empire.
 vii. They had to relinquish sovereignty over the railway tracks running through
their territories, and
viii. share control over post and telegraph and other communication systems
with the Raj.
ix. In return,
1. they were to be protected against external aggression and internal
revolt, and
2. enjoy internal autonomy.
3. They maintained small police forces for enforcing law and order and
4.
5. spent very little on public facilities for their subjects, such as
healthcare or education.
f. Encouraged good governance

ECONOMY

1. Until World War One, there was no import duty, which could possibly offer any sort of
protection to any of the Indian industries,
a. Even after 1919, when policies were meant to change under the ‘Fiscal Autonomy
Convention’, successive recommendations of the Indian Tariff Boards to raise cotton
duties, were successfully thwarted by the Lancashire lobby, which fought for “our
rights” in India,
2. India was also a field for British capital investments in railways and agency houses
a. Govt had to pay the railway stock and debt bonds
b. Meet annual home charges
c. Increase india’s public debt
3. Using india soldiers to oversee protection of oversea assets
4. Military expenditure out of Indian revenue
5. Indian revenue to complete british BoP
6. interest on foreign debt incurred by the East India Company,
7. military expenditure,
8. guaranteed interest on foreign investments in railways, irrigation, road transport and various
other infrastructural facilities,
9. the government purchase policy of importing all its stationery from England and finally,
10. “home charges” or paying for the secretary of state and his establishment at the India Office
in London, as well as pay, pension and training costs for the civilian and military personnel—
or “the men who ruled India”
11. The actual transfer of money took place through the sale of “Council Bills”, which were sold
in London in sterling to purchasers of Indian goods who received Indian rupees in exchange
12. Dadabhai Naoroji - drained out was “potential surplus” that could generate more economic
development if invested in India
13. All capital investment propelled imperial interest
a. aggregate agricultural yields were largely static in colonial India”, and between 1920
and 1947, production of food crops lagged far behind the rate of population growth.
b. Near-famine conditions were therefore not rarities
c. Indigo exploitation
 d. Peasantry migrated to cash crop in seach of better income- cash crop linked to
global market- without any cushion it reflected the whims and fancy of global events
e. When colonial rule came to an end, food crops were still being grown in 80 per cent
of the cropped acreage- but couldn’t keep up with population growth+ low
productivity+ area under public funded irrigation low
14. The transfer of technology remained confined to low technology areas, such as plate-laying,
bridge-building or tunnelling, while in the ‘hitech’ area the expertise that was imported was
never Indianised to develop “a truly national technology
15. construction work disturbed ecology, subverted the natural sewage system, and in Bengal
for example, created malaria epidemic
16. railways
17. industry+ tariff+ tax+ market access
18. money market dominated by European bank
19. assam tea plantation 1833. Tea industry remained dominated by British capital until the
1950s
20. The Inland Emigration Act of 1859 secured them a steady supply of labour, by preventing the
migrant workers from leaving the plantation sites
21. , through buying stocks and lending money, many of the Marwaris got themselves elected to
the boards of the European managing agencies. And then, people like G.D. Birla and
Swarupchand Hukumchand set up their own mills in 1922. This marked the beginning of
Indian jute mills around Calcutta
22. by the time of World War Two, the Indian cotton industry had established “an unchallenged
monopoly over its vast domestic market and began competing with Lancashire in foreign
markets”
23. (TISCO), began at the turn of the century under direct government patronage. Because, here
the monopoly of the Birmingham steel industry had already been broken by continental
steel
24. Wars provided opportunity for domestic manufacturers and industrialist expansion
25. (1938–39) TISCO was producing on an average 682,500 tons or 66 per cent of the steel
consumed in India
26. growth potential was limited to domestic market alone, which remained consistently
depressed given low PCI of india and far fledged poverty
27. there was an intermediate level—the bazaar—where Indian businessmen and bankers
continued to operate. This tier consisted of the sectors where either the returns were too
low or risks too high to attract European investors, who “confined themselves to sure bets”
or the exclusive spheres protected by the empire- these intermediate level merchants used
public infra to conduct business with foreign nations
a. It was these operations which generated indigenous capital, which was later
invested in industries after World War One, when the imperial economic policies
began to slacken due to multifarious pressures, both financial and political. India’s
underdevelopment was therefore not due to any lack of entrepreneurial skills.
28. imperial division of economic space
29.
Social reforms
1. Phases of ideologies influencing British governance
a. Non interference purely commercial
b. Post and during annexation drive- focus shifted towards administration that profits
EIC- reforms
i. Utilitarianism
ii. IR
iii. Evangelicalism
iv. Free trade
v. Racial supremacy- native racial inferiority
c. Post 1857 revolt
i. Divide and rule
ii. Carrot and stick
iii. No more push for reforms
iv. Primary focus still on profiting EIC but no more benevolent despotism
2. Reforms in
a. Education
b. Army
c. Administration
d. Justice delivery system
3. Education
a. Missionaries: instrument of proselytization
b. EIC: Indian by blood, british by taste
i. Administrative exclusively bring run by imported HR proving expensive
ii. Class of loyal individuals
iii. No stress on western science
iv. Education limited to what will suit british need
4. Translation of scientific rationalist mentality into social reform agenda
a. Henry Vivian Dorezio
5. Sati was practised in medieval era in Rajputana and Vijayanagara – limited practise by upper
class family sangam era
a. Dayabhaga school of personal hindu law (mitakshara school allowed for widows to
live and inherit husband’s property)
6. Reform, specifically through legislation, remained ineffective in other areas too, where it was
directed against specific or organised religious or social practices.
7. Slavery abolished in Britain in 1820 and in india in 1843- gg= Ellenborough
8. Limited caste reforms coz
a. Confusing
b. Rigid
c. Relevant for agri system which in turn enabled revenue generation

Rise of Indian nationalism

1. Teleological model of Enlightenment history that gives a “ contested and contingent nation”
a false sense of unity
2. Nation building is a continuous process of adjustment, accommodation and contestation
3. Features
a. Derived from west
b. Based on existing sense of territoriality and common anti colonial feeling
c. Traditional patriotism rationalised by indigenous sense of public morality
d. Colonial institutions as uniting force
i. Justice delivery system
ii. Education
iii. Communication
iv. Values of equality before law, public participation in decision making,
welfarist govt….. atleast on paper
v. Interest groups as they clashed for greater favour from colonial rulers—
expanded their reach--- uniting people
vi. Patron client relation between leaders and mass where the leaderwas self
seeking narrow or clan interest and exploiting the traditional loyalty pattern
1. India, then was not a nation but an aggregate of disparate interest
group which were united as had to work within a centralised
administrative framework set up by british------- it evolved with time
vii. Marxist school: economic development + industrial capitalism led
development of market society --- bourgeois leadership seeking class
interest
viii. non bourgeoise back ground of educated class, unconnected to production
process, which emerged as intellectuals, popularised and imbibed western
values to national movement
e. India a nation in making hence compromises to avoid caste, class, tribal and regional
clashes within and unite for a popular struggle---- this was handled by leaders
f. Subaltern view:
i. Nationalist movement dominated by elitist, denying contribution or
sacrifices of masses made independent of leaders
ii. Real hero were mass and not the elite leaders
iii. 3 phases
1. Post Enlightenment rationalist thought
2. Mass mobilization
3. Movement itself
4. Post 1857 agrarian and peasant struggle
a. Continuation of past but acquired some new features
i. Greater awareness of colonial policies, laws and institutions
ii. Even embraced these institutions
iii. Educated middle class intelligentsia
iv. Linking struggle to wider movement for grater success probability and reach
v. Concoction of inherited Indian style paternalism and western style
humanism
vi. Middle class as mediation between administrators and mass at large

5. Indigo 1860
i. Titu Mir and Dudu Mian’s Fairazi movement
ii. Nadia Murshidabad Pabna
iii. Jessore peasants
 iv. Court
v. Rent Act 1859
vi. Intervention of middle class- Dinbandhu Mitra- Neel Darpan
vii. British planters shifted to Bihar --- invention of artificial dye in 1898- till
Champaran Satygrah 1917 which led its demise
viii. Bengal radicalization birthed during Indigo and Fairazi revolution
6. 1873 Pabna revolt
a. Issue: occupancy right of peasants being denied by zamindars deny grating land
lease for > 12 years to deny protection under Rent Act 1859
b. Non violent within bounds of law
c. Communal harmony- eg Fairazi leaders supported
d. Intelligentsia: Bengalee newspaper
7. Dhankdhak andolan: Uttarakhand hill tribe- anti-utar agitation where utar= forced labour
8. Middle class mostly did not support 1857 revolt
9. Trace detachment of middle class from imperials?
10. The educated middle class and nationalist movement
a. Mostly originated in landed gentry who lost land ownership and moved to urban
centres to seek western education and govt job
b. Aware of western thoughts and values and the struggles of mass at large
c. Development of regional language
d. Personified the process of detachment from the enchantment of british superiority
to realised their ways of subservience
e. Brough into light regional disparity and regionalism
f. Political education of mass
g. Press
h. Intelligentsia
i. Racial discrimination
j. Benevolent despotism
k. Nationalist history revaluation and rewriting

Note:

Lex loci act 1850: protection of property inheritance rights after conversion
Moderates

1. Congress politics during the first twenty years of its history is roughly referred to as
moderate politics.
2. Not a full fledged PP – more of an annual conference
3. Members mostly part time politicians
4. Thoroughly anglicised upper class- successful in their in personal time
5. Influenced by utilitarian values
6. Faith in constitutional form of govt
7. Did not demand for equality- accepted racial hierarchy
8. Secular
9. Sectarian interest
10. Aware of exploitative nature of british rule- but wanted it reform and not expulsion
11. Wanted limited self-govt within imperial framework
12. Liberal
13. New council for Punjab and NWFP
14. Standing comm for legislative proposal
15. Budget before legislative assembly
16. Demanded democratic rights only for the educated members of the society- they in turn
would represent the mass
17. Indianised civil service
18. Social composition
a. Hindu= 90% muslims= 6.5%
b. Of hindus 40% were brahmins and rest upper cast
c. No serious effort at diversification or inclusion
19. Drain theory
20. Dominated by landed interest bearing individual- couldn’t ask for peasant reforms
a. Similarly for labour reform in manufacturing sector
b. But support Assam labour reform coz ownership their was primarily of foreign
nature
c. Pro landlord and pro bourgeoise stand of congress proved and promoted imperial
govt as pro poor

Note: cadastral-
1. (of a map or survey) showing the extent, value, and ownership of land, especially for
taxation

REVIVALIST = extremist=
1. Arose as a reaction to moderate failure and social cultural developments
2. The trend to redefine Indian nation in terms of hindu religious symbols and myths
a. Religion was not completely detached nor 100% into the political arena till now
b. This was a shift from the otherwise secular outlook
3.